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DRILLING DEPLETED SANDS: THE BENEFITS OF CLOUD-POINT GLYCOLS

As mature hydrocarbon reservoirs become more depleted, drilling through depleted sands is becoming increasingly common. High levels of overbalance increase the risk of lost circulation and differential sticking. Recently, three Gulf of Mexico wells were successfully drilled through depleted sands with overbalances ranging from 3,500 to 4,600 psi. In each application, a glycol-enhanced water-based mud (WBM) was used.
DIFFERENTIAL STICKING IMPROVED LUBRICITY

Some evidence exists that glycols and similar products act as lubricants in drilling fluids, reducing the torque and drag experienced when drilling high-angle wells. Laboratory testing shows some reduction in lubricity coefficient with addition of cloud-point glycols in certain drilling fluids. A reduction of 15 to 25% is observed in fluids that have a high lubricity coefficient. In fluids with a low lubricity coefficient, little or no improvement is observed.
DRILLING DEPLETED SANDS

Differential sticking occurs when drilling through a permeable formation with a pressure overbalance, resulting in loss of fluid to the formation. This loss of fluid causes the buildup of a filter cake on the face of the formation made up of the solids in the drilling fluid. If the rate of fluid loss is too high, the thickness of the cake increases to the point that the drillstring becomes embedded in the cake and sticks. Differential sticking is more likely to occur in deviated wellbores because the drillstring is in contact with the filter cake more than in a vertical well.
CLOUD -POINT GLYCOLS

Cloud-point glycols are used primarily as shale inhibitors. Analysis of filtration and lubricity data shows that these glycols have improved filtration control and increased lubricity. In a number of wells drilled in the North Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, they were used as shale inhibitors. In addition the wells also encountered depleted formations, and there was no indication of differential sticking despite high overbalanced pressures. Case History 1. The first application was at Eugene Island, where a severely depleted sand existed. A low-pH, partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide/glycol system was recommended to drill the sand. Before the depleted zone was drilled, samples of the drilling fluid were sent to a laboratory to verify the recommended treatment. Fann 90 testing indicated that 2- to 3lbm/bbl starch and 3 to 4 vol% glycol was the optimum product mix to prevent excessive cake buildup. The addition of these materials did not affect the rheological properties and reduced the fluid loss at 250F from 27.3 to 17.0 mL/30min. Further additions of 1.0-lbm/bbl starch reduced the fluid loss to less than 14.0 mL/30 min. After drilling the sand and reaching the production interval, a short trip was made without any excessive drag or fill. The depleted sand was exposed for 42 hours while laying down the drillstring and running casing. Even with this exposure time, the 75/8-in. casing was landed on bottom without any problems.

Case History 2. The second well was at Rabbit Island, where two depleted sands were believed to exist. A lime-based system was used to drill these zones. As with the previous well, drilling-fluid samples were sent to the laboratory for analysis before drilling of these zones. Fann 90 analysis indicated that 3-lbm/bbl starch and 3 to 4 vol% glycol was the optimum product mix to prevent excessive cake buildup. Additions of caustic soda and calcium lignosulfonate were also recommended. After resistivity formation testing, the sands were found to be slightly less depleted than expected. A 95/8in. casing string was successfully run and cemented across the sands.
MECHANISMS

The use of glycols, in particular polyglycols, as WBM additives has been common practice for several years. Their exact mechanisms and benefits have been the subject of much debate within the industry. Particular focus has been on a group of products that have become known as cloud-point glycols. Unlike most salts that become more soluble in water as temperature increases, these polyglycols become less soluble. At higher temperatures, an abundance of insoluble glycol is in the water, which becomes cloudy because light is scattered by the fine droplets. The temperature at which this occurs, the cloud-point temperature (CPT), is determined by the salinity of the solution, molecular weight, and concentration of the glycol. An increase in any of these three parameters results in a decrease in the CPT. Glycols have been used primarily for shale inhibition, lubrication of the mud filter cake, and as a carrier for deformable asphalt to help prevent differential sticking.
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There are three possible mechanisms for the improvement in filtration control observed with cloud-point glycols. The glycols may increase the filtrate viscosity and therefore reduce the rate of filtration. The glycols may combine with the polymers typically used for filtration control and stabilize them at elevated temperatures, improving their performance. The third mechanism proposed is based on the principle that the glycol becomes insoluble as it approaches its cloud point, forming an emulsion. These droplets can plug small pore spaces in the filter cake and seal the cake, reducing filtration rate and cake deposition. To maximize the filtration and lubricity benefits from cloud-point glycols, the downhole temperature must exceed the CPT of the glycol. This article is a synopsis of paper SPE 38571, Drilling Severely Depleted Sands in the Gulf of Mexico: The Benefits of Cloud-Point Glycols, by M. McGill, S. Seaton, SPE, and R. Valenziano, Baroid Drilling Fluids Inc., and S. Bruner, SPE, and J. Golden, SPE, Shell Offshore Inc., originally presented at the 1997 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in San Antonio, Texas 58 October. Please read the full-length paper for additional detail, illustrations, and references. The paper from which the synopsis has been taken has not been peer reviewed.
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SUCCESSFUL APPLICATION OF DIESEL AS A HORIZONTAL DRILLING FLUID

The Sidki field in the southern Gulf of Suez, Egypt was discovered in 1976. A 12slot platform, the Sidki-A, was set, and production began in 1977. Nine wells were drilled from the platform. In December 1989, the platform was struck and severely damaged by a cargo ship traveling outside the regular shipping lanes. The platform was a total loss and all nine wells were plugged and the platform removed. Redevelopment of the field began in 1993 when a new 12-slot platform was set 1,250 ft from the original platform. The redevelopment plans initially included nine wells penetrating the Nubia productive horizon. After drilling the first well from the SidkiB platform, the reservoir pressure was observed to be the same as before the original platform was abandoned, contrary to the expectation that the reservoir pressure would increase during the 4-year shut-in period because of an active waterdrive. On the basis of the pressures observed in the first two wells, the theory of an active waterdrive was dismissed and a new redevelopment program devised. The new redevelopment program included horizontal wells. Because the reservoir energy was exhausted and gas-coning problems had plagued the original Sidki-A platform production, horizontal wells were identified as a viable solution to increase the exposed productive interval while minimizing gas coning. Redevelopment optimization had been ongoing for several years awaiting the delivery of the Sidki-B platform. Mud systems and casing points had been optimized from the Sidki-A drilling. The benefits of these efforts were realized when the first two Sidki-B wells were drilled in 38 and 42 days, compared with the 72-day shortest drilling time from the Sidki-A platform. Drilling the Nubia lateral sections posed an entirely new set of challenges. Differential sticking was a major challenge while drilling the highly permeable Nubia sandstones.
DIFFERENTIAL STICKING

is a result of the mud density being significantly higher than the reservoir pressure equivalent density. Another factor affecting differential sticking is mud filter cake. The drilling-fluid filter cake creates an impermeable barrier that often causes differential sticking. The drillstring has to remain motionless when surveys are performed or to initiate a slide with the steerable motor. Both of these conditions associated with directional drilling lead to differential sticking. While drilling the lateral section of Sidki-B-4 with 7.6-lbm/gal oil-based mud (OBM), the drillstring became differentially stuck twice. The string was freed the first time by reducing the hydrostatic head on the formation. The second time a sidetrack in the higher-angle lateral section was required. To minimize differential sticking, the differential pressure has to be reduced, the mud filter cake has to be thin and tough, the drillstring has to be moving at all times when exposed to differential conditions, or the formation permeability has to be reduced. Only the differential pressure and mud-filter-cake thickness can be controlled.
ALTERNATIVE FLUIDS

For these reasons, water-based drill-in fluids were ruled out as an alternative fluid. Seawater and diesel were suggested as alternative drilling fluids. Clear seawater was ruled out because its density is greater than diesel, and diesel might provide some shale stability. Diesel is also relatively inexpensive in Egypt, so excessive losses while drilling would not be significant. Diesel, with a density of 7 lbm/gal, is the lowestdensity readily available fluid and would reduce the differential pressure by 350 psi at 10,800 ft true vertical depth.
FIRST DIESEL APPLIC ATION

Differential sticking typically occurs when the bottomhole assembly is stationary across a high-permeability formation in an overbalanced condition. The overbalance
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Several alternative drilling fluids were evaluated before selecting diesel as the primary horizontal drilling fluid. Attempts were made to lower the fluid loss and tighten the filter cake of the original OBM by addition of gilsonite and calcium carbonate. Pilot tests did not show significant improvements in the filter-cake quality. A waterbased clear polymer/brine and polymer/ brine/calcium carbonate drill-in fluid were considered. These fluids have been successful in minimizing formation damage and reducing differential sticking because of lack of filter cake or a thin, tough filter cake. Numerous horizontal wells have been drilled successfully with these water-based fluids. The water-based fluids have a higher density than the OBM used and would increase the overbalance at the reservoir. At higher temperatures, the drill-in fluids require significant amounts of salt for stability, increasing their density even more.

The Sidki-B-4 lateral section was initiated with 7.6-lbm/gal OBM. After an unsuccessful attempt to free a differentially stuck drillstring in the first 100 ft of a planned 2,000-ft lateral section, the 61/2-in. hole was sidetracked. Pilot testing was initiated to optimize the OBM filter cake while considering alternative fluids. When the sidetrack was completed, the string became differentially stuck a second time with less than 300 ft of the planned 2,000 ft drilled. The Sidki drilling team decided to try diesel as a drilling fluid. Diesel had been used for a long time as a completion fluid in the Gulf of Suez by Gulf of Suez Petroleum Co.
HOLE CLEANING

Diesel is the lowest-gravity readily available fluid and does not build a filter cake. Cuttings transport in the 61/2-in. hole did not cause any problems while drilling the horizontal section with diesel. While drilling in the highly permeable Nubia formation, 4- to 30-bbl/hr seepage losses were observed. As costly as these losses are, they may have reduced the differential-sticking potential by increasing the near-wellbore pore pressure and reducing the differential pressure across the wellbore face. Transporting the cuttings in the nearly vertical annulus between the drillpipe and 95/8-in. casing while circulating with diesel was a challenge. A sweep program was initiated, pumping a 30-bbl sweep of organophilic clay, diesel, and water every 60 ft of hole drilled. A pit of high-viscosity sweep fluid was maintained on the surface,
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and the sweeps returned to this pit after circulating out.

SUBSEQUENT DIESEL APPLICATIONS

Diesel was used to drill three additional lateral sections after the initial application at Sidki-B-4. More than 5,000 ft of 61/2-in. horizontal sections were drilled. Differential sticking was eliminated when drilling these additional wells. A 5-in. liner was stationary for 12 hours in Sidki-B-6

while the liner running tool was tripped and redressed. A liner is very susceptible to differential sticking but, in the clear diesel environment without any filter cake, rotation began immediately when the liner was re-engaged. Solids removal was improved by use of 310-mesh shaker screens. The smaller mesh size reduced the amount of dilution necessary to maintain a 7.0- to 7.1-lbm/gal density. Even with the smaller screen sizes,

dilution was still necessary to keep the diesel free of solids. Surplus diesel, sweep mud, and solids were disposed of in an injection well at the Sidki platform. The injection well was critical to maintaining a clean diesel drilling fluid. Because there was no filter cake, torque and drag observed while drilling with diesel was greater than that experienced with OBM. Openhole friction coefficients of 0.18 to 0.22 are typical for a 6-in. hole drilled with OBM. Friction coefficients of 0.28 to 0.30 were observed while drilling with diesel. Several drawbacks were identified while drilling the remaining three horizontal sections at Sidki. The diesel tended to wash out the pipe dope in the connections on the drillstring. No washouts were observed, but numerous connections had to be recut because of galled threads. A second problem was the failure of downhole tools. Improved motor stators improved motor life, but shorter-than-anticipated motor life was observed. Measurementwhile-drilling tools failed because of high temperatures. Diesel did not dissipate the temperatures well, creating higher circulating temperatures compared with the OBM. Circulating temperatures were higher than normal because a longer section of highertemperature wellbore was exposed in a lateral wellbore. Circulating was halted at intervals to cool the fluid.
CONCLUSIONS

1. Clear diesel can be used to drill a horizontal wellbore successfully. 2. Differential-sticking problems can be eliminated by drilling with clear diesel. 3. Seepage losses tend to decrease the near-wellbore differential pressure when the fluid entering the pore throats increases the reservoir pressure near the wellbore. 4. Effective cuttings transport can be accomplished while drilling with diesel by incorporating a sweep program into the drilling operation. This article is a synopsis of paper SPE 39283, The Successful Application of Diesel as Horizontal Drilling Fluid, by C.A. Holt Jr., SPE, Amoco Egypt Oil Co., and Helmy Falmy, Gulf of Suez Petroleum Co., scheduled for presentation at the 1997 SPE/IADC Middle East Drilling Technology Conference to be held in Bahrain, 2325 November. Please read the full-length paper for detail, illustrations, and references. The paper from which the synopsis has been taken has not been peer reviewed.
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OILFIELD APPLICATIONS OF ALUMINUM CHEMISTRY

ALUMINUM FOR COMPLETION AND PRODUCTION

Wellbore-construction operations can be divided into drilling, completion, and production procedures. When the borehole has been drilled through the pay zone, cased, and cemented, communication must be established with the producing reservoir to permit hydrocarbon flow. The cased hole is filled with a completion fluid, and a perforating gun is placed in the hole opposite the production zone and fired, producing perforations through the casing and cement. Completion Operations. Completion fluids must control pressure surges during perforating operations and should (1) control fluid loss from the wellbore to the formation, (2) control sand migration into the wellbore, and (3) minimize permeability losses by controlling clay swelling and fines migration. Several aspects of completing and producing oil and gas wells have been addressed by the application of appropriate aluminum chemistry. Aqueous hydroxyaluminum suspensions, prepared by the reaction of aluminum chloride solutions with sodium hydroxide, have been used as a formation treatment before steam stimulation and also as gravel-packing fluids. The hydroxyaluminum cations formed by the reaction of aluminum chloride and sodium hydroxide in solution adsorb rapidly onto clay surfaces and control hydration and dispersion of clay fines along with migration of sands that might restrict producing-formation pore spaces. Although the exact nature of the aluminum-cation distribution is still the subject of research, the existence of highly charged aluminum species is well documented for this type of reaction. Hydraulic Fracturing. In the hydraulicfracturing process, high-pressure fluid injection creates high-permeability cracks in the production zone. Specialized fracturing fluids usually comprise a viscosified suspension of sand or other particulate that acts as a proppant to keep the fracture open. Crosslinking agents provide viscosity to suspend the proppant. These fluids contain additives to control fluid loss from the fracture into the formation, breakers to
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reduce viscosity at a controlled rate, and other additives to reduce permeability losses. Hydraulic-fracturing fluids may be oil or water based and are designed to exhibit the following features: (1) low hydraulic friction loss in the pipe, (2) high viscosity to carry and suspend sand, (3) high friction loss inside the fracture, (4) low leakoff characteristics, and (5) low viscosity after entering the formation. Aluminum compounds have been used as hydrocarbon gelling agents, first in the form of fatty acid salts and later as complex gelling agents prepared by the reaction of phosphorus hemipentoxide with a mixture of alcohols. A complex mixture of orthophosphate alkyl esters results from this reaction. The gelling agent is then formed by introduction of the orthophosphate alkyl ester mixture to kerosene, gas/oil or crude oil, followed by addition of aluminum compounds, such as aluminum isopropoxide or sodium aluminate. Aluminum compounds are commonly used to formulate water-based fracturing gels. The multivalent aluminum cation provides a mechanism for crosslinking such polymers as partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide and cellulose derivatives. Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR). Oil production can be increased beyond what is possible with formation pressures by use of secondary recovery, which includes water injection and gas lift. EOR includes steam injection, gas injection, and surfactant and polymer flooding. Aluminum chemistry has been used to improve hydrocarbon recovery through water-mobility control. The ability of aluminum salts to crosslink polymers has been used to enhance the ability of polymers alone to reduce water mobility.
ALUMINUM CHEMISTRY FOR DRILLING

chemically; (5) prevention of fluid influx into the wellbore; and (6) control of fluid loss by filter-cake deposition. A wide variety of additives is used to achieve these features: suspending agents, viscosifiers, lubricants, weighting agents, fluid-loss additives, shale stabilizers, and deflocculents. Deflocculents control the rheological impact of drilling solids on the fluid systems rheology. Both rheological stability and effective cuttings transportation are dependent on hydration control and the dispersion of clay drilling solids Aluminum Soaps. Aluminum salts of carboxylic acids have been used as lubricants to reduce mechanical torque and drag in deviated wellbores. Water-based fluids sometimes have foaming tendencies that can alter mud properties and negatively affect solids transport and removal efficiency. Foaming decreases mud density, resulting in insufficient hydrostatic pressure for well control. Dispersions of polyvalent fatty acid salts (e.g. aluminum carboxylate) in propoxylated alcohols have been used to control foaming in water-based drilling fluids. Aluminum Hydroxide Dispersions. Aqueous mixtures of water-soluble aluminum compounds exist predominantly as insoluble hydroxides in the pH range of 6 to 9 unless a chelating agent is present. Insoluble hydroxide suspensions formed by treating sodium aluminate solutions with acid or treating acidic aluminum salts with sodium hydroxide results in aluminum hydroxide suspensions with pseudoplastic properties. This was the basis of a clay-free drilling-fluid system with an aluminum hydroxide suspension as the viscosifier. Chelates and Complexes. One of the first aluminum-chemistry applications to address the difficulties of drilling through shales was use of aluminum lignosulfonate complexes as deflocculents. The complex aluminum product derived from the reaction of calcium lignosulfonate, aluminum sulfate, and oxalic acid effectively controls rheological property changes caused by clay flocculation. The aluminum-based thinner exhibited a pH range of 6.5 to 8.5.
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Drilling fluids must perform several important functions in dynamic and frequently hostile environments. These functions include (1) transportation of cuttings; (2) cooling, cleaning, and lubrication of the bit; (3) reduction of torque and mechanical drag; (4) stabilization of the open borehole, both hydraulically and

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For optimum effectiveness most lignosulfonate thinners require pH greater than 9. Numerous approaches for controlling clay drilling solids and chemically enhancing borehole stability have included aluminum. A proprietary blend of aluminum sulfate and citrate acid was the first of the aluminum complexes to be commercialized for shale inhibition. The product has been used to control hydration and dispersion of drilling solids successfully since it was introduced in the 1970s. In a similar approach, products formed from the reaction of sodium aluminate and molasses were proposed to control hydration. Acid hydrolysis of the nonreducing polysaccharides produces fructose and glucose, which are, in turn, dehydrated to produce furfural and a poorly characterized mixture of degradation products. This product is then treated with a base to produce a final product that can be used to stabilize shale. Subsequent studies of aluminate combined with inexpensive organic acids led to the current generation of aluminum-based shale stabilizers that incorporate an aluminum source with a complexing acid source. This approach is referred to as aluminum hydroxide generation (AHG).
MECHANISMS OF SHALE INSTABILITY

microfractures, minimizing filtrate-induced pressure in the wellbore vacinity. Hydratable Shales. Instability of swelling smectitic shales is also attributable to interaction with water. Shales are susceptible to surface hydration because of their large surface area. They have a lattice-type structure that allows water to be adsorbed between the layers. Adsorbed water is held by hydrogen bonding to basal surfaces that, because of atomic structure, are normally negatively charged. Osmotic swelling occurs because the concentration of cations adsorbed on the basal surface of the clays and held at surface edges is greater than that in the liquid itself. The cation-concentration difference creates osmotic pressure that draws water into or out of the shale particle. The degree of the osmotic effect depends on salt concentrations as well as on the moisture content of the shale. Stability Mechanism. Inhibition of swelling implies the ability to retard the hydration of shales so that they remain coherent and close to their original size, shape, and volume. One method of inhibiting the swelling of shale during drilling has been the use of calcium cations to hold the clay layers together. Calcium cations are thought to bond to the layer surfaces in competition with water molecules. Calcium-based muds require thinners, such as lignosulfonate, because the divalent calcium cation causes flocculation of the drilling fluid. Potassium and sodium chlorides are often used in water-based fluids for shale inhibition. Environmental concerns relating to chloride pollution and potassium toxicity restrict the use of these salts in many parts of the world. Polymer drilling fluids rely on polymers and soluble salts to inhibit shale swelling and dispersion. Commonly used polymers include cellulose derivatives, biopolymers, and polyacrylamide acrylate copolymers [e.g., partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (PHPA)]. Anionic polyelectrolytes and polymers are frequently used because they are thought to adsorb at positive-charge sites on shales. Because this interaction occurs on the surface of the layer edges and at multiple places along the polymer chain, it binds the clay particles together and encapsulates cuttings. Soluble salts provide the cations required to react with the negative charges on layer edges and reduce the repelling forces between clay surfaces. Interaction between the water contained in conventional drilling fluid and water-sensitive shale has an adverse

effect on mud stability. Shale disperses into colloidal particles, causing the drilling fluid to become unusable without dilution and chemical treatment.
ALUMINUM CHEMISTRY MECHANISM FOR STABILITY

Shales may be classified as hydratable smectite-rich shales or brittle nonswelling microfractured shales. Filtrate invasion and associated instability of these two shales are totally different and must be considered during drilling-fluid design. In both cases wellbore stresses are the primary factors causing hole destabilization. Induced hole stresses develop faster and can be excessive in brittle shales compared with nonbrittle smectitic shales. Because these stresses are usually caused by waterbased fluids, proper fluid design can alleviate these stresses. Brittle Shales. Brittle shales are generally hard and exhibit very low swelling tendencies when exposed to water. However, they often are microfractured and tend either to slough and/or disperse into the mud. This can create hole washouts and additional fluid viscosity because of increased drillingsolids loading. Several techniques have been used to stabilize brittle shales, including (1) viscosifying the mud filtrate with polymers, (2) manipulating mud weights to counteract hydraulic pressure flow, (3) using glycols or glycols with salts to reduce the filtrate invasion into the shale, and (4) using asphaltic material to plug natural
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Drilling fluids can be designed to use aluminum chemistry to precipitate aluminum hydroxide in the form of crystalline mineral. This aluminum precipitate enhances the stability and physical strength of a sensitive shale section. On the basis of a review of chemical literature pertaining to water-soluble aluminum salts and the interaction of aluminum hydroxides with clays, a revised explanation has been developed for the mechanism by which AHG inhibits shale hydration. Aluminate dissolves in the aqueous drilling fluid and generates tetrahydroxyaluminate ions Al(OH)4 . Chemical literature implies that the Al(OH)4 anion is the dominant soluble species in the drilling-fluid environment. As AHG encounters the drilling-fluid matrix, aluminate immediately enters solution. AHG treatments generate a mud pH of 10 to 12. The pH of the mud environment determines the distribution of Al(OH)4 and aluminum hydroxide. Because virtually no aluminum cations exist at mud pHs resulting from the dissolution of the aluminate, aluminum chelation or flocculation does not occur. A significant part of the organic fraction of AHG contains humic and fulvic acids having complex molecular structures. An acid/base reaction occurs between the carboxylic acids present in the humic and fulvic acids and the excess alkalinity of the aluminate. This produces water-soluble sodium salts of humic/fulvic acids. If sufficient AHG is maintained in the mud, excess Al(OH)4 will be present in the filtrate. When exposed to a lower shale pH, aluminum hydroxide [Al(OH)3] will precipitate from the filtrate. Precipitation is accelerated when the alkaline mud filtrate is exposed to the 4 to 5 pH connate water in the shale microfractures. Aluminum hydroxide may exist as an amorphous precipitate or in a variety of crystalline forms, such as gibbsite, bayerite, nordstrandite, boehmite, or diaspore. The type of aluminum hydroxide that forms depends on many factors, including temperature and such fluid ingredients as electrolytes and organic acids. Under certain conditions, the aluminum hydroxide may initially precipitate in one form but later change to another form or allotrope. Because hydroxides and aluminate are the most common aluminum species at
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typical drilling-fluid pH levels, the generation of aluminum hydroxides from aluminate is the critical process in AHG mud systems. This prevents hydration of cuttings and enhances borehole stability. The humic and fulvic acids are reported to affect the allotrope of aluminum hydroxide that initially precipitates. This hypothesis explains the stabilizing effects of mud filtrate on shale cores. The filtrate is exposed to a lower-pH environment when it penetrates into the shale wall and microfractures, causing the excess AHG in the mud filtrate to precipitate as hydroxides along the filtrate front. The precipitated hydroxides eventually change to crystalline forms. These new forms become part of the shale-crystal structure, helping stabilize the shale against the swelling effects of water on smectitic-hydratable shale.
FIELD EXPERIENCE WITH AHG

tors, including the presence of soluble inorganic and organic electrolytes. 3. A mechanism is proposed that explains how the precipitated aluminum hydroxides improve wellbore stability.

This article is a synopsis of paper SPE 37268, Oilfield Applications of Aluminum Chemistry and Experience With Aluminum-Based Drilling-Fluid

Additive, by S. Benaissa, SPE, and D.K. Clapper, SPE, Baker Hughes Inteq, and P Parigot, SPE, and D. . Degouy, SPE, Total E&P originally pre, sented at the 1997 SPE International Symposium on Oilfield Chemistry held in Houston, 1821 February. Please read the full-length paper for additional detail, illustrations, and references. The paper from which the synopsis has been taken has not been peer reviewed.

Tegentour is a major gas field in the Ahnet basin in south central Algeria. Major drilling challenges encountered in this area include lost circulation and shale-related problems. Highly sloughing Devonian/ Famennien and Frasnien shales and semireactive lower Frasnien and Givetien shales are the major causes of stuck pipes, resulting in numerous sidetracks. Conventional lignosulfonate polymer muds were used in this area with little success. Cuttings and core samples were analyzed and evaluated in the laboratory to select a compatible fluid to provide shale stability in the troublesome sections. The Famennien and Frasnien shales are hard, sometimes brittle, microfractured shales that tend to slough severely, sometimes resulting in hole enlargement from 121/4 to 36 in. Laboratory-test results suggested that these shales could be properly inhibited by an AHG/PHPA water-dispersible asphalt (WDA) fluid. The previously troublesome sloughing shales were drilled trouble free. The AHG/PHPA/WDA fluid provided excellent hole stability with good penetration rates.
CONCLUSIONS

1. The versatility of aluminum chemistry has resulted in the development of numerous downhole applications of aluminum technology for oil- and gaswell drilling. 2. The literature indicates that use of aluminum chemistry results in the formation of aluminate and aluminum hydroxides in the drilling fluid. The form of hydroxides precipitated is affected by numerous fac NOVEMBER 1997 1197

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MONITORING SYNTHETIC-BASED FLUIDS FOR OIL CONTAMINATION

In the early 1990s, synthetic-based muds (SBMs) were developed as environmentally safe alternatives to oil-based muds (OBMs). Offshore guidelines have prohibited the discharge of OBMs and OBM cuttings in U.S. waters for some time. North Sea operators have been required to perform detailed chemical and biological site assessments of locations that use OBM. Development of SBMs made it possible to have a drilling fluid with all the drilling benefits of OBMs but less harmful to the environment. When SBMs were first introduced, it was necessary to develop analytical tools to monitor the quality of the base fluids and the resulting drilling fluids. These tools must determine the initial composition of the base fluid used in the drilling fluid, identify any changes that occur because of contamination, and determine whether any change occurs in composition of the base fluid received from the supplier. The following are potential sources of contamination. 1. Crude-oil contamination while drilling from influx of formation fluid or kick. 2. Diesel-oil contamination from contact with OBM during shipping to and from the well, at the mixing plant, or during storage between jobs. 3. Mineral-oil contamination through contact with mineral-oil-based muds. 4. Other contaminants, such as surfactants, detergents, lubricating oils, or hydraulic oils, that are found at the wellsite, in the mixing plant, or in the boats that transport the mud. In addition to possible contamination, surface phenomena occasionally will be seen in the waters around the drilling site. This might be small drops or large patterns. To satisfy the U.S. Minerals Management Service, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the U.S. Coast Guard as to the chemical composition of the surface phenomena and whether it is related to the SBM used at the site, a means of collecting samples of the material on the water and testing the composition of the surface film is necessary. Analytical test procedures have been developed for both on-site monitoring and off-site laboratory testing of SBMs, SBM cuttings, surface-film samples, and seafloor-sludge samples.
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CHEMISTRY OF SBMS AND OBMS

The EPA definition of SBM is a drilling fluid that has a synthetic material as the continuous phase with water as the dispersed phase. Synthetic material is defined as material produced by the reaction of specific purified chemical feedstock, as opposed to the traditional base fluids, such as diesel and mineral oil, which are derived from crude oil through physical separation processes and/or chemical reactions. Because synthetic materials are synthesized by the reaction of purified compounds, they are typically free of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Typical base fluids that have been used or are currently being used in SBMs are polyalphaolefins (PAOs), linear alphaolefins (LAOs), internal isomerized olefins (IOs), esters, and acetals. The unique chemistry of these SBMs compared with typical hydrocarbon-based mineral oils, diesel oils, and crude oils provided the basis for the test procedures that have been developed.
TEST DEVELOPMENT

Fingerprint Scans. Portable gas chromatographs (GCs) with a flame ionization detector (GC/FID) or GCs with a mass spectrometer (GC/MS) are used to fingerprint the components in the sample. When a sample is analyzed by the GC, it is

separated into its components as the temperature of the instrument is increased at a fixed rate. The separation is caused by the small differences in boiling points of the components. As the components exit the GC, the detector measures their concentration. The resulting plot of concentration vs. time yields a distinct pattern of peaks called a fingerprint scan. Each base fluid produces a unique fingerprint scan that allows the analyst to identify the fluid. Fig. 1 shows the GC fingerprint scan of a typical IO synthetic fluid. GC fingerprint techniques are recognized by the EPA as a valid method of differentiating drilling fluids. Comparison of a fingerprint scan of the initial base fluid with an SBM extract shows even small differences in composition. The presence of additional peaks or any change in the ratio of the peaks is an indication that contamination has occurred. Further analysis often makes determining the source of contamination possible. For example, an abundance of C6 through C10 hydrocarbons suggests crude-oil contamination, while increased peaks from C10 through C14 suggest diesel- or crude-oil contamination. Fig. 2 shows an IO base fluid spiked with 3% crude oil. Fingerprint scans are easily performed with a GC/FID in a laboratory, a portable GC/FID at the wellsite, or with more sophisticated GC/MS equipment at a laboratory facility.

TIC: IO 1618.D 5000000 4500000 4000000 3500000 3000000 C14 Isomers 2500000 2000000 1500000 1000000 500000 0
10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00

C16 Isomers

C18 Isomers

Abundance

C20 Isomers C22 Isomers

Time, minutes Fig. 1GC fingerprint scan of typical IO synthetic fluid.

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Abundance 8000000 7000000 ISTD 6000000 5000000 4000000 3000000 2000000 nC10 nC12 nC8 nC9 1000000 0
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TIC of C1618 - 03CRUD.d C16 Isomers C18 Isomers

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Time, minutes Fig. 2GC fingerprint scan of IO synthetic fluid spiked with 3% crude oil.

GC/MS. Initial work was done with GC/MS because of its ability to detect lower levels of contamination. After the basic fingerprint scan is completed, the GC/MS allows the analyst to determine the presence of trace amounts of aromatic compounds. SBMs used currently contain no aromatic compounds, and their presence indicates contamination by hydrocarbon-based materials. As the GC/MS produces the fingerprint scan, it takes a mass spectrum of the compounds as they exit the chromatograph. The mass spectrum for each compound is unique because of the way the molecule fragments in the mass spectrometer. The presence of trace levels of aromatics show up on the extracted ion scans as noticeable peaks that are not seen on a clean scan of an uncontaminated SBM. To confirm the ability of GC/SM to detect low levels of contamination, 10 laboratoryprepared PAO-based SBMs were spiked with different levels of mineral oil, diesel, or crude oil and tested with the GC/SM. All contaminated muds were identified as contaminated, and the type of contaminant identified correctly. While the GC/MS techniques have the advantage of better sensitivity over the GC/FID, the GC/MS is several times more expensive and not available in some analytical laboratories. An alternative method for PAH detection would be a high-performance liquid-chromatography method that also requires specialized equipment that might not be available in some analytical laboratories and a significant amount of time to set up and calibrate the equipment. Portable GC. The need for on-site monitoring at some locations initiated the use of portable GCs. First, finding a portable
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GC/FID that could be programmed to operate from 50 to 300C was necessary. The higher temperature is required to ensure that all components are extracted from the chromatograph. A test was conducted to determine the feasibility of using the portable GC/FID offshore and to demonstrate the ability to transport all necessary equipment to the wellsite without damage. The following issues have been resolved. 1. A skid-mounted mud laboratory is required to operate the equipment successfully. 2. Adequate ventilation of the work space is required to minimize exposure of the analyst to hazardous chemical vapors. 3. Low or erratic power are potential problems for the GC/FID, and voltage regulators have been required on some wellsites. 4. Transportation of hazardous hydrogen bottles and methylene chloride for sample extractions is required. (U.S. Dept. of Transportation regulations permit only surface transportation of these materials.) Once all equipment is in place and operating properly, the analyst can check the mud extract for potential contamination on a daily basis or as needed. The same 10 laboratory-prepared IO muds that were tested with the GC/MS were tested with the portable GC/FID. Seven of the 10 samples were identified as contaminated. Because the portable GC/FID does not have the capability to see trace amounts of aromatic compounds, it requires a higher level of diesel- or crudeoil contamination to identify the sample correctly as contaminated. Surface Film Samples. Surface phenomena are patterns occasionally seen in the waters surrounding a drilling site. A technique has

been developed to sample the material floating on the surface of the water and determine the cause of the phenomena. After trial and error, it was determined that a cotton-cloth material would work well. The cloth must be free of any organic material that might interfere with the analysis. Most commercially available cloth material contains some organics that will produce peaks on the fingerprint scan, making it necessary to extract the organics with methylene chloride or some other organic solvent before the cloth is suitable for use as a sampling material. The cloth is carefully lowered into the water and left to float through the surface pattern for approximately 1 hour. The cloth is then retrieved with care to avoid contamination and extracted to remove organics that were in the water. A fingerprint scan matching that of the SBM can confirm that the material in the water comes from the permitted discharge of the SBM cuttings. Any additional peaks on the scan would suggest some other source of the organics.
CONCLUSIONS

C14 Isomers

C20 Isomers C22 Isomers

nC13

The GC/MS is the preferred method for routine analysis because of its ability to detect very low levels of contamination in SBMs. These GC/MS test procedures have been successfully used for more than 4 years on samples from around the globe. In every case where contamination has been known to have occurred, the GC/MS has been useful in the timely analysis of samples from the well. The portable GC/FID has been successfully used on 12 wells in the Gulf of Mexico for more than 2 years. The portable GC is suitable for basic fingerprinting to identify the organics present in a mud system or to analyze collected organics from surface film samples. The portable GC might not be able to detect contamination for very low levels of crude- or diesel-oil contamination. The EPA has called for inclusion of GC testing in offshore general permits to address the need for analytical techniques to identify oil contamination and distinguish SBMs from OBMs. This article is a synopsis of paper SPE 37906, On-site and Off-site Monitoring of Synthetic-Based Drilling Fluids for Oil Contamination, by M. Churan, J.E. Candler, and M. Freeman, M-I Drilling Fluids LLC, originally presented at the 1997 SPE/EPA Exploration and Production Environmental Conference held in Dallas, 35 March. Please read the full-length paper for additional detail, illustrations, and references. The paper from which the synopsis has been taken has not been peer reviewed.
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FORMATION-DAMAGE MINIMIZATION FOR DRILLING AND CEMENTING FLUIDS

Formation damage is any process that impairs the permeability of reservoir formations and decreases production or injectivity. For many years, the drilling industry focused on practices that gave high penetration rates and minimum wellbore problems. The cementing industry designed slurries that would not bridge up or set prematurely in the casing. Consequently, drilling and cementing fluids are often formulated to drill and cement the well cheaply and quickly, with little thought of the impact on well productivity. The increase in small- and marginal-field development and the increasing number of wells completed without casing and perforations increase the importance of understanding and controlling formation damage. Formation damage is impossible to avoid because nondamaging fluids do not exist. Thus, determining what levels of damage are acceptable is important. This paper reviews the mechanisms of formation damage by drilling and cementing fluids and discusses the formulation of low-damage well fluids.
FORMATION-DAMAGE MECHANISMS

All mud filtrates are not damaging. Experiments were conducted in Berea sandstone with four different types of water-based muds (WBMs) with a barite weighting agent. When only the filtrate was used, the damage measured was negative, while the whole mud produced positive damage. The extent of the damages depended on the pore diameter. The results were independent of the mud type. These preliminary experiments demonstrate the importance of the damage caused by solids invasion. Damage caused by cement slurries is similar. Cement slurries are also complex mixtures of solids and liquids. However, in the case of slurries, the hydration of the cement particles can create agglomerates of up to 10 particles, preventing any solids invasion. Fluid invasion is their mechanism for formation damage. Because of the complexity of the chemical composition of the interstitial water, precipitation of salts can worsen the permeability impairment.
DEPTH OF DAMAGE VS . DEPTH OF INVA SION

adsorb causes a reduction in permeability. The polymer produces several centimeters of damage. The freshwater filtrate causes fines swelling and mobilization wherever the filtrate displaces the saline formation water. If the filtrate flow rate is great enough to detach the formation fines from the pore walls, the depth of this damage approximately equals the depth of invasion. These damage mechanisms produce a damage profile that decreases in severity away from the wellbore. The depth of invasion and the depth of damage can be quite different. Perforations are designed to extend past the highest levels of formation damage but may not extend past the areas of lowlevel damage.
COMPLETIONS

From the time the drill bit contacts the top of the reservoir until the well is brought into production, the formation is exposed to several fluids and operations that have the potential to reduce permeability and impact productivity. The possibility of formation damage does not end when the well is brought on stream but may occur during the entire life of the well when changes in reservoir stress, pressure, temperature, and fluid chemistry can cause formation damage. Drilling fluids are complex mixtures of solids and organic additives. Damage caused to the formation by these muds can come either from the solids or from the liquid phase. Damage mechanisms can reduce pore-throat size or relative permeability. Damage mechanisms that can cause a reduction in pore size include mud-solid invasion, filter-cake plugging, formationfine migration, clay swelling, and polymer adsorption/precipitation. Damage mechanisms that can reduce the relative permeability include wettability change, fluid saturation change, and emulsion formation.
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The impact of formation damage on well productivity depends on both the depth and the severity of damage. The depth of damage depends on the mechanism by which the formation has been damaged and may not be the same as the depth of invasion. To illustrate this, consider a hypothetical freshwater polymer mud invading a sandstone formation that contains a saline pore fluid and is susceptible to damage by swelling and migration of formation fines. Assume the depth of filtrate invasion is 1 m and the diameter of the rock pore throats is approximately 20 m. Mud solids that invade during the spurt phase will quickly plug pores within the first centimeter of the formation. The damaging polymer invades during the spurt phase, and low-molecularweight fragments of the polymer continue to travel through the filter cake during the whole filtration phase. Because the polymer adsorbs strongly on mineral surfaces, the concentration of polymer becomes depleted as the filtrate travels through the rock. The polymer that does

Cased and Perforated Wells. The length of perforation tunnels depends on several factors, including rock strength, stress conditions, and the size of the explosive charge. If a minimally damaging mud system is used, the perforation length may not be critical. However, if a highly damaging mud system is used, the length of the perforation tunnel must extend past the damaged zone. An important factor in determining the depth of damage is the size distribution of the solids present in the drilling fluids (drilled solids and weighting agents). Good fluid-loss control reduces the depth of invasion and damage. The presence of a mud cake will prevent any major solids invasion from the cement slurry but will not be effective against fluid invasion. Because of the mechanisms of the induced damage, the damage likely will be limited to the near-wellbore area. Designing cement slurries with good fluid-loss control is also important. Openhole Completions. Because these completions are not perforated, any nearwellbore damage will not be bypassed and can have a significant adverse effect on well productivity. The major cause of damage in these completions is mud-solids invasion and incomplete removal of internal and external mud filter cake. For good producNOVEMBER 1997

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tion rates, these forms of damage must either be cleaned up as the well is flowed or be removed by washfluid treatments that remove the mud damage and encourage breakup of filter cake.
DESIGN OF LOW-DAMAGE DRILLING AND CEMENTING FLUIDS

The level of damage and its impact on production depend on the fluid type, the nature of the reservoir, and the completion design. Fluid selection should begin with a review of the reservoir characteristics, including the properties of the rock and formation fluids, the expected reservoir temperature, the anticipated mud weight, and estimated differential pressure in the reservoir. Formation damage can be minimized by reducing the fluid loss for both drilling fluids and cement slurries. Spurt loss should be minimized. In WBMs the filtrate should be compatible with formation water to prevent scale precipitation. In oil-based muds, a stable, low-surfactant system should be used. Invasion of mud solids is a serious problem in openhole completions where the damaged zone is not bypassed with perforations.

The particle size of solids can be controlled to prevent pore-throat plugging. Fluids can be designed with a particle size engineered to encourage bridging pores at the rock surface to form an external filter cake. With an improper particle size, the mud solids invade some distance into the rock. If the filter cake is forced to form outside the rock, the rock pores are kept open and subsequent filter cake cleanup will restore the permeability to almost its original value. Cement slurries have been designed recently with a selection of light cement dry blend with an optimum ratio of different solids. The particle-size distribution of those solids was carefully selected to produce an optimized packing between the particles. These slurries have superior compressive strength, and their fluid loss without any damaging fluid-loss additive is much lower than conventional slurries. Values as low as 50 mL can be obtained at a density of 1.56 g/cm3. Low-damage cement slurries can be designed with this new approach. The cost of a fracturing or acidizing treatment to correct formation damage is significantly greater than the cost of a fluid engineered to prevent formation damage.

CONCLUSIONS

The design of drilling and cementing fluids should be integrated into the reservoir strategy. The type of hole completion has direct impact on the damage that can be tolerated and on the design of drilling and cementing fluids. Eliminating or at least minimizing the use of potentially damaging fluid-loss additives is possible with proper selection of particle-size distribution in the weighting agent or with new cement systems.

This article is a synopsis of paper SPE 38040, Could Formation Damage Minimization Provide a Cost-Effective Integrated Approach for the Design of Drilling and Cementing Fluids? by B. Vidick, SPE, Dowell, and P Reid, SPE, . Schlumberger, originally presented at the 1997 SPE Asia Pacific Oil and Gas Conference held in Kuala Lumpur, 1416 April. Please read the full-length paper for detail, illustrations, and references. The paper from which the synopsis has been taken has not been peer reviewed.

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VALIDATION OF DRILL-IN FLUID CLEANUP SYSTEM EFFECTIVENESS

The recent development of new drilling techniques to maximize wellbore contact with productive intervals has been complemented by the parallel development of drill-in fluids. Drill-in fluids are formulated to provide the functionality of drilling muds to drill through the productive zone while minimizing the associated wellbore damage experienced with conventional drilling fluids. Standard practice is to drill to the top of the pay zone with conventional muds, then switch to the cleaner drill-in fluids to drill through the pay. Drill-in fluids are typically made up of either starch, cellulose, or xanthan polymer and sized calcium carbonate or salt particulates. The starch or cellulose polymers provide viscosity for friction reduction and lubrication, while the xanthan polymer enhances cuttings-transport capabilities. The particulates, which are removable, provide fluid-loss control. Although drill-in fluids are inherently less damaging than conventional drilling muds, relatively impermeable filter cakes are still deposited on the borehole wall. Insufficient degradation of the filter cakes resulting from even these clean drill-in fluids can significantly impede flow capacity at the wellbore wall. This reduced flow capacity can result in significant reduction of well productivity or injectivity. Formation damage from drilling fluid leaking off into the formation, as well as filter-cake impairment, must be eliminated to realize the full potential of horizontal completions. A common approach to minimizing damage during the drilling of openhole horizontal wells is to use a brine-based drill-in-fluid system with acid- or water-soluble weighting agents followed by the application of acid or an oxidative breaker system to dissolve filtercake solids and polymers. Acids and oxidative solution washes perform reasonably well in the laboratory environment where contact of the filter-cake damage with the reactive solution is easily achieved. However, previous testing has indicated that application of acids or oxidative solutions may not be effective for removing the damage in horizontal intervals. The problem is thought to be inadequate contact of the reactive solution with the drill-in-fluid damage. Acids and oxidizers are nonspecific reactive species that will react with anything
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oxidizable, including tubular goods, hydrocarbons, and some formation components. Because they begin reacting on contact with any oxidizable material, they are at least partially spent before they arrive at the damaged interval. The uncontrolled action of the reactive solution near the entrance of the open interval increases the permeability of that area, resulting in preferential leakoff of subsequent volumes of the solution. In extended-length openhole intervals, this reduces the amount of the solution reaching the rest of the interval. Polymer-coated carbonate particles used for weighting and fluid-loss control can be resistant to acid attack and prevent complete removal of the filter cake. Acids and oxidative cleanup fluids can react with tubulars, producing elevated iron concentrations that are injected into the reservoir causing sludging problems.
NEW APPROACHES

A new technique was recently disclosed to address the filter-cake damage produced by drill-in fluids in openhole horizontal wells. The technique involves the use of viscosified, brine-based, drill-in fluids with acid- or watersoluble weighting and loss-control agents and was reported to be applicable for starch-, derivatized-cellulose-, or xanthan-based drillin fluids. When drilling is completed, the filter-cake-encased hole is loaded with a polymer-specific enzyme-breaker solution customized to the polymeric components of the drill-in fluid. After a predetermined shut-in time to allow polymer degradation, the hole is circulated with acid to remove the particulate components. This technique gave productivity improvements several times that of conventional acid or oxidizer solutions. Many of todays drilling fluids contain high concentrations of xanthan-gum rather than cellulose- or starch-based polymers. Some unique properties of xanthan are its high viscosity at low concentrations, high viscosity at low shear rates, high degree of pseudoplasticity, high elastic modulus, broad ionic-strength compatibility, heat resistance, broad pH insensitivity, and acid and oxidizer resistance. Fluids containing xanthan are known to cause damage to the near-wellbore permeability

because of leakoff and because of mud- or polymer-filter-cake buildup on the formation faces in the same manner as the celluloses or starches. Acid-stage or oxidizer treatments to reduce the polymeric damage are less effective on damage produced by xanthan-based fluids. Recently introduced technology uses polymer-linkage-specific enzyme complexes to hydrolyze polymers to nondamaging fragments. Enzymes are highly specialized proteins produced by cells of living organisms and have the ability to act as catalysts to promote specific reactions. Because the conformational structure of an enzyme as a catalyst is unchanged by the reaction it promotes, it can then initiate another. Barring denaturization (damage to the enzyme by chemical, thermal,or mechanical means), the reactivity of an enzyme is essentially infinite. The new enzyme system does not react with substances other than the targeted polymers. The enzyme system attacks the drill-in-fluid filter-cake damage by degrading the polymer that acts as a glue holding the calcium carbonate or salt particles together. After degradation of the polymer, the soluble weighting or bridging material can be removed, ensuring even flow into the wellbore. The system was first evaluated for drillin-fluid filter-cake removal as a single-stage treatment. In many situations, the particulates released from the filter cake after polymer degradation can be produced. In others, it is unlikely that the produced fluids can carry the particulates to the surface. A two-stage treatment was devised, with an initial stage of the enzyme solution followed by an acid stage to dissolve the particulates. The relative performance of the two-stage treatment was evaluated and compared with both the single-stage-acid, oxidative, and enzyme systems.
L ABORATORY RESULTS

A number of different test procedures were used to determine the effectiveness of the breaker systems in degrading polymeric filter cake generated by drill-in fluid. Filter-Cake Removal. Because of its ability to approximate downhole conditions closeNOVEMBER 1997

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TABLE 1WELLBORE FILTER-CAKE REMOVAL (XANTHAN DRILL-IN FLUID) Test Disk Permeability, md Mud type Breaker Carrier fluid Temperature, F Shut-in time, hours Clean-up efficiency, % 1 Berea 50 Xanthan NaOCL 2% KCl 150 24 32 2 Berea 50 Xanthan LiOCl 2% KCl 150 24 54 3 Berea 50 Xanthan XC-Enzyme 2% KCl 150 24 85 4 Berea 50 Xanthan XC-Enzyme 2% KCl 175 24 94 5 Berea 50 Xanthan XC-Enzyme 2% KCl 200 24 92 6 Berea 50 Xanthan XC-Enzyme 2% KCl 250 24 96

ly, a modified high-pressure/high-temperature fluid-loss cell was used to evaluate the filter-cake-removal efficiency of the breaker systems. The formation face was simulated by placing an aloxite or Berea disk of known permeability into the cell. The drillin fluid breakers evaluated included polymer-linkage-specific enzymes, 5% ammonium persulfate [(NH4)2S2O8], 5% lithium hypochlorite (LiOCl), 6% sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), and 3% hydrogen peroxide. The tests were performed at temperatures ranging from 86 to 250F . For a drill-in fluid comprising 1.0 ppb XC polymer, 8.0 ppb starch polymer, 1.0 ppb caustic, and 15.0 ppb calcium carbonate, the 5% (NH4)2S2O8 solution had a cleanup efficiency of 13% and the 5% LiOCl solution had a cleanup efficiency of 76%. The polymer-linkage-specific enzyme breaker provided a 94% cleanup efficiency. In tests with a drill-in fluid comprising 0.75 ppb XC polymer, 3.0 ppb polyanionic cellulose, 0.25 ppb caustic, 0.25 ppb soda ash, and 12.0 ppb calcium carbonate, the LiOCl solution had a 30% cleanup efficiency and the polymer-linkage-specific enzyme system had a 95% cleanup efficiency. Table 1 shows the results from testing NaOCl, LiOCl, and the enzyme-breaker treatment on xanthan-based drill-in filter cake. The drill-in fluid in these tests consisted of 8.0 ppb XC polymer only. Tests 4 through 6 were conducted to evaluate the cleanup efficiency of the xanthan-specific enzyme breaker at elevated temperatures, which seems to perform at a higher efficiency as the temperature increases. Core-Flow Testing. Restoration of permeability under dynamic conditions for both xanthan- and starch-polymer drill-in fluids was evaluated by use of a core permeameter. The cores were loaded into a hydrostatic holder, allowed to reach thermal equilibrium, then flushed with a refined mineral oil to establish an irreducible water saturation. A baseline permeability was established, then a filter cake was built on the coreface with the drill-in fluid.
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Xanthan Polymer. The core-flow tests with the xanthan-polymer drill-in fluid were performed by use of feldspathic sandstone plugs. The drill-in fluid used to generate the filter cake consisted of KCl and 8.0 ppb XC. Testing was performed to evaluate restored permeability with the xanthan-linkage-specific enzyme system. The enzyme treatment was flushed across the coreface and shut in for 48 hours. Oil pumped in the injection direction following the enzyme treatment revealed the filter cake to be completely permeable, indicating that the enzyme had degraded the xanthan polymer in the drill-in fluid. Final permeability in the production direction approached 100% of the original value. Starch Polymer. Core-flow tests on the starch-polymer-based drill-in fluid were performed with Middle Eastern carbonate plugs consisting predominantly of dolomite. The drill-in fluid used to generate the filter cake consisted of seawater, NaCl, 1.0 ppb XC polymer, 8.0 ppb starch polymer, 1.0 caustic, and 15.0 ppb calcium carbonate. Testing was performed to evaluate recovered permeability with 15% HCl, the polymer-linkage-specific enzyme system, and a two-stage treatment with the enzyme system followed by 15% HCl. Fifty-seven percent of the initial permeability was regained by the application of 15% HCl to remove the drill-fluid filter cake. In the second test, the enzyme treatment was flushed across the coreface and shut in for 16 hours. Oil pumped in the injection direction following the enzyme treatment revealed the filter cake to be partially permeable, indicating that the enzyme had degraded the starch polymer in the drillin fluid. Final permeability in the production direction approached 80% of the original value. Following the test, the core was removed and visually examined for the presence of starch. Although calcium carbonate was found on the core, iodine testing indicated that no starch remained in the filter cake. In the third test, the core was treated with the enzyme as described in the previous test. The injection-direction permeability improved but still was limited by the remain-

ing thick calcium carbonate filter cake. A 15% HCl solution was pumped across the coreface for 5 minutes, then 1 PV injected through the core. Production-direction permeability was restored to its original value. Examination of the core following the test revealed that very little filter cake remained on the coreface.
C A SE HISTORIES

The new treatment to remove damage caused by xanthan-based drilling fluids has been successfully evaluated on a horizontal well in south Texas. The direct laterals were treated with lithium or sodium breaker solution. The offset wells comprised 61/8-in. horizontal openhole intervals of 1,270 and 1,335 ft, respectively. The bottomhole temperature in all wells was 154F The drilling fluid . comprised 8.0 ppb xanthan polymer and 15.0 ppb calcium carbonate. The first well was treated with 50 bbl of an aqueous solution of 6% NaOCl as a filter-cake cleanup treatment. The well was shut in for 12 hours following placement of the cleanup treatment. After the shut-in period, the well flowed 192 BOPD. The well stabilized at a production rate of 221 BOPD after 6 days but had declined to 16 BOPD after 2 months. The cumulative production of this well over 60 days totaled 7,119 bbl. The second offset well was drilled with the same drill-in fluid and treated with 50 bbl of a 10% LiOCl solution. This well was also shut in for 12 hours. The well stabilized at 366 BOPD in 17 days and stopped producing after 29 days. The enzyme treatment system comprised the xanthanlinkage-specific enzyme in 2% KCl with a surfactant. To fill the open hole 40 bbl of the enzyme treatment was needed. Following a 48 hour shut-in period, the well was opened and began producing at 113 BOPD; it stabilized at 330 BOPD after 12 days. The cumulative production of this well after 60 days was 14,670 bbl.
TREATMENT ENGINEERING

Successful application of the enzymebased cleanup system is an interdependent

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balance between the chemistry of the fluids and the engineering involved to achieve proper placement of the fluid. The enzyme complex must be selected to attack the specific polymeric components of the drill-in fluid in the bottomhole environment. The shut-in time required to allow degradation of the polymer by the enzyme is dependent on the enzyme concentration and the bottomhole temperature. Pretreatment laboratory testing with the actual drill-in fluid will establish the shut-in time required. Shut-in times of 12 to 24 hours are typical. Proper placement of the treatment is critical for success. The enzyme solution must contact the polymeric damage to initiate degradation and removal of the filter cake. Application through coiled tubing should be considered in all extended-openhole applications. The preferred method is to run coiled tubing with a jetting nozzle to the bottom and load the hole as the tubing is reversed out. Foaming of the enzyme solution should be considered in high-permeability situations to maintain the solution in the hole as long as possible. The application of an acid wash following the enzyme treatment has been demonstrated to be beneficial for dissolving particulates.
CONCLUSIONS

The maximization of wellbore permeability by effective removal of drill-in-fluid damage has far-reaching implications, particularly in extended-length completions. Improved wellbore permeability provides the potential for maximized productivity from a given well, more rapid recovery, and fewer wells required to achieve reservoir drainage. Laboratory evaluations and field testing have shown that the new enzyme system can provide significantly improved wellbore-damage cleanup relative to the conventional acid- or oxidative-solution cleanup systems. In addition, the enzyme system is environmentally friendly.

This article is a synopsis of paper SPE 38570, Field Experience Validates Effectiveness of Drill-In Fluid Cleanup System, by B.B. Beall, SPE, R. TjonJoe-Pin, SPE, and H.D. Brannon, SPE, BJ Services Co. U.S.A., originally presented at the 1997 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in San Antonio, Texas, 58 October. Please read the full-length paper for additional detail, illustrations, and references. The paper from which the synopsis has been taken has not been peer reviewed.
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FIELD APPLICATION OF LIGHTWEIGHT, HOLLOW-GLASS-SPHERE DRILLING FLUID

A new class of underbalanced drilling fluids being developed under U.S. Dept. of Energy (U.S. DOE) sponsorship was recently successfully field tested. The fluid uses hollow glass spheres (HGSs) to decrease the fluid density to less than that of the base mud while maintaining incompressibility. Concentrations of up to 20 vol% were used to decrease the fluid density to 0.8 lbm/gal less than normally used in the field. Potential benefits of using these fluids include higher penetration rates, decreased formation damage, and lost-circulation mitigation. When used in place of aerated fluid, they can eliminate compressor usage and allow the use of mud-pulse measurement-while-drilling tools. These and other recent advances in technology have spurred interest in underbalanced drilling to the highest level in 30 years. Industry-wide surveys indicate that more than 12% of wells drilled in the U.S. in 1997 will intentionally use underbalanced techniques.
INTRODUCTION

potential to retain maximum well productivity by minimizing drilling-induced formation damage. LWSA fluids represent one such underbalanced-drilling technology.
FIELD TESTING

LWSA and the base mud, allowing the field tests to proceed. General Procedures. The LWSA was added to the first well at concentrations up to 10 vol% and to the second well at concentrations up to 20 vol%. In both cases, the LWSA performed better than expected. Attrition rate for the LWSA was less than 10%, exceeding expectations based on the manufacturers specifications. More than 40 samples were taken from various points in the mud system during the drilling operations of these wells; these were sent to a laboratory for analysis of HGS content of each sample. Mixing. Mixing the LWSA into the drilling mud was expected to be the most significant logistical problem. During yard testing, the product was added conventionally by dumping it into a normal mud hopper or by dumping it directly into the pit. However, the large volumes required for a full-scale field test precluded dumping the product. The LWSA was mixed into the mud with the manufacturers recommended procedure for similar products. This mixing system used a conventional double-diaphragm pump to transfer the glass bubbles from the package into the fluid. The initial mud volume was determined on site. The amount of spheres required to reach the desired volume percent was calculated, and mixing was begun. With the small volume of mud initially built, one to two 640-lbm boxes of spheres were required. By the time this was added, enough additional mud had been built to require further LWSA additions. For both wells, the desired LWSA loading was reached after approximately three boxes of product were added (i.e., about 2.5 to 3 hours). At the rate the wells were drilled (approximately 60 to 80 ft/hr), product additions had to be made at the rate of about one box every 2 to 3 hours. Environmental Concerns. The primary concern regarding environmental effects of the spheres, in particular while mixing them into the mud pit, was whether the LWSA would become airborne as dust because of its low specific gravity. This con1209

The U.S. DOE recognizes the benefits of advanced technology to the oil and gas industry. Consequently, the U.S. DOE manages a portfolio of drilling-related research, development, and demonstration projects designed to reduce cost and increase process efficiency. These drillingrelated projects support the departments ultimate goal of developing the nations large natural-gas resource base and maintaining market-responsive supplies at competitive prices. Lightweight solid additives (LWSAs) for drilling-fluid-density reduction were tested in the laboratory and in a test yard in drillingrig-compatible equipment during 1994-95. The primary objective of the project since that time has been to test underbalanceddrilling products in actual field operations. The LWSA tested consists of HGSs manufactured in the U.S. and commonly used as a filler material for other lightweight products. The spheres have an average specific gravity of 0.37, collapse strength of 3,000 psi, and average 50 m in diameter. Underbalanced-drilling products are investigated because of their potential to increase drilling rate as well as for their
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Mobil Oil Co. gave final permission to perform the tests on up to four wells in the Midway-Sunset field in Kern County, California. These wells were optimum for the initial field tests because they were relatively shallow wells, allowing more than one well to be tested quickly with HGSs. The wells would be approximately 1,200 ft deep and would require small volumes of mud. Initial indications were that only 200 bbl of mud would be required for each well. The initial plan called for tests in three to four wells; however, during drilling of the first two wells, a much larger volume of mud was required than originally anticipated. After the second well was successfully drilled, all useful information had been gathered at this location, pre-empting the need for additional data collection. Objectives. The main objective of these field tests was to determine whether a well could be drilled with the LWSA in the drilling mud. Other objectives were to demonstrate the following. 1.The ability to mix LWSA safely and easily into drilling fluid under normal field conditions. 2. The compatibility of LWSA with conventional drilling fluids. 3. The durability of the LWSA during circulation downhole through conventional bits, mud motors, and surface equipment . 4. The ability to reuse or recycle the mud on more than one well. 5. The lack of detrimental effects on conventional drilling equipment. 6. The minimal environmental effect of the LWSA. Pilot Tests. Pilot tests conducted by the mud company before the field tests demonstrated that LWSA additions of 10 vol% had very little effect on the rheology of the mud. The pilot test results demonstrated that no compatibility problems existed between the

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cern was addressed by injecting the dry product through a hose lowered as deeply as possible into the conventional mud hopper on the mud pit system. No dust was produced while mixing the HGSs.
RESULTS

General LWSA Mud Properties. The mud engineer normally controls the drilling fluid in the Midway-Sunset field by keeping the funnel viscosity (FV) of the mud in the 38 to 40 sec/qt range. If the FV is less than 38 sec/qt, additional gel (or bentonite) is added. If the FV is greater than 40 sec/qt, additional water is added or an attempt is made to clean the mud by dumping a sand trap from the mud-pit system. The FV for the mud used in Well 1 varied from 34 to 44 sec/qt. This is a wider range than desired for the mud, but was acceptable. The FV measured in Well 1 was essentially independent of the LWSA concentration. The FV measured with 13 vol% LWSA is about the same as that measured with only 3 vol% LWSA. The FV was higher than the desired range for most of Well 2, because the concentration of LWSA was higher in this well than in Well 1, reaching concentrations as high as 19%. In Well 2 increasing the volume percent of LWSA generally tended to increase the FV. The American Petroleum Inst. (API) fluid loss was relatively unaffected by the addition of LWSA to the mud. Measured API fluid loss changed less than 1% during the drilling of these wells. This agreed with the laboratory tests. The measured plastic viscosity and yield point for these two mud systems were within acceptable ranges for drilling fluids. Maintaining LWSA Concentration. In general, LWSA concentration in the drilling fluid was determined on the basis of the density of the fluid. As much as possible, all additions to and subtractions from the mud system were measured. The pit volume was always known because it was a compartmentalized steel tank. The mud engineer noted all dry-product additions. A water meter was installed on the water-inlet line to the mud-pit system, and the initial meter reading recorded. The sand traps on the steel-pit system were dumped periodically to control the FV. These volumes were noted and accounted for in calculations of the volume percent of LWSA. Because the pit system for this rig is relatively small (less than 90 bbl), a small change in volume of any one constituent
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can make a large percentage change in the concentration of that or any other additive. The unknown parameters with the most impact (besides unmeasured losses) were the amount or volume of drill cuttings generated and the amount of drill cuttings dumped into the sump by the solids-control equipment. These volumes were inferred by use of history matching. A spreadsheet was used to perform a volume balance. Parameters were varied until the predicted mud density matched typical or historical mud densities measured in this field. The matched values were then entered into the spreadsheet, and calculated volume percents of LWSA were compared with the known volumes being added to the mud. The measured volume of LWSA added to the drilling fluid was used to calculate a theoretical mud weight (MW) in pounds per gallon. This result was compared with the actual measured MW to determine attrition of the LWSA. When the theoretical or calculated MW matches the measured MW, no HGSs are being lost in the system. Potential forms of LWSA attrition include breakage, loss downhole (either through loss of whole mud or through embedment in the wellbore wall), loss of whole mud at the surface, and loss through the solidscontrol equipment. MW (Fluid Density). The calculated MW closely matched the measured MW at all depths in the first well, indicating minimal loss of LWSA. Initially, the measured MWs were slightly higher than the calculated theoretical weights, indicating that some LWSA was being lost. At depths greater than 600 ft, however, measured MW was less than calculated MW. For the second well, the agreement between measured MW and theoretical MW was excellent throughout most of the wellbore, indicating that no LWSA was being lost through attrition. Near the bottom of the well, the measured MW was higher than the calculated value, indicating that some of the LWSA was being lost. Calculations show that as much as 17 to 32% of the LWSA was lost between 1,391 ft and total depth. Three phenomena explain this apparent LWSA loss: 1. The mud motor was tripped out of the well at that depth. Again, as on the first well, 10 to 20 bbl of whole mud may have been lost and rebuilt at a higher density. 2. The pits were diluted, and the solids control equipment kept running even though mud was not circulating. This

could have caused more fluid to be thrown into the sump than estimated. 3. The model may not be a perfect match, or some of the input parameters may not be exactly correct. Volume Percent HGS. The volume of LWSA added was measured, and the volume remaining was calculated on the basis of measured MW. The theoretical and actual LWSA volume percent compared favorably through most of the wellbore in the first well. The theoretical LWSA volume percent was nearly identical to the amount actually added from surface to near total depth for the second well. The theoretical and actual values deviated at depths greater than approximately 1,400 ft in both wells. Weight Percent HGS. The results of the volume percent concentration analysis were confirmed by a laboratory analysis of samples taken from the returns line, the pit, and the overflow and underflow from the solids-control equipment. These samples were analyzed on the basis of weight percent. When conversion was made to volume percent the results were consistent with the on-site analysis. For example, at a depth of 1,051 ft on Well 2 the concentration of glass bubbles in the mud was approximately 17 vol%, which corresponds to a concentration of approximately 4.2 wt%. Mud samples taken from the pit at that time had glassbubble concentrations of 3.8 wt%, indicating a loss of slightly less than 10%. Effects of Solids-Control Equipment. Extensive work was carried out to determine the effect of conventional solids-control equipment on the LWSA. Earlier yard tests showed that the most desirable solidscontrol system for LWSA muds consisted of a large-mesh-screen shale shaker (less than 100-mesh-screen size) and a high-quality mud cleaner with a capacity sufficient to process the entire mud volume. The shale shaker on the drilling rig had a screen size of 40 to 60 mesh. A mud cleaner with six 4-in. hydrocyclones and a 160mesh screen was used to drill all wells in the field. The mud-cleaner screen was changed to 120 mesh at a depth of approximately 500 ft on the first well. The shale shaker worked well throughout the tests, but several problems occurred with the mud cleaner. Because the formation being drilled had a tendency to disperse into the mud, the solids-control equipment alone could not
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completely control the drilling-fluid properties. So dilution of the mud with water and dumping of mud that was heavily contaminated with drill solids was a common practice on this rig. This dump-anddilute procedure made keeping track of all additions to and subtractions from the mud difficult, causing more LWSA to be used per barrel than might otherwise have been required.
ECONOMICS

Three main factors, other than product cost, will ultimately determine whether the use of LWSA is feasible: whether the rate of penetration (ROP) can be increased as a result of drilling with the lower-density mud, the ability to recycle whole mud containing LWSA, and the ability to recover the LWSA and reuse it on additional wells. Two other factors can make the use of LWSA worthwhile: the mitigation of lost circulation and a decrease in formation damage because of drilling underbalanced. These tests did not provide any real opportunity to investigate these factors. The consensus of those involved was that these wells would not provide the best test of increasing ROP because they are very shallow and typically can be drilled in less than 2 days, with the ROP ranging from 50 to 100 ft/hr. Recycling of LWSA Mud. Even though economic success on the initial field tests was not of paramount importance, the best chance of making the initial tests economical would be to recycle the fluid on multiple wells. Saving mud is a normal practice for oil-based drilling fluids because of their cost. The same practice will be appropriate for the LWSA mud. For this case, where only two wells were to be drilled, the cost of a separation unit could not compete with the cost of simply storing the small volume of mud between wells. The drilling mud used on Well 1 was stored off site in an open-top, 500-bbl tank for 2 days. Approximately 100 bbl of the final mud from Well 1 was salvaged; the rest was either left in the hole or lost to the sump when the casing was cemented in the well. In a deeper well, where a large volume of mud would be involved, approximately the same amount would have been lost, but more mud would be salvaged. The final mud that was transported to storage weighed 9.1 lbm/gal, which was greater than initially planned. The mud was heavier than desired because LWSA additions were stopped at approximately 1,400 ft because of the potential for a gas kick.
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Approximately 580 ft of hole was drilled with no additions of LWSA (i.e., about 33% of the total drilled). During this time, the mud weight was allowed to drift up as in a normal well. Total depth was reached at 1,780 ft with a mud weight of 9.1 lbm/gal, and the mud was stored for reuse. Further contamination from the tank and the transport trucks increased the mud weight to 9.2 lbm/gal by the time the fluid reached the steel pits for the second well. This fluid contained an estimated 7.8 vol% LWSA, reduced from approximately 13 vol% when additions of LWSA were halted at 1,400 ft. The second well encountered a lost circulation zone at approximately 154 ft, even though available information indicated no lost circulation was expected for any of the prospective test wells. The total volume of loss was unknown. Lost mud was replaced on the fly while drilling continued. Estimated volume lost was approximately 40 bbl, further decreasing the already minimal savings potential of recycling the mud. The lost circulation was cured with the addition of conventional lost-circulation material. Recovery and Reuse of LWSA. Because of the condition of the solids-control equipment, the limited space available on each location for necessary equipment, and the recycling of whole mud, no attempt was made during these tests to recover dry LWSA for readdition to a future mud system.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

Analysis of the measurements made on the drilling fluid during the tests showed that the theoretical MW closely matched the measured MW. Accounting for all additions and subtractions to the mud system helped determine a theoretical MW at several points during the tests. These compared very favorably with measured data.
CONCLUSIONS

On Well 1, the bottomhole assembly was tripped out and run back to bottom with no reaming required. Typically, these holes must be reamed to bottom after tripping at total depth. This indicates decreased frictional drag in the hole because of the presence of the LWSA. This was expected because solid plastic and glass spheres are often used as mud additives to reduce friction in high-angle and horizontal wells. This is also consistent with laboratory tests that showed the LWSA reduces casing wear 60 to 70%. On Well 2, more reaming was required after trips and more wall cake was circulated up than normal for the area, indicating that the wellbores in this field may require a higher MW to prevent shale sloughing. The LWSA test mud was the lowestweight mud ever run in this field to total depth. The loss of large mud volumes on these wells during trips required much new mud to be built, decreasing the effectiveness of the test.

The field tests were successful and demonstrated the following. 1. The LWSA can be easily and safely mixed into drilling fluid during field operations. 2. New mud containing LWSA can be built in the field. 3. The LWSA is compatible with conventional field drilling fluids. 4. The LWSA can be circulated through a conventional roller-cone, insert bit with little or no destruction of the LWSA. 5. The LWSA can be circulated through a conventional downhole mud motor with little or no detrimental effect to the LWSA or the motor. 6. The overall survival rate of the LWSA was within an expected and acceptable range. 7. The environmental effect of use of the LWSA was minimal. 8. The LWSA had no apparent detrimental effect on any of the conventional drilling-rig equipment. 9. The drilling-fluid system was very small (less than 200 bbl active volume), allowing accurate monitoring and measurement of additions and deletions. 10. LWSA muds appear to be an economical alternative to aerated drilling fluid and should find increased use in the future.

This article is a synopsis of paper SPE 38637, Field Application of Lightweight Hollow-Glass-Sphere Drilling Fluid, by G.H. Medley Jr., SPE, Maurer Engineering Inc., J.E. Haston, Haston Petroleum Consultants, R.L. Montgomery, 3M, I.D. Martindale, SPE, Mobil Oil Co., and J.R. Duda, SPE, U.S. DOE, originally presented at the 1997 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in San Antonio, Texas, 58 October. Please read the full-length paper for additional detail, illustrations, and references. The paper from which the synopsis has been taken has not been peer reviewed.
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TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE EFFECTS ON DRILLING-FLUID RHEOLOGY

The rheological properties of drilling fluids are usually considered to be independent of pressure and temperature. This is a good approximation for shallow wells, where the temperature changes are not large. Many wells have a large difference between pore and fracture pressure, so errors in the estimation of dynamic circulation pressure are not critical for well integrity or kick prevention. For wells with small differences between pore and fracture pressure, careful evaluation and analysis of the effects of temperature and pressure on wellbore hydraulics and kick probability are necessary.
RHEOLOGY EXPERIMENTS

properties, significant temperature and pressure effects on time-dependent rheological properties were measured. Correlation-Based Models. Measurement of the rheology of the actual mud system at HP/HT conditions before drilling operations is highly recommended. If measurement has not been done, the next best choice is to use theoretical or empirical models that predict pressure and temperature dependence of rheology. Several studies of the HP/HT rheology of WBM and OBM have been conducted. Some of these include mathematical expressions that are theoretical and reproduce the observed pressure and temperature dependence of rheological parameters, such as viscosity, plastic viscosity, or yield stress. Some of their mathematical expression include a multiplicative factor that is independent of pressure and temperature but dependent on the composition of the drilling fluid. In the present work, shear stress is multiplied by a factor that depends on pressure, temperature, and shear rate. Coefficients of this factor are fitted to all relevant shear-rate/-stress data directly without first extracting rheological parameters. The form of the function provides for different pressure and temperature behavior at high and low shear rates. Two correlations (one for WBM and another for OBM) have been developed to describe the pressure and temperature dependence of the HP/HT data that were collected.
MODELING EQUIVALENT CIRCUL ATION DENSITY (ECD)

contributions from hydrostatic and frictional pressure loss to ECD in a HP/HT well with arbitrary geometry. The temperature profile along the wellbore is entered and mud properties are calculated as functions of pressure and temperature. A three-parameter model is used for calculation of frictional-pressure loss. The calculations are fast and can be repeated several times to study the effects of varying fluid properties or geometry. Transient changes in temperature are sometimes large, causing large changes in ECD, and are not calculated in the static model. Dynamic ECD Models. Transient effects can be important when drilling begins after a stationary period in a critical zone. Several important effects are observed. 1. Mud temperature at a given position in the well changes rapidly. The temperature approaches the geothermal temperature during long stationary periods. When circulation begins, the lower part of the annulus is cooled by cold mud from the drillstring, and the upper part of the annulus is heated because hot mud is flowing up the annulus. Mud density and mud rheology at a given position change rapidly in this phase and the total mud volume changes. 2. Heat transfer and frictional heating depend on mud properties, which in turn depend on mud temperature. 3. Mud rheology is not only temperature and pressure dependent but also depends on shear history. A rapid peak in bottomhole pressure has been observed as gel is broken. Bottomhole ECD stabilizes and even increases for some time. Transient-Pressure and -Temperature Model. A two-dimensional transient-temperature simulator has been integrated into a state-of-the-art transient-hydraulic model to predict the effects of temperature changes reliably. The following features are important for the simulations. Vertical and radial heat transfer. Frictional heating. Treatment of each material (steel, cement, formation) separately. Transient modeling of pressure and temperature as functions of time and position. Simulation of an arbitrary sequence of changes in operational parameters.
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Shear stress and gel strength have been measured at temperatures as high as 200C and pressures up to 120 000 kPa for 16 different high-pressure/high-temperature (HP/ HT) mud systems. A Fann 70 viscometer was used to measure shear stress at rotational rates from 3 to 600 rev/min. The experimental data for both water-based mud (WBM) and oil-based mud (OBM) show the following main trends. 1. The shear stress for a given high shear rate decreases significantly when temperature increases from 50 to 150C. Above this temperature shear stress increases with increasing temperature. 2. The shear stress for a given shear rate increases with increasing pressure. The increase is much more pronounced at high shear rates than at low shear rates. 3. The shear stress for a given low shear rate is not as pressure and temperature dependent as shear stress at high shear rates if the temperature is less than 140C. From 140 to 200C, many of the mud systems show a dramatic increase in shear stress. 4. Gel strength behaves similarly to the shear stress at 3 rev/min. One difference between OBM and WBM was that the pressure dependence was much more pronounced for OBM than for WBM. For most OBM, pressure and temperature effects nearly cancelled out when pressure increased from atmospheric to 100 000 kPa and temperature increased from 50 to 150C. For WBM, the pressure effect was much smaller than the temperature effect. In addition to these time-independent
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Drilling fluids are complex fluids with a large number of chemical additives that influence rheology in a complicated way. Reliable prediction of density at elevated pressures and temperatures is very important, and correlations based on HP/HT mud data have been developed. Reliable prediction of ECD requires knowledge of the temperature distribution along the annulus. This results in a density profile for the well, as well as a viscosity profile that gives the ECD at a given depth. Static ECD Models. A hydraulic model has been developed for the calculation of the

The simulator has been thoroughly validated against downhole pressure and temperature data recorded under controlled conditions in North Sea HP/HT wells. The simulator reproduces time-independent effects well. Time-Dependent Rheology. The importance of time-dependent effects is shown in a real HP/HT well, where downhole pressure was logged during a long series of drilling operations. The well was vertical, with the bit at approximately 5000 m inside a 17.8-cm liner. WBM with a specific gravity of 2.10 was used. The well had been static for more than 10 minutes. The log clearly shows two effects: first a short pressure peak while breaking the gel and then a slow decrease in pressure as mud is circulated. The long-time pressure variations are even more pronounced during a circulation test that lasted for 1.5 hours. A closer study of time-dependent effects is planned.
PRACTIC AL APPLIC ATIONS

An HP/HT rheology model that is integrated with an advanced pressure and temperature simulator is a useful tool for several operations required to drill HP/HT wells. This kind of tool can give rapid access to accurate calculations of pressure and temperature in a well with complicated geometry after any sequence of operations. An HP/HT simulator is a useful tool for well planning. The simulator makes possible reliable studies of the effects of modifying the mud system or the casing program. HP/HT rheology data for all relevant mud systems are not always available and the HP/HT rheology model makes realistic and reliable evaluations of different mud systems possible. A HP/HT simulator is also useful during the drilling of a well when deviations from the planned program have to be evaluated on the basis of observations during drilling. It is useful for data evaluation when pit gain or pump pressure deviates from expected values. The HP/HT simulator is useful for post-drilling evaluation in preparation for planning and drilling similar wells. Available data and rheology models can be combined. The model can be used to interpolate between gaps in the data or can be used to extrapolate the data. If data are available at atmospheric pressure, the model can be calibrated to fit that data.
CONCLUSIONS

Accurate prediction of ECD in HP/HT wells requires accurate knowledge of the pressure and temperature dependence of density, viscosity, and gel strength of the actual mud system as well as accurate knowledge of the temperature profile in the well. For practical well planning, a computer program that integrates reliable HP/HT rheology and density models into an advanced pressure and temperature simulator is desirable. To obtain a reliable temperature profile, it is necessary to simulate many hours of operations before a critical operation. A better understanding of pressure and temperature dependence of both time independent and time dependent rheology will significantly improve the ability to predict the downhole pressure profile in an HP/HT well.

This article is a synopsis of paper SPE 39282, Temperature and Pressure Effects on Drilling-Fluid Rheology and ECD in Very Deep Wells, by R. Rommetveit, SPE, and K.S. Bjrkevoll, SPE, RF-Rogaland Research, scheduled for presentation at the 1997 SPE Middle East Drilling Technology Conference to be held in Bahrain, 2325 November. Please read the full-length paper for detail, illustrations, and references. The paper from which the synopsis has been taken has not been peer reviewed.
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DUAL-DENSITY MUD SYSTEM FOR DEEPWATER DRILLING OPERATIONS

Drilling operations in waters deeper than 3,000 ft are increasing throughout the world, and the industry is considering the challenges imposed by ultradeep waters. Leases have been obtained in water depths up to 10,000 ft, with the requirement that they be drilled within the next decade. Use of current technology to drill these leases will require extremely large floating drilling units and large-diameter marine-riser systems. This paper presents the results of a feasibility study of the use of an automated gas-lift system for a marine riser that will maintain the hydrostatic pressure in the subsea wellhead equal to the hydrostatic pressure of the seawater at the seafloor. Hydrostatic control of abnormal formation pressures could still be maintained by a weighted mud system that is not gas cut below the seafloor. Such a dual-density mud system could reduce drilling costs by reducing the number of casing strings required to drill the well and reducing the diameter requirements of the marine riser and subsea blowout preventers (BOPs). The system would have the advantages of riserless drilling without giving up the well control advantages of a closed, weighted mud system. Current technology relies on the use of marine risers to extend the well up to the drilling vessel so that the mud and tools can enter and exit the well in much the same way as is done on land. However, when drilling with mud densities that exceed seawater densities, the exposed sediments in the open borehole experience a pressure imposed by the full column of drilling fluid extending all the way up to the drilling vessel. This pressure can cause formation fracture. The overburden pressure is a result of the hydrostatic pressure of the seawater above the mudline and the sediments below the mudline. This causes the fracture gradient, when expressed as an equivalent mud density, to be much lower than for an equivalent casing depth in an onshore well. The reduction in fracture gradients is more significant in deeper waters and imposes a limit to deepwater drilling operations. More casing-string diameters are required to reach a given depth in a formation-porepressure environment. One way of overcoming this problem is to start the well at
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the mudline, with the pressure inside no greater than the pressure outside the wellhead. Another way is to inject gas into the riser at the BOP level to lower annular density in the riser to seawater values. This solution method is called the dual density riser system (DDRS) because weighted mud is still pumped through the drillpipe. The system dynamics are closely related to those of gas-lift operations, and a similar set

of valves is used to assist in unloading and aerating the riser annulus.

RESEARCH

The concept of a DDRS is being investigated by use of a computer simulator developed to analyze gas rates, pressure and velocity profiles, and unloading times required for offshore operations. Experiments were conducted in a 6,000-ft test

Fig. 1Test well.

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well (Fig. 1) to validate the simulator. Nitrogen was injected from a cryogenic tank into a 11/4-in. pipe inside 31/2-in. tubing. Drilling mud was pumped into the annulus between these tubulars and mixed with the nitrogen at the bottom. The mixture returned through a 95/8-in. casing annulus. Data were collected by sensors inside an auxiliary 23/8-in. perforated tubing, also inside the casing. The sensors were monitored with a conventional logging unit.
OPERATIONS WITH A DDRS

such as 3,000 ft of 133/8-in. casing, the mud volume would be approximately 3,000 ft3, which translates into a 1,785-ft height of heavy mud inside the riser annulus after the run is completed. To avoid injecting nitrogen while running the casing, special float valves could be used. These valves should allow the casing to be open while being lowered, and, after its setting point is reached, a release mechanism should release flappers in the float valves. Similar float valves have been used in the past in deepwater drilling operations. Kick Detection. Early kick detection is a challenge in a DDRS. Any technique developed for early kick detection probably depends on sensors installed at the BOP below the gas-injection point. For conventional kick detection based on pit-volume increase, the mud volume in the riser needs to be totalized with the active pit volume. This can be based on a measurement of hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the riser. For example, for a 171/8-in. riser ID with a mud weight of 15.6 lbm/gal, a 10-bbl increase in the riser mud volume would cause a 30-psi increase in the hydrostatic pressure at the BOP level. In addition, if an influx of 1.5 bbl/min occurs, there would be an increase of approximately 5 psi in the first minute at the bottom of the riser. A microprocessor could be assigned to monitor these small changes and provide early warning. The literature describes three other systems that could be used. One operates by use of the negative pressure pulse generated by a measurement-while-drilling (MWD) tool as a source signal. This signal travels up the annulus and can be monitored by a sensor at the BOP level. Another method is based on the use of a sonic interferometer installed in an MWD tool. Acoustic waves are generated between two parallel walls, and the system is in resonance at certain frequencies. Different fluids resonate at different frequencies, and the resonance is not disturbed by fluid flow. By varying the wave frequencies sent between the walls and monitoring the signal through a spectrum analyzer, the resonance peaks are detected. If gas flows through the two walls, the resonance disappears because the medium has changed. These two techniques require that a tool be in the hole and will not send any information unless fluid is moving. One way to monitor the well while tripping or with the pumps off is to use a wellhead sonar. Acoustic waves are generated at the BOP level and directed down the well,

while an acoustic sensor installed in the BOP picks up the sonic reflections. If any gas is present in the mud, it will generate a reflection because of the difference in acoustic impedance between the mud and the gas/mud mixture. Kick Circulation. Kick occurrence is always possible while drilling any well. Once the invading fluids are inside the wellbore, the problem is how to remove them and return to normal drilling operations. Research is under way to develop a technique for the circulation of a kick. Well-control procedures are more complex with the DDRS because the mud-column hydrostatic pressure inside the drillstring is greater than that in the annulus; therefore, the well cannot be shut in without greatly increasing the pressure at the casing seat. When the openhole interval is small, bullheading procedures may be the best alternative. Well-control techniques currently used in underbalanced drilling, in which circulation is maintained after taking a kick, also look promising. The BHP can be increased by reducing the rate of gas injection into the bottom of the marine riser.
CONCLUSIONS

The riser should be filled with seawater before drilling operations with gas injection begins. If it were filled with high-density mud before gas injection begins, the casing would not support the added hydrostatic pressure. Pipe Connections. If gas injection is stopped when circulation is stopped to make a pipe connection, gas migration will cause an increase in the riser bottom pressure because of the gravitational separation of gas and mud. Before gas injection resumes, the gas can rise 900 ft in 15 minutes because the gas-rise velocity is approximately 1 ft/sec. There will be a 900-ft column of dense liquid above the injection point that must be unloaded, creating pressure spikes at the riser bottom. The solution to this problem is continuation of gas injection but at a much lower rate while making pipe connections. Pipe Trips. The DDRS should be deactivated when the drillstring is pulled. Seawater should be injected in the riser annulus to maintain the same bottomhole pressure (BHP) and displace the mud/gas mixture. This allows the string to be pulled with the annulus open, avoiding wear on the rotating head at the surface. Displacing the mud in the riser annulus with seawater is not uncommon; however, it takes some time to complete. A typical riser size for a deepwater rig is 171/8-in. inner diameter (ID). For a 5,000-ft water depth, the riser volume is 1,420 bbl. In a rig with the DDRS, a higher pump output and smaller-diameter risers should be considered. Running Casing. Because running casing is a fairly time-consuming operation that does not normally require circulation, the fluid in the riser annulus should be switched over to seawater. As the casing is lowered into the well, a significant mud volume is displaced into the riser annulus. In the case of a large-diameter pipe,
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The feasibility of using a dual-density mud system has been investigated. The advantages of this system include the following. Lower BHP and thus smaller fluid invasion and higher penetration rates. Greater safety in the event of emergency riser disconnections. Less top-riser tension requirements, extending operations to deeper water. Economically feasible according to preliminary cost estimates. The development of this system still requires research on the Kick-detection methods. Kick-circulation techniques. Gas-injection automatic controllers. Unloading-operations dynamics. This article is a synopsis of paper SPE 39155, Feasibility Study of a DualDensity Mud System for Deepwater Drilling Operations, by C.A. Lopes, SPE, Petrobras, and A.T. Bourgoyne Jr., SPE, Louisiana State U., originally presented at the 1997 Offshore Technology Conference held in Houston, 58 May. Please read the full-length paper for additional detail, illustrations, and references. The paper from which the synopsis has been taken has not been peer reviewed. Copyright 1997, Offshore Technology Conference.
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CONTROL OF MICROBIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY IN BIOPOLYMER-BASED DRILLING MUDS

Communication between surface and subsurface oilfield environments is initiated through the drilling process, which requires circulation of drilling mud from the surface to the drill bit to carry cuttings out of the borehole. Through this process, microbiological activities can be initiated in both surface and subsurface environments that would have been unlikely had exchange between the two environments not occurred. Downhole microbiological activities can cause the following problems: microbiological corrosion of well tubulars and screens; biomass plugging in injection wells and in the formation; and H2S production deep in the formation, leading to microbial reservoir souring.
DRILLING FLUIDS

Because the exchange of nutrients and microorganisms between the surface and subsurface environments is initiated by the drilling process, this activity is a point where microbiological damage to the well can be controlled. Drilling-fluid formulations typically include additives that are readily biodegradable. Biodegradation of drillingmud additives results in significant microbial growth in the mud that is circulated through the depth of the well. Even with limited fluid loss during drilling, microbes would be injected into the near-wellbore area. Precompletion well cleanups are relatively ineffective in removing these microorganisms from the well. During shut-in periods, microbiological activity continues, supported by soluble carbon-based nutrients from the drilling mud. Under oxygendepleted conditions, the activity of anaerobic sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) increases and has potentially damaging results. Microbiological activity in drilling muds can be influenced by a number of features of the drilling environment. The warm temperatures and rich nutrient conditions in a mud tank have the undesirable effect of encouraging microbial growth and activity in the mud. The high-suspended solids content of muds also is conducive to microbial activity because many microorganisms exhibit increased metabolic activity when exposed to a suitable inert surface.
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The high salinity of drilling muds tends to limit the activity of many surface environment microorganisms. High-salinity brines occur naturally in many subsurface oilfield environments, and microorganisms adapted to the osmotic stress caused by these brines are not uncommon. The high pH of a drilling mud also has a limiting effect on microbial activity. Biocides either formulated in drilling-mud additives or added to the whole muds are the most direct and optimum means of microbiological control. Currently used biocides include aldehydes, isothiazolones, and quaternary phosphonium salts. They are selected on the basis of their compatibility with other components of the mud; effectiveness against SRB, general aerobic bacteria (GAB), and anaerobic bacteria; stability under downhole conditions; and resistance to adsorption and inactivation by the high suspended-solids content of the mud.
MICROBIOLOGIC AL ACTIVITY

Production from one of Saudi Aramcos important sandstone reservoirs is supported by aquifer-water injection. The first well in the field was drilled with mud prepared with water from a shallow agricultural well in the region. A note in the well file indicates that, during a flow test immediately after drilling, the well exhibited signs of extensive SRB activity. A second flow test of the well conducted 1 year later revealed a greatly reduced flow capacity. Water from this SRB-contaminated well was used to drill other water-supply wells, and water from those wells was used to drill water-supply and -injection, and oil-producing wells across the field. Monitoring produced evidence that all these wells are now contaminated with SRB and other anaerobic bacteria. Well damage caused by these microbial populations has already required a number of costly acid stimulations to maintain adequate water-supply and -injection rates. Development of an optimized approach to control microbiological activity in drilling muds was considered essential.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM

ed from the water-supply wells was conducted in a typical water-based KCl/ lime/polymer mud. The biocide historically used by Saudi Aramco drilling operations is a 25% aqueous glutaraldehyde solution. During most of the field drilling, biocide was not used unless evidence of bacterial fermentation of the biopolymer was noted. With increasing field evidence of bacterial contamination in water sources and muds, biocide treatment of all muds was recommended. An initial treatment concentration of 2,000 ppm was used, with treatment up to 20,000 ppm considered acceptable for severe contamination. The recommended pH for field drilling muds is 11. In addition to minimizing oxygen-related corrosion, it has been presumed that microbial activity would be minimized by the alkaline conditions in the mud. Maintaining mud pH at 11 requires careful monitoring and lime addition on the rig. The high KCl concentrations used in drilling muds to inhibit clay hydration have also been considered inhibitory to microbial activity. Maintenance of the high KCl brine strength requires monitoring and adjustment. Field muds are often found to contain significantly lower KCl brine strengths than the original mud. A basic KCl/lime/xanthan gum-polymer mud was prepared in the laboratory. Four mud pHs were investigated: 8, 9, 10, and 11. Biocide (25% glutaraldehyde) was added to each mud system at concentrations from 0 to 20,000 ppm. The muds were inoculated with water-supply-well GAB and SRB cultures, yielding initial bacterial populations in the muds of 104 GAB/mL and 102 SRB/mL. Muds were sampled for population densities immediately before biocide treatments. The muds were sampled after 1, 7, and 14 days and analyzed for surviving GAB and SRB populations, residual biocide, and pH.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Sampling 24 hours after biocide addition and again after 7 and 14 days showed no
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NOVEMBER 1997

Initial assessment of the effects of biocide and pH on survival of GAB and SRB isolat-

CONTROL OF . . .
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viable GAB or SRB in any muds, including the untreated controls. Residual biocide was measured in all mud samples. The presence of preserved starch in the mud formulation resulted in a background aldehyde treatment equivalent to 460 ppm. Toxicity of this starch preservative in the control muds was detectable after 24 hours and, like the biocide-treated muds, decreased with increasing pH. The four control muds were reinoculated with an active field-mud GAB culture. After 24 hours the control muds were examined. The pH 8 and 9 muds contained no active bacteria, suggesting the continued presence of an effective biocide residual. The pH 10 and 11 muds contained high numbers of actively motile bacteria, demonstrating that the aldehyde from the preserved starch in the mud is inactivated by alkaline pHs. Mud pHs were somewhat erratic but generally approached a pH slightly above 9. The results indicate high initial toxicity of control and treated muds. The level of biocide in the control mud is sufficient to eliminate a moderate challenge from added
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GAB and SRB. However, the chemical characteristics of the mud result in a significant demand for biocide added to the mud, with losses of greater than 90% within the first 24 hours. The field mud had a GAB population of approximately 109/mL. Viable GABs were significantly reduced after 24 hours in the mud with an adjusted pH of 10. Raising the pH to 11 and 12 reduces the viable GAB population to approximately 102/mL. After 48 hours in the pH 10 mud and 72 hours in the pH 11 mud, the GAB populations increased. Even muds at pH 11 will allow growth of GAB after a short delay. Increasing KCl brine strength appears to stimulate early GAB growth. This was less pronounced in 48-and 72-hour samplings. Variations in KCl brine strength from 30 to 50 lbm/bbl are readily tolerated by these mud microorganisms. No viable GABs were detected in the pH 9 field mud after 24-hour exposure to 2,000 ppm biocide. Experiments demonstrated that a biocide concentration of at least 1,750 ppm is required to eliminate all GAB from the mud within the 24-hour exposure period.

CONCLUSIONS

1. Aldehyde biocides display reduced stability with increasing mud pH. Aldehyde biocides added to pH 9 mud will remain active longer than the same biocide concentration added to a pH 11 mud. 2. A mud pH of 10 produces a measurable, but limited, toxic effect on contaminant GAB. Muds with a pH of 11 to 12 effectively stop all microbial activity. 3. The aldehyde formulated into the muds preserved starch is sufficient to control a moderate GAB/SRB contamination initially under laboratory conditions. This article is a synopsis of paper SPE 39285, Control of Microbiological Activity in Biopolymer-Based Drilling Muds, by A.M. Ezzat, SPE, H.R. Rosser, and A.A. Al-Humam, Saudi Aramco, scheduled for presentation at the 1997 SPE Middle East Drilling Technology Conference to be held in Bahrain, 2325 November. Please read the full-length paper for additional details, illustrations, and references. The paper from which the synopsis has been taken has not been peer reviewed.
NOVEMBER 1997