Sundarban

The mangrove forest

Overview
The Bangla word ban means forest, and the name Sundarban was coined either from the forests of Sundari tree ieSundari-ban, or from the forests of the samudra (sea) ie, Samudra-ban, or from its association with the primitive tribe Chandra-bandhe which was corrupted into Sundarban. The generally accepted explanation, however, is its derivation from the SUNDARI tree, the most common tree in these forests. In the south western part of Bangladesh, in the district of greater Khulna, lies the Sundarbans, "the beautiful forest." It is a virgin forest which until recently owed nothing to human endeavor and yet nature has laid it out with as much care as a planned pleasure ground. For miles and miles, the lofty treetops form an unbroken canopy, while nearer the ground, works of high and ebb-tide marked on the soil and tree trunks and the many varieties of the natural mangrove forest have much to offer to an inquisitive visitor. Here land and water meet in many novel fashions. Wild life presents many a spectacle. No wonder, you may come across a Royal Bengal Tiger swimming across the streams or the crocodiles basking on the river banks. With the approach of the evening herds of deer make for the darkinggladeswhere boisterous monkeys shower Korea leaves from above for sumptuous meal for the former. For the botanist, the lover of nature, the poet and the painter this land provides a variety of wonders for which they all crave. The Sundarbans is a cluster of islands with an approximate area of 3600 sq. km. forming the largest block of littoral forests. Its beauty lies in its unique natural surroundings. Thousands of meandering streams, creeks, rivers and estuaries have enhanced its charm. Sundarbans meaning beautiful forest is the natural habitat of the world famous Royal Bengal Tiger, spotted deer, crocodiles, jungle fowl, wild boar, lizards, rhesus monkey and an innumerable variety of beautiful birds. Migratory flock of Siberian ducks flying over thousands of sail boats loaded with timber, gopatta (round-leaf), fuel wood, honey, shell and fish further add to the serene natural beauty of the Sundarbans.

This is indeed a land for the sportsmen. The anglers and the photographer, with its abundance of game, big and small, crocodile,Wild bar, deer, pythons, wild birds and above all the Royal Bengal tiger, cunning, ruthless and yet majestic and graceful. For the less adventurously inclined, there are ducks and snipes, heron and coots, Yellow-lags and sandpipers. It is also the land for t e ordinary holiday makers who desire to rest or wander around at will to refresh their mind and feast their eyes with the rich treasure that nature has so fondly bestowed.

Location and size

Sundarbans,the largest single block of tidal halophytic mangrove forest in the world, located in the southern part of Bangladesh. It lies on the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta at the point where it merges with the BAY OF BENGAL. The forest lies a little south to the Tropic of Cancer between the latitudes 2130N and 2230N, and longitudes 8900E and 8955E. With its array of trees and WILDLIFE the forest is a showpiece of natural history. It is also a centre of economic activities, such as extraction of timber, fishing and collection of HONEY. The forest consists of about 200 islands, separated by about 400 interconnected tidal rivers, creeks and canals. The Sundarbans was originally measured (about 200 years ago) to be of about 16,700 sq km. Now it has dwindled to about 1/3 of the original size. Because of the partition of India, Bangladesh received about 2/3 of the forest; the rest is on the Indian side. It is now estimated to be about 4,110 sq km, of which about 1,700 sq km is occupied by waterbodies. The forest lies under two forest divisions, and four administrative ranges vizChandpai, Sarankhola, Khulna and Burigoalini and has 16 forest stations. It is further divided into 55 compartments and 9 blocks. The Sundarbans was declared as a Reserve Forest in 1875. About 32,400 hectares of the Sundarbans have been declared as three wildlife sanctuaries, and came under the UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1999. These wildlife sanctuaries were established in 1977 under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974. These

are Sundarbans West (9,069 ha), Sundarbans South (17,878 ha), and Sundarbans East (5,439 ha). The land is moulded by tidal action, resulting in a distinctive physiography. An intricate network of interconnecting waterways, of which the larger channels of often a mile or more in width run in a generally north-south direction, intersects the whole area. Innumerable small khals drain the land at each ebb. Rivers tend to be long and straight, a consequence of the strong tidal forces and the clay and silt deposits which resist erosion. Easily eroded sands collect at the river mouths and form banks and chars, which are blown into dunes above the high-water mark by the strong south-west monsoon.Finer silts are washed out into the Bay of Bengal but, where they are protected from wave action, mud flats form in the lee of the dunes.These become overlain with sand from the dunes, and develop into grassy middens.This process of island building continues for as long as the area on the windward side is exposed to wave action. With the formation of the next island further out, silt begins to accumulate along the shore of the island and sand is blown or washed away (Seidensticker and Hai, 1983). Apart from Baleswar River the waterways carry little freshwater as they are cut off from the Ganges, the outflow of which has shifted from the Hooghly-Bhagirathi channels in India progressively eastwards since the 17th century. They are kept open largely by the diurnal tidal flow (Seidensticker and Hai, 1983). Alluvial deposits are geologically very recent and deep. The soil is a silty clay loam with alternate layers of clay, silt and sand. The surface is clay except on the seaward side of islands in the coastal limits, where sandy beaches occur. In the eastern part of the Sundarbans the surface soil is soft and fertile, whereas it is harder and less suitable for tree growth in the west (Choudhury, 1968). The pH averages 8.0 (Christensen, 1984).

Climate

Since the forest is located on the south of the Tropic of Cancer and bounded by the northern limits of the Bay of Bengal, it is classified as tropical moist forest. The temperatures in the Sundarbans are fairly equable than those of the adjacent land areas. The average annual maximum and minimum temperatures vary between 30 and 21C. High temperatures occur from mid-March to mid-June and low in December and January. The mean maximum temperature for the hottest months has been recorded as 32.4C at Patuakhali, in the east of the Sundarbans. The mean annual relative humidity varies from 70% at Satkhira to 80% at Patuakhali. Humidity is highest in June-October and lowest in February. Annual rainfall in the Sundarbans is in the range of 1640-2000 mm, rainfall increases from west to the east. Most rainfall occurs during the monsoon from May to October. Frequent and heavy showers occur from mid-June to mid-September. Often storm accompanied by tidal waves result widespread inundation and cause damage to vegetation and animal life.

Biodiversity

The Sundarban ecosystem is characterised by a very dynamic environment due to the effect of tide, flooding, salinity and cyclones. As a result several remarkable species are found such as estuarine crocodile (Crocodilusporosus), spotted deer (Axis axis), dolphins (Platanistagangetica, Orcaellabrevirostris, Peponocephalaelectra, Neophocaenaphocaenoides), marine turtles (Carettacaretta, Cheloniamydas, Eretmochelysimbricata, Lepidochelysolivacea and Dermochelyscoriacea) and, the flagship species, the Royal Bengal Tiger (Pantheratigris). The biodiversity is represented by the following taxonomic groups:  over 40 mammal species  over 270 bird species  over 45 reptile species  at least 11 amphibian species  over 120 fish species  an unknown number of invertebrates  more than 330 plant species The Sundarban tiger population is supposed to be the largest surviving tiger population in the world. Estimates of the number of tigers in the Bangladesh Sundarban vary between 300 and 400. The estimates for the deer in this area are 50-80,000, for wild boar 20,000, smooth Indian otter (Lutraperspicillata) 20,000 and rhesus monkey (Macacamulatta) 40,000 to 70,000. The colourful bird life along the waterways includes species such as kingfishers (9 species), raptors (38 species), herons, egrets, storks, sandpipers, whimbrel, curlew, gulls, terns, woodpeckers, barbets, shrikes, drongosa, mynahs, minivets, babblers and many others. Lucky birders may catch a glimpse of masketfinfoot (Heliopaispersonata).

Fauna
According to Hunter's Statistical Account of Sundarban, written in 1878, "Tigers, Leopards, Rhinoceros, Wild Buffaloes, Wild Hogs, Wild Cats, Barasinga, Spotted Deer, Hog Deer, Barking Deer, and Monkeys are the principal varieties of wild animals found in Sundarbans". However, over the last 100 years or so, due to habitat degradation and ecological changes, the faunal compositions in Indian Sundarbans have undergone changes. Some of these animals in Sundarbans became extinct during the last two centuries like Javan Rhino, Wild buffalo, Swamp deer and barking deer.

Present status of faunal resources

Sundarban mangrove forest is the single largest home of the Royal Bengal Tiger (Pantheratigris). Sundarban is also the only mangrove forest in the world having the tiger as its indigenous population. As per 2004 census, the tiger population in Indian Sundarban is around 274, out of which Sundarban Tiger Reserve and South 24-Parganas Forest Division have 249 Tigers and 25 tigers respectively. There are 58 species of mammals, 55 species of reptiles and around 248 bird species.

Sundarbans also harbors a good number of rare and globally threatened animals including Estuarine Crocodile ( Crocodilusporosus), Fishing Cat ( Felisviverrina), Common otter ( Lutralutra), Water Monitor lizard ( Varanussalvator), Gangetic Dolphin ( Platinistagangetica), Snubfin dolphin ( Orcellabrevirostris), River Terrapin (Batagurbaska), marine turtles like Olive Ridley ( Lepidochelysolivacea), Green Sea Turtle ( Cheloniamydas), Hawksbill Turtle (

Eritmochelysimbricata). Six species of Shark and Ray, which are found here, are included in Schedule I of Wildlife (Protection) Act. These indicate that Sundarban Reserved Forest is a natural biodiversity hot spot. Other mammals comprise of Wild boars, spotted deer, Porcupines and Rhesus macaque. Among the reptiles, the King cobra, the common cobra, Banded krait, Russells Viper comprise the community of venomous reptiles, while the Python, ChequeredKil-Back, Dhaman , Green Whip Snake and several other species constitute the non-venomous snakes. Other mammals comprise of Wild boars, spotted deer, Porcupines and Rhesus macaque. Among the reptiles, the King cobra, the common cobra, Banded krait, Russells Viper comprise the community of venomous reptiles, while the Python, ChequeredKil-Back, Dhaman , Green Whip Snake and several other species constitute the non-venomous snakes.

Avifauna:
There are 248 species of birds including a large number of migrants from the higher latitudes that visit the area in winter. It consists of Herons, Egrets, Cormorants, Storks, Green Pigeons, Sand Pipers, Large and Small Spoonbills, Darters, Seagulls, Teal, Partridges, great variety of Wild Geese and Ducks.

Cetaceans:
Cetaceans like Snubfin (Irrawady) and Gangetic Dolphin are frequently found in the estuarine rivers, the former being more abundant. The Black Finless Porpoise ( Necmerisporosus) is also found in the rivers near the estuary. The marshes and river offer asylum to the Estuarine Crocodile, one of the most endangered and the largest of crocodiles. A wide variety and assortments of fish, molluscs, crabs and prawns inhabit the estuaries. The amphibious mud-skipper fish such as Periopthalmus sp. and Boleopthalmus sp. arouse considerable interest. Also found are Whale Shark, Tiger Shark,

Hammer Headed Shark, Saw fish, Guitar fish and some common edible fish e.g., Hilsailisha, Setipinnabreviceps, Setipinnataty, Gudusiachapraetc. Among the crustaceans, commonly found are the One Armed Fiddler Crab ( Ucaspp) and the two species of trilobite ( TachypleusgigusandCarcinoscorpiusrotundicauda) . The latter is also known as the Horse Shoe Crab, which is known as a living fossil and needs serious protection owing to its medicinal value and uncontrolled collection by quack doctors for commercial purpose.

Insects
Insects abound in the forests amongst which the honey bee (Apisdorsata) is a source of considerable income for the poor people living in fringe areas.

Faunal Diversity at a glance

y y y y y y y

Vertebrate Spp = 481 Hemichordate Spp = 1 Invertebrate Spp = 1104 Protozoan species = 106 Mammals = 58 Birds = 248 Reptiles = 55

Eight sub-species of Tiger in the world

Still surviving
y y y y y

Bengal tiger Siberian tiger Indo-Chinese tiger South China tiger Sumatran tiger

Extinct
y y o

Caspian tiger Javan tiger Bali tiger

Flora
According to Champion & Seth classification, the Sundarban forest falls under the sub group 4B tidal swamp forest, with sub-divisions namely, Mangrove type 4B/TS1, 4B/TS2, Salt water type mixed forests 4B/TS3, Brackish type 4B/TS4 and Palm type 4B/E1. In general, the northern boundary and new depositions are characterized by Baen (Avicenniamarina,A. Alba, A. officinalis) flanked by foreshore grassland of Oryzacoarctata(Dhani grass). Baen is gradually replaced by Genwa(Excoecariaagallocha) and then Goran ( Ceriopsspp.). The southern and eastern associates include Garjan(Rhizophoraspp.), Kankra ( Bruguieraspp.), and few patches of Sundari ( Heritierafomes). Hental (Phoenixspp.) forest exists in relatively high land and compact soil.

Dhundul(Xylocarpusgranatum), Passur ( Xylocarpusmekongensis) Nipafruticans(Golpata) palm swamps are extremely limited. True Mangrove species = 26 Mangrove associates = 29 Back mangrove species= 29 Family = 40 Genera = 60 Total Species = 84

and

People and Culture

Approximately 2.5 million people live in small villages surrounding the Sundarbans.The area provides a livelihood at certain seasons of the year for an estimated 300,000 people, working variously as wood-cutters, fishermen, and gatherers of honey, golpatta leaves (Nipafruticans) and grass. Fishermen come in their boats from as far away as Chittagong and establish temporary encampments at various sites along the coast, where they remain until the approach of the monsoon season in April before returning to their homes. Apart from the large numbers of people employed by contractors in the commercial Exploitation of sundri and other tree species, the local people are themselves dependent on the forest and waterways for such necessities as firewood, timber for boats, poles for house-posts and rafters, golpatta leaf for roofing, grass for matting, reeds for fencing and fish for their own consumption. The season for collecting honey

and wax is limited to two and a half months commencing annually on 1 April. Thousands of people, having first obtained their Permits from the Forest Department, enter the forest in search of bee nests which are collected and then crushed to extract the honey and wax.

The Sunderbans are celebrated through numerous Bengali folk songs and dances, often centered around the folk heroes, gods and goddesses specific to the Sunderbans (like Bonbibi and DakshinRai) and to the Lower Gangetic Delta (like Manasa and Chand Sadagar). The Bengali folk epic Manasamangal mentions Netidhopani and has some passages set in the Sunderbans during the heroine Behula's quest to bring her husband Lakhindar back to life. The area provides the setting for several novels by Emilio Salgari, (e.g. The Mystery of the Black Jungle). Padma Nadir Majhi was also made into a movie by GoutamGhose. SundarbaneyArjanSardar, a novel by ShibshankarMitra, and Padma Nadir Majhi, a novel by ManikBandopadhyay, are based on the rigors of

lives of villagers and fishermen in the Sunderbans region, and are woven into the Bengali psyche to an extent. Part of the plot of Salman Rushdie'sBooker Prize winning novel, Midnight's Children is also set in the Sundarbans. Most of the plot of prizewinning anthropologist AmitavGhosh's 2004 novel, The Hungry Tide, is set in the Sundarbans. The Sunderbans has been the subject of numerous non-fiction books, including the The Man-Eating Tigers of Sundarbans by SyMontegomery for a young audience, which was shortlisted for the Dorothy Canfield Fisher Children's Book Award. In Up the Country, Emily Eden discusses her travels through the Sunderbans. Numerous documentary movies have been made about the Sunderbans, including the 2003 IMAX production Shining Bright about the Bengal Tiger. The acclaimed BBC TV series Ganges documents the lives of villagers, especially honey collectors, in the Sundarbans

Eco Tourism

Sundarban is a nature's school for the Eco-tourists. Though Bengal Tiger is the flag ship species of this unique mangrove Forest, it also offers many other wonders of the nature to the visitors. Seeing a Bengal tiger in this 4200 sq. km of dense mangroves, where visitors have only access to water ways has a chance of one in thousands. Thanks to the shyness and cautious attitude of this magnificent animal, it has survived the bullets and trap nets of poachers in this most difficult terrain, over the ages. However, the more curious spotted deer out on the mud flat for grazing during low tide, the lazy estuarine crocodiles basking in the winter sun, the water monitor lizards moving like the fabled dragons and the avifauna like kingfisher, adjutant stork or white-bellied eagles are common sights for the nature lovers. The nature's magic of high tide-low tide, the Mangrove species like Rhizophores having stilt roots, or Pneumatophores having breathing roots, or Phoenix (Golpata) providing perfect camouflage for the tigers, teach the tourists about Nature's determination to survive and sustain. The pre-historic Mud-skipper or many species of crabs, fish and oysters/mollusks can make the visitors enthralled. And a nature's trail at Burirdabri camp, glorious Sunrise at Kalash, or enchanting Sunset in the Sundarban Tiger Reserve can be a "Joy forever".

Eco-tourism destinations and access

The entry point to Sunderban Tiger Reserve is either Sonakhali via Canning, or Bagna via Dhamakhali. For visiting South 24 Parganas Forest Division, on the western part of river Matla, the entry points are Namkhana, Raidighi or Jharkhali via Canning/Basanti.. Entry Permits are available at Canning, Sonakhali and Bagna for STR and at Canning, Namkhana and Raidighi for Western part of SunderbanForest . The Eco-tourism Centres are located at Sajnekhali, Dobanki, Netidhopani and BurirDabri in STR, and at Boniecamp(Sundarikati), Bhagabatpore Crocodile Project, Lothian Island sanctuary and Kalash beach. There are two Nature Interpretation Centres located at Sajnekhali and Bhagabatpore, and one Eco museum at Sudarikati. The Canopy walk at Dobanki, the mangrove trail at Burirdabri and the tallest Watch Tower at Bonie camp are added attractions for the Ecotourists. And there is Sundarban Biosphere Resource Information Centre (SBRIC) located in AranyaBhawan, Salt Lake at Kolkata which all the visitors must visit before visiting Sundarban.

Lodging

Few tourists visit the Sundarbans due to the difficulty and cost of arranging transport and to the lack of suitable accommodation and other facilities. The area has no potential for mass tourism but it does offer obvious possibilities for limited special-interest tourism from October to April or May. The use of launches equipped with catering and sleeping

facilities is considered more practicable than permanent land-based facilities and would provide greater flexibility. There is, however, a large well-equipped rest house belonging to the Port Authority at Hiron Point, Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary, and a smaller one belonging to the Forest Department at Katka in Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary. Besides these visitors can stay in Khulna and Bagerhat .

Activities

y y y y y y y y y

Exploring narrow creeks by silent country boat and observing wildlife up close Walking on the beautiful, unspoiled sandy beaches along the Bay of Bengal Trekking through the mangrove forest Bird-watching Participation in ongoing Research activities Presentations offered by Nature Guides Evening Film show Mud-baths and refreshing swims Whale and Dolphin Watching

Some of these are given below;

Bay of Bengal Exploration:

Join our special trip to the Swatch of No-Ground, a deep underwater canyon in the Bay of Bengal. Aboard a sea-going fishing trawler we travel to the edge of the Swatch, where an amazing color-change indicates the drop-off. Here marine mammals congregate, as the food supply is plentiful. So far six dolphin and two whale species have been recorded in the coastal and off-shore waters of Bangladesh. Our current research

focuses on systematically recording all cetacean sightings and related data as well as establishing a photo-data base for bottlenose dolphins. It is possible to combine this expedition with our regular Sundarban tours.

Honey Collection (April June)

After watching the official opening ceremony of the annual Honey collection season in Burigoalini, we follow a group of Honey collectors to the western part of the forest and join their search for precious honey a livelihood that has survived through the centuries. This is a physically demanding tour, but unique and unforgettable A true adventure in the Land of the Tiger.

BonbibiMela (January)
People entering the Sundarban Forest to extract forest resources, including fishermen, wood-cutters and honey collectors, pray for a safe return to Bonbibi, the local forest deity. Along the forest edge permanent shrines are built in her honor. The clay figurines are replaced and colorfully decorated once a year; a unique festive occasion with music, theaters and fairs

Dubla Rash PurnimaMela

(Dependent on Lunar Calendar, normally beginning of November) Dubla Island, situated at the mouth of the Holy River Ganges, is inhabited by fishermen during the winter months. They are joined by thousands of Hindu pilgrims for the annual

Rash Mela, the festival of the Rash full moon. After joyous celebrations and fair activities the night before, the devotees congregate in long lines at the water s edge in the early morning hours, holding their offerings and awaiting their blessing. This tour is a special treat for photographers and travelers interested in local traditions and festivals.

Bird-watching Tours
Bangladesh is situated on the cross-path of two major migratory flyways. The coastal areas, including Sundarban Forest, are important breeding, resting and feeding places for a large variety of resident and migratory birds. We spend a major part of the day in the comfortable, silent country boat exploring small creeks and channels. With your observations you can help map nesting sites and update the avifauna species list for Sundarban.

Fishing with Trained Otters

This unique traditional fishing technique is only found in Bangladesh. Fishermen from the Narail/Gopalganj area breed and train their otters to increase the catch. Although they mainly work in the rivers north of the forest, they also enter the Sundarban forest. This tour will start in their home villages and follow the fishermen to Sundarban.

Besides these, visitors can enjoy different types of adventurous and fascinating activities.

Economic Value

Themost important value of the Sundarbans lies in its protective role. It helps hold coastlines, reclaim coastal lands, and settle the silt carried by the rivers. The estuary is a good breeding centre for many fishes. Several plant-based industries have been developed here. The most important ones are the newsprint and hardboard mills in Khulna. The raw material for the former is gewa and for the latter sundari. Other important plant-based industries are match factories and boat building. The forest is a good source of fuel, tannins, thatching, wooden articles, medicinal plants, and fodder. The forest is also a major source of honey and bee wax. Aegicerascorniculatum, Ceriopsdecandra, Nipa species, Derris species, and Hibiscus tiliaceous are the major honey plants.

Most frequently visited sites in the Sundarbans include Katka, Hiron Point (known commonly as Nilkamal), Dublar Char and Tiger Point (Kachi Khali). Katka attracts tourists for its landscape and wildlife. There is a forest rest house here and an observation tower. Hiron Point also has a rest house and an observation tower. Dublar Char is an island with a beautiful beach. The other attraction of the island is the fishing activities that take place every year between mid-October and mid-February. Fishermen from other places of the country, especially from Chittagong,

assemble here during the period to catch fish and dry them on the sunny beach. The honey collectors go into the forests during April-May. Only a few people live permanently in or around the Sundarbans. They include the bawalis(collectors of golpata), mouals(honey collectors) and woodcutters. Their dwellings are usually at the edge of the forest and the houses are built on platforms supported on 3-5 m high poles of wood or BAMBOO. Some people, especially the bedyas (gypsy) live on boats.

Conservation Management

Three field stations have been established within Sundarbans West. There are no recognized local rights within the reserved forest, entry and collection of forest produce being subject to permits issued by the Forest Department. The Department may issue hunting licenses under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974, but in practice none is issued and the whole Sundarbans is thus effectively closed to legal hunting. Under the provision of this Act, various activities are prohibited within the wildlife sanctuaries, including inter alia residence, cultivation of land, damage to vegetation, hunting, introduction of domestic animals and setting of fires. Any of these prohibitions may be relaxed, however, for scientific purposes, aesthetic enjoyment or "improvement" of scenery. The Sundarbans is the only sizeable mangrove forest in the world managed for commercial timber production and it has been under some sort of management since 1879. Early management consisted on revenue collection by enforcing simple felling rules. Subsequently, the progressive enforcement of felling rules reduced the amount of over-cutting of the four species for which felling rules were established. Bangladesh part of Sundarbans is managed as a continuous block of mangrove forest with no permanent human habitation inside.

The Sundarbans has been the subject of a series of successively more comprehensive working plans since its declaration as reserved forest, the most recent of which points out the importance of the tiger in controlling the spotted deer population, and also mentions the intention of establishing compartments 3-7 as a 'game sanctuary', a total area of some 52,320ha. A plan relating specifically to wildlife conservation was prepared under the joint sponsorship of the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and the National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution. Emphasis is directed towards managing the tiger, together with all wildlife, as an integral part of forest management that assures the sustainable harvesting of forest products and maintains this coastal zone in a way that meets the needs of the local human population. The Sundarbans Forest Development Planning Mission, carried out by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in conjunction with the Bangladesh Forest Department in February-May 1984, collected all available data related to the use and management of forest products, wildlife and fisheries, assessed development potential and prepared proposals for further integrated development and conservation of the natural resources of the area. More recently, Blower reviewed wildlife conservation in the Sundarbans Reserved Forest as part of the Sundarbans Forest Inventory Project, carried out by the Bangladesh Forest Department and the Land Resources Development Centre of the UK Overseas Development Administration. The main purpose of the project is to provide the necessary data on which to base future exploitation of the forest for sustainable use of timber, fuel wood and other forest produce, with due consideration to wildlife conservation and the social amenity value of the area. It has been recommended that the Sundarbans be managed as a single unit with full protection afforded to both wildlife and habitat in the wildlife sanctuaries, and with forest resources exploited at sustainable levels but wildlife protected elsewhere in the reserved forest. The establishment of intermediate buffer zones, in which disturbance is kept to a minimum through restriction of access, is recommended in areas peripheral to sanctuary boundaries. A new management plan is due to be prepared, based on data collected in 1995, and is expected to include detailed prescriptions concerning the conservation and management of the sanctuaries.

Management Constraints

A long-term ecological change is taking place in the Sundarbans, due to the eastward migration of the Ganges, abandonment of some distributaries, diversion of water and withdrawals for irrigation. (Up to 40% of the dry season flow of the Ganges has been diverted upstream, following the completion of the Farraka Barrage in India in 1974.)Decreased freshwater flushing of the Sundarbans results in increased saline intrusion, particularly in the dry season. Concern has been expressed about recent indications of apparent deterioration in the flora, including localized die-back of sundri, commercially the most valuable of tree species. Top-dying of sundri is most likely associated with the decrease in freshwater flow, either as a direct effect of increasing salinity or other associated edaphic changes. A gradual replacement of Heartier with Excoecaria, therefore, is a likely long-term effect. While deterioration in the vegetation is already well-documented and is the subject of continuing study, no attention has yet been given to the possible effects which these changes might have on the fauna. It is perhaps significant, however, that the stocking of spotted deer appears lower in western areas, where salinity is highest, than in the east where it is lowest. Oil spills are another potential threat and could cause immense damage, especially to aquatic fauna and seabirds and probably also to the forest itself. There have been several spillages from tanks passing nearby. The most recent incidence due to ship wreckage occurred in August 1994 when a Panamanian cargo ship capsized near Dangmari Forest Station. Oil from the fuel tank spread about 15km downstream from the ship and affected a considerable part of the Sundarbans mangrove area. It was found to cause instant mortality of seedlings of Heritiera and Excoecaria while patches of grass which were covered by oil also died. Mortality of fishes, shrimps and other aquatic animals from the Sundarbans has been reported to do the incidence. Cyclones and tidal waves cause some damage to the forest along the sea-face, and are reported to result occasionally in considerable mortality among spotted deer. The most immediate threat is over-exploitation, both of timber resources, which may have already taken place, and also of the fauna. Agricultural encroachment has already occurred to a limited extent on the eastern and western boundaries and, with increasing population pressure in surrounding settled areas, could reach serious proportions unless

checked. Fishermen's camps are a major source of disturbance. There is extensive illegal hunting and trapping, not only by fishermen and woodcutters but also reportedly by naval and military personnel from Hiron Point in Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary. A total of 118 offenses were recorded and over 3,300m of deer nets removed between 1981/82 and 1986/87, but this poaching is now rare. The capture of adult marine turtles and Batagur in fishing nets and their subsequent killing and marketing for food is a potentially serious problem. Smugglers moving to and from India with contraband goods also use the area. The Sundarbans has been notorious for its man-eating tigers since the 17th century. Numbers of reported deaths has varied from 0 to 47 (mean = 22.1) per annum during the period 1947-1983. In 1988, 65 deaths were reported during a four-month period. Noting that tigers that hunt man like any other prey occurred only in the south and west, Hendricks hypothesized on a possible linkage between high salinity levels, due to the absence of freshwater, and man-killing. This is not substantiated by more recent analyses, which suggest that man-killing may be at least partly correlated with the availability of easy prey (humans) and the frequency of man-tiger interactions.

Management challenges
y Difficult terrain and poor Infrastructure. y Porous international border. y Extremely poor fringe Population. y Man animal conflict. y Rampant collection of tiger Prawn seedlings. y Water pollution. y Global warming. y Soil erosion. y Exponential increase in number of mechanized boats y Large number of vacancies in frontline staff.

Poor infrastructure
y y y y y Lack of roads. Acute scarcity of potable water. No electricity. Absence of fast moving boats. Inadequate number of land based camps.

Porous International Border

y y y y y y y A common boundary of approx. 20 km with Bangladesh. Rivers Raimongal and Harinbhanga form boundary with. Bangladesh. Large unmanned stretches of border area. High population density with low socio economic status. Illegal fishing, honey, timber collection and poaching. Illegal trafficking of domestic cattle.

Extremely poor fringe population

y y y y y y Agriculture is the mainstay of the majority of the population. Most of the land holdings fall in small and marginal category. Low productivity of land and absence of water for irrigation. Absence of industries or alternate forms of employment. Landless population work as fishermen, crab and honey collectors. Dependent on forests for firewood, fish, honey etc.

Man animal conflict

y y y y y Close proximity to the forest. Silting up of river channels serving as boundary between village and forest. Mostly conflict arise due to entry of tiger into the. Village area and killing of cattle or occasionally human being. Rescue of the animal extremely difficult in the face of mob fury.

Rampant collection of tiger prawn seedlings

y y y y y Large number of landless and unemployed people engaged in this act House wives form a significant numbers of these collectors Loss of biodiversity Casualties among people Occurrence of diseases

Pollution
y y y y y Water pollution from large number of vessels plying in the rivers and channels. Release of sewage and chemical effluents upstream Dumping of wastes especially plastic near river bank Mushrooming of numerous tourist lodges Increase in the number of mechanized vessels

Global warming
y Though no concrete studies carried out to this effect y Potential danger in the long run

These are the main problem. To make the Sundarban more attractive and friendly for tourist, authority must overcome these problems. Thus some recommendation are given below

Recommendation

The recommendations are categorized in different section. These are; y y y y y y y y y Protection Eco development initiatives Nylon net fencing Regulating ecotourism Monitoring regular basis Radio collaring Plantations Raising awareness

These are given in details below

Protection y Establishment of new land based camps y Special patrolling during sensitive periods y Local youth involved in patrolling y Floating camps and check posts y Protection Monitoring Protocol y Development of intelligence network

Raising awareness y y y y y y y y Creation awareness by conducting tours of Forest Protection Committee s/Eco-development Committee members and local school children Celebration of AranyaSaptah, Wildlife week and World Environment Day Hoardings Trained tourist guides Holding meeting with stakeholders from time to time

Monitoring
y y y y y y y y y Tiger monitoring done on a regular basis Last ten days of the month exclusively devoted to tiger Monitoring by field staff Regular monthly review meetings with emphasis on protection Wildlife registers in all camps Regular monitoring along the beach areas to know the status of olive rudely nesting Bird surveys

Regulating ecotourism
y y y y y y y y y Tourist visit has been rising exponentially Last year one lakh people visited Sundarban Tiger Reserve Uncontrolled tourism leading to overcrowding, littering and an overall poor visitor satisfaction Meeting with all stakeholders to work out contentious issues like garbage disposal ,pollution, and regulating number of tourists, revising fee structure Providing trained tourist guides to visitors

This recommendation should be followed tom make the sundarban more attractive and friendly to the visitors.