IMU Future Issues

BNA - 051 SHIP MANOEUVRING AND FUTURE ISSUES
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FUTURE ISSUES
UNIT 7 Ballast Water and Sediment Management UNIT 8 Marpol Annexure IV UNIT 9 Marpol Annexure VI - Part - A: Prevention of Air Pollution UNIT 10 Marpol Annexure VI - Part - B: Regulation for the Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships UNIT 11 Fuel Conservation UNIT 12 Double Hulls UNIT 13 Places of Refuge UNIT 14 Green Passport 125 117 107 89 69 45 5 25
FUTURE ISSUES
This block has 8 units. Unit 14 "Green Passport" explains about the issues related to ship dismantling and recycling as per IMO guidelines. Unit 13 "Place of Refuge" deals with the guidelines on providing place of refuse to a ship in need of refuge. These include actions that need to be taken by masters of ship and expected actions of coastal states in providing place of refuge. Unit-12 "Double Hull" deals with regulations related to double hull protection of oil tanks on all ships as per IMO guidelines. In unit six incidents of bunker oil spills are described. Unit 11 "Fuel Conservation" presents an overview of worldwide energy recourses and explains various forms of non-conventional energy resources. The factors that affect on board ships fuel consumption and seeps towards fuel conservation are briefly presented in this unit. Unit 9 and Unit 10 lists the provisions given in Marpol Annexure-Vl dealing with the prevention and control of air pollution from ships. Unit 8 enumerates the provisions prescribed in Marpol Annexure-IV that provides regulations for the prevention of pollution by sewage from ships Unit 7 "Ballast Water and Sediment Management deals with the recording and reporting Managemen for ballast water management for ships and port states and various actions that need to be taken under different circumstances. Guidelines on safety aspects of ballast water exchange at sea are briefly listed.
UNIT 7 BALLAST WATER AND SEDIMENT MANAGEMENT

Structure
7.1 Introduction
Objective
7.2 Definitions 7.3 Application 7.4 Guideline Objectives and Background 7.5 Dissemination of Information 7.6 Training and Education 7.7 Procedures for Ships and Port States 7.8 Recording and Reporting Procedures 7.9 Ships' Operational Procedures 7.10 Port State Considerations 7.11 Enforcement and Monitoring by Port States 7.12 Future Considerations in Relation to Ballast Water Exchange 7.13 Ballast System Design 7.14 Ballast Water Report Form (Appendix 1) 7.15 Guidance on Safety Aspects of Ballast Water Exchange at Sea (Appendix H) 7.16 Impacts of Some of the Worst Invasive Aquatic Species 7.17 Summary
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Studies carried out in several countries have shown that many species of bacteria, plants, and animals can survive in a viable form in the ballast water and'sediment carried in ships, even after journeys of several months' duration. Subsequent discharge of ballast water or sediment into the waters of port States may result in the establishment of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens which may pose threats to indigenous human, animal and plant life, and the marine environment. Although other media have been identified as being responsible for transferring organisms between geographically separated water bodies, ballast water discharge from ships appears to have been among the most prominent. The potential for ballast water discharge to cause harm has been recognised not only by the International Maritime Organization but also by the World Health Organization, which is concerned about the role of ballast water as a medium for the spreading of epidemic disease bacteria. These Guidelines are not to be regarded as a certain solution to the problem. Rather, each part of them should be viewed as a tool which, if correctly applied, will help to minimize the risks associated with ballast water discharge. As scientific and technological advances are made, the Guidelines will be refined to enable the risk to be more adequately addressed. In the interim, port States, flag States and other parties that can assist in
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mitigating this problem should exercise due care and diligence in an effort to conform to the maximum extent possible with the Guidelines. The selection of appropriate methods of risk minimization will depend upon several factors, including the type or types of organisms being targeted, the level of risk involved, its environmental acceptability, the economic and ecological costs involved and the safety of ships.
Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to state the operational procedures to be followed by ships when taking in or discharging ballast water, the procedures which are followed by port states, safety aspects related to the ballast water management and contents of the Ballast Water report form.
7.2 DEFINITIONS
For the purposes of these Guidelines, the following definitions apply: Administration means the Government of the State under whose authority the ship is operating. Convention means MARPOL 73/78 (International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, and the Protocol of 1978 related thereto). Member States means States that are Members of the International Maritime Organization. Organization means the International Maritime Organization (IMO). Port State authority means any official or organisation authorized by the Government of a port State to administer guidelines or enforce standards and regulations relevant to the implementation of national and international shipping control measures. Treatment means a process or mechanical, physical, chemical or biological method to kill, remove or render infertile, harmful or potentially harmful organisms within ballast water.
7.3 APPLICATION
The Guidelines are directed to Member States and can apply to all ships; however, a port State authority shall determine the extent to which they do apply.
7.4 GUIDELINE OBJECTIVES AND BACKGROUND

The objectives of these Guidelines, developed under technical and scientific guidance, are intended to assist Governments and appropriate authorities, ship masters, operators and owners, and port authorities, as well as other interested parties, in minimizing the risk of introducing harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens from ships' ballast water and associated sediments while protecting ships' safety. The Guidelines allow port States to exempt ships within the area under their jurisdiction from part or all of the relevant provisions. Notwithstanding, any administration wishing to apply restrictions to ballast water operations should still follow these Guidelines, when developing legislation or procedures.
In order that the Guidelines may be implemented in a standard and uniform manner, all Member State Governments, ship operators, other appropriate authorities and interested parties are requested to apply these Guidelines.
Ballast Water and Sediment Management
7.5 DISSEMINATION OF INFORMATION

7.5.1 Administrations are encouraged to maintain and exchange information relevant to these Guidelines through the Organization. Accordingly, administrations are encouraged to provide the Organization with the following: Information on severe outbreaks or infestations of harmful aquatic organisms which may pose a risk; Copies of current domestic laws and regulations; Technical and research information; Education materials (such as audio and video tapes) and printed materials; Location and terms of use of alternative exchange zones, contingency strategies, availability of shore reception facilities, fees, etc.
7.5.2 Member States, applying ballast water and sediment discharge procedures, should notify the Organization of specific requirements and provide to the Organization, for the information of other Member States and non-governmental organizations, copies of any regulations, standards, exemptions or guidelines being applied. Verification and detailed information concerning port State requirements should be obtained by the ship prior to arrival. 7.5.3 Port State authorities should provide the widest possible distribution of information on ballast water and sediment management and treatment requirements that are being applied to shipping. Failure to do so may lead to unnecessary delays for ships seeking entry to port States. 7.5.4 Shipping organizations and ships' managers should be familiar with the requirements of port State authorities with respect to ballast water and sediment management and treatment procedures, including information that will be needed to obtain entry clearance. 7.5.5 Member States are invited to provide the Organization with details of any research and development studies that they carry out with respect to the impact and control of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens in ships' ballast water and sediment. '7.5.6 Member States should provide to the Organization details of records describing reasons why existing requirements could not be complied with, e.g. force majeure, heavy weather, failure of equipment, or lack of information concerning port State requirements.
7.6 TRAINING AND EDUCATION

7.6.1 Training for ships' masters and crews as appropriate should include instructions on the application of ballast water and sediment management and treatment procedures, based upon the information contained in these Guidelines. Instruction should also be provided on the maintenance of appropriate records and logs. Governments should ensure that their marine training organizations include this in the contents of their syllabus. 7.6.2 The application of processes and procedures concerning ballast water management are currently at the core of the solution to minimize the introduction of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens.
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7.6.3 Governments are encouraged to include knowledge of duties regarding the control of pollution of the sea by harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens in their training requirements for certificates.
7.7 PROCEDURES FOR SHIPS AND PORT STATES

7.7.1 Procedures for Ships
7.7.1.1 Every ship that carries ballast water should be provided with a ballast water management plan to assist in the minimization of transfer of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens. The intent of the plan should be to provide safe and effective procedures for ballast water management. 7.7.1.2 The ballast water management plan should be specific to each ship. 7.7.1.3 The ballast water management plan should be included in the ship's operational documentation. Such a plan should address, inter alias relevant parts of these Guidelines; approval documentation relevant to treatment equipment; an indication of records required; and the location of possible sampling points.
7.7.2 Procedures for Port States

7.7.2.1 Reception and treatment facilities should be made available for the environmentally safe disposal of ballast tank sediments. 7.7.2.2 Discharge of ship's ballast water into port reception and/or treatment facilities may provide an acceptable means of control. Port State authorities wishing to utilize this strategy should ensure that the facilities are adequate.
7.8 RECORDING AND REPORTING PROCEDURES

7.8.1 Procedures for Ships
7.8.1.1 Where a port State authority requires that specific ballast water procedures and/or treatment option(s) be undertaken, and due to weather, sea conditions or operational impracticability such action cannot be taken, the master should report this fact to the port State authority as soon as possible and, where appropriate, prior to entering seas under its jurisdiction. 7.8.1.2 To facilitate the administration of ballast water management and treatment procedures on board each ship, a responsible officer should be appointed to maintain appropriate records and to ensure that ballast water management and/or treatment procedures are followed and recorded. 7.8.1.3 When taking in or discharging ballast water, as a minimum, the dates, geographical locations, ship's tank(s) and cargo holds, ballast water temperature and salinity as well as the amount of ballast water loaded or discharged should be recorded. A suitable format is shown in appendix 1. The record should be made available to the port State authority. 7.8.1.4 The location and suitable access points for sampling ballast or sediment should be described in the ship's ballast water management plan. This will allow crew members to provide maximum assistance when officers of the port State authority require a sample of the ballast water or sediment.
7.8.2 Procedures for port States

7.8.2.1 Consistent with 7.5.2 above, port States should provide ships with the following information: DetaiIs of their requirements concerning ballast water management; Iocation and terms of use of alternative exchange zones;Any other port contingency arrangements; and The availability, location, capacities of and applicable fees relevant to reception facilities that are being provided for the environmentally safe disposal of ballast water and associated sediment.
7.8.2.2 To assist ships in applying the precautionary practices described in 7.9.1.1 below, port States should inform local agents and/or the ship of areas and situations where the uptake of ballast water should be minimized, such as: Areas with outbreaks, infestations or known populations of harmful organisms and pathogens;
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Areas with current phytoplankton blooms (algal blooms, such as red tides); Nearby sewage outfalls; Nearby dredging operations; When a tidal stream is known to be the more turbid; and Areas where tidal flushing is known to be poor.
7.9 SHIPS' OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES

7.9.1 Precautionary Practices
7.9.1.1 Minimizing Uptake of Harmful Aquatic Organisms, Pathogens and Sediments When loading ballast, every effort should be made to avoid the uptake of potentially harmful aquatic organisms, pathogens and sediment that may contain such organisms. The uptake of ballast water should be minimized or, where practicable, avoided in areas and situations such as: Areas identified by the port State in connection with advice relating to 7.8.2.2 above: In darkness when bottom-dwelling organisms may rise up in the water column; In very shallow water; or Where propellers may stir up sediment. 7.9.1.2 Removing ballast sediment on a timely basis Where practicable, routine cleaning of the ballast tank to remove sediments should be carried out in mid-ocean or under controlled arrangements in port or dry dock, in accordance with the provisions of the ship's ballast water management plan. 7.9.1.3 Avoiding unnecessary discharge of ballast water If it is necessary to take on and discharge ballast water in the same port to facilitate safe cargo operations, care should be taken to avoid unnecessary discharge of-ballast water that has been taken up in another port.
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7.9.2 Ballast Water Management Options

7.9.2.1 Ballast water exchange Near-coastal (including port and estuarine) organisms re' 6 in mid-ocean, and oceanic organisms released in coastal waters, do not generany survive. When exchanging ballast at sea, guidance on safety aspects of ballast water exchange as set out in appendix 2 should be taken into account. Furthermore, the following practices are recommended: Where practicable, ships should conduct ballast exchange in deep water, in open ocean and as far as possible from shore. Where this is not possible, requirements developed within regional agreements may be in operation, particularly in areas within 200 nautical miles from shore. Consistent with 7.9.1.2 above, all of the ballast water should be discharged until suction is lost, and stripping pumps or eductors should be used if possible; Where the flow-through method is employed in open ocean by pumping ballast water into the tank or hold and allowing the water to overflow, at least three times the tank volume should be pumped through the tank; Where neither form of open ocean exchange is practicable, ballast exchange may be accepted by the port State in designated areas; and Other ballast exchange options approved by the port State.
7.9.2.2 Non-release or minimal release of ballast water In cases where ballast exchange or other treatment options are not possible, ballast water may be retained in tanks or holds. Should this not be possible, the ship should only discharge the minimum essential amount of ballast water in accordance with port States' contingency strategies. 7.9.2.3 Discharge to reception facilities If reception facilities for ballast water and/or sediments are provided by a port State, they should, where appropriate, be utilized. 7.9.2.4 Emergent and new technologies and treatments 7.9.2.4.1 If suitable new and emergent treatments and technologies prove viable, these may substitute for, or be used in conjunction with, current options. Such treatments could include thermal methods, filtration, disinfection including ultraviolet light, and other such means acceptable to the port State. 7.9.2.4.2 Results concerning the application and effectiveness of new ballast water management technologies and associated control equipment should be notified to the Organization with a view to evaluation and incorporation, as appropriate, into these Guidelines.
7.10 PORT STATE CONSIDERATIONS

The following is provided for the guidance of port State authorities in the implementation of their ballast water management programme, and to assess risks in relation to the ballast water containing harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens.
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7.10.1 Highly Disparate Conditions between Uptake and Discharge Ports

Significantly different conditions may exist between port(s) of origin and the port in which ballast water is discharged. Examples include freshwater ballast being released into highly saline ports. There may be organisms capable of surviving such extreme
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transfers; however, there is a lower probability of species establishment under such transport events.
7.10.2 Ballast Water Age

The length of time during which ballast water is within an enclosed ballast tank may also be a factor in determining the number of surviving organisms, because of the absence of light, decreasing.nutrients and oxygen, changes of salinity and other factors. However, the maximum ximum length of survival of organisms in ballast water varies, and in many cases is not known. Water of an age of 100 days should be considered the minimum for applying this consideration. Ballast water and sediments may contain dinoflagellate cysts and other organisms capable of surviving for a much longer length of time.
7.10.3 Presence of Target Organisms

7.10.3.1 Under certain circumstances it may be possible to determine if one or more target species are present in the water of a specific port and have been ballasted in a ship. In these circumstance the receiving port State authority may invoke management measures accordin ly. Even if such target species are not pre7sent, however, it should be noted that. the ship may still be carrying many untargetted species pecies which, if released in new waters, could be potentially harmful. 7.10.3.2. Port States are encouraged to carry out biological baseline surveys in their ports and to disseminate the results of their investigations.
7.11 ENFORCEMENT AND MONITORING BY PORT STATES

7.11.1 Consistent with the precautionary approach to environmental protection, these Guidelines can apply to all ships unless specifically exempted by a port State authority within its jurisdiction. In accordance with 7.5.2 above, port State authorities should inform the Organization on how the Guidelines are being applied. 7.11.2 Member States have the right to manage ballast water by national legislation. However, any ballast discharge restrictions should be notified to the Organization. 7.11.3 In all cases, a port State authority should-consider the overall effect of ballast water and sediment discharge procedures on the safety of ships and those on board. Guidelines will be ineffective if compliance is dependent upon the acceptance of operational measures that put a ship or its crew at risk. Port States should not require any action of the master which imperils the lives of seafarers or the safety of the ship. 7.11.4 It is essential that ballast water and sediment management procedures be effective as well as environmentally safe, practicable, designed to minimize costs and delays to the ship, and based upon these Guidelines whenever possible. 7.11.5 Port States should on request provide a visiting ship with any requested information relative to ballast water management and its potential effects with respect to harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens. 7.11.7 Any enforcement or monitoring activities should be undertaken in a fair, uniform and nationally consistent manner at all ports within the port State. Where there are compelling reasons whereby nationally consistent procedures cannot be followed, then deviations should be reported to the Organization.
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7.11.8 Compliance monitoring should be undertaken by port State authorities by, for
example, taking and analysing ballast wafer and sediment samples to test for the continued survival of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens.
7.11.9 Where ballast water or sediment sampling for compliance or effectiveness

monitoring is being undertaken, port State authorities should minimize delays to ships when taking such samples.
7.11.10 When sampling for research or compliance monitoring, the port State authority
should give as much notice as possible to the ship that sampling will occur, to assist in planning staffing and operational resources.
7.11.11 The master has a general obligation to provide reasonable assistance for the
above monitoring which may include provision of officers or crew, provision of the ship's plans, records pertaining to ballast arrangements and details concerning the location of sampling points.
7.11.12 Sampling methods for research and monitoring is the responsibility of the
individual port State. The Organization welcomes information on new or innovative methods of sampling and/or analysis, and any relevant information should be provided to it.
7.11.13 Port State authorities should indicate to the master or responsible officer the
purpose for which a sample is taken (i.e., monitoring, research or enforcement). Results of analyses of samples should be made available to ship's operators on request.
7.11.14 Port State authorities may sample or require samples to analyse ballast water and
sediment, befog permitting a ship to proceed to discharge its ballast water in environmentally sensitive locations. In the event that harmful aquatic organisms or pathogens are found to be present in the samples, a port State's contingency strategy may be applied.
7.12 FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS IN RELATION TO BALLAST WATER EXCHANGE

7.12.1 Research Needs
Operational measures such as ballast water exchange may be appropriate in the short term; however, there is a clear need for further research. These Guidelines should be revised and adjusted in the light of results concerning new ballast water management options.
7.12.2 Long-Term Evaluation of Safety Aspects in Relation to Ballast Water Exchange

Recognizing the need to evaluate the hazards and potential consequences for various types of ships and operations, interested parties should carry out detailed studies and provide information relevant to: Experience gained from carrying out ballast water exchange at sea, including any samples/model procedures; Operational precautions and procedures implemented to avoid potential hazards and consequences that may arise during the ballast water exchange at sea; An evaluation of the safety margins between the actual metacentric height and stresses versus the allowable seagoing limits specified in the approved trim and stability booklet and loading manual, relevant to different types of ships and loading conditions;
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Any hazards which may arise due to human element issues relative to the responsible execution of ballast water exchange at sea in a manner which may not be fully prudent; Operational procedures carried out prior to initiating the ballast water exchange at sea and check points during the exchange; The extent of training and management necessary to ensure that the process of ballast water exchange at sea is effectively monitored and controlled on board;
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plan of action to incorporate any unique procedures should an emergency occur which may affect the exchange of ballast water at sea; and The decision-making process, taking into account relevant safety matters, including ship's position, weather conditions, machinery performance, ballast system inspection and maintenance, crew safety and availability.
7.13 BALLAST SYSTEM DESIGN

Builders, owners and classification societies should take these Guidelines into consideration when designing new ships or modifying existing ships.
7.14 BALLAST WATER REPORT FORM (Appendix I)

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7.15 GUIDANCE ON SAFETY ASPECTS OF BALLAST WATER EXCHANGE AT SEA (Appendix II)
7.15.1 Introduction
7.15.1.1 This document is intended to provide guidance on the safety aspects of ballast water exchange at sea. The different types of ships which may be required to undertake ballast water exchange at sea make it presently impractical to provide specific guidelines for each ship type. Shipowners are cautioned that they should consider the many variables that apply to their ships. Some of these variables include type and size of ship, ballast tank configurations and associated pumping systems, trading routes and associated weather conditions, port State requirements and manning. 7.15.1.2 Ballast water exchange at sea procedures contained in relevant management plans should be individually assessed for their effectiveness from the environmental protection point of view as well as from the point of view of their acceptability in terms of structural strength and stability. 7.15.1.3 In the absence of a more scientifically based means of control, exchange of ballast water in deep ocean areas or open seas currently offers a means of limiting the probability that fresh water or coastal aquatic species will be transferred in ballast water. Two rn&ods of carrying out ballast water exchange at sea have been identified: The sequential method, in which ballast tanks are pumped out and refilled with clean water; and/or The flow-through method, in which ballast tanks are simultaneously filled and discharged by pumping in clean water.
7.15.2 Safety Precautions

7.15.2.1 Ships engaged in ballast water exchange at sea should be provided with procedures which account for the following, as applicable: Avoidance of over and under-pressurization of ballast tanks; Free surface effects on stability and sloshing loads in tanks that may be slack at any one time; Admissible weather conditions; Weather routeing in areas seasonably affected by cyclones, typhoons, hurricanes, or heavy icing conditions; Maintenance of adequate intact stability in accordance with an approved trim and stability booklet; Permissible seagoing strength limits of shear forces and bending moments in accordance with an approved loading manual; Torsional forces, where relevant; Minimum/maximum forward and aft draughts; Wave-induced hull vibration; Documented records of ballasting and/or de-ballasting;
Contingency procedures for situations which may affect the ballast water exchange at sea, including deteriorating weather conditions, pump failure, loss of power, etc.; Time to complete the ballast water exchange or an appropriate sequence thereof, taking into account that the ballast water may represent 50 % of the total cargo capacity for some ships; and Monitoring and controlling the amount of ballast water. since: 7.15.2.2 If the flow through method is used, caution should be exercised, Air pipes are not designed for continuous ballast water overflow; Current research indicates that pumping of at least three full volumes of the tank Capacity could be needed to be effective when filling clean water from the bottom and overflowing from the top; and Certain watertight and weathertight closures (e.g. manholes) which may be opened during ballast exchange, should be re-secured. 7.15.2.3 Ballast water exchange at sea should be avoided in freezing weather conditions. However, when it is deemed absolutely necessary, particular attention should be paid to the hazards associated with the freezing of overboard discharge arrangements, air pipes, ballast system valves together with their means of control, and the accretion of ice on deck. 7.15.2.4 Some ships may need the fitting of a loading instrument to perform calculations of shear forces and bending moments induced by ballast water exchange at sea and to compare with the permissible strength limits. 7.15.2.5 An evaluation should be made of the safety margins for stability and strength contained in allowable seagoing conditions specified in the approved trim and stability booklet and the loading manual, relevant to individual types of ships and loading conditions. In this regard particular account should be taken of the following requirements: Stability to be maintained at all times to values not less than those recommended by the Organization (or required by the Administration); Longitudinal stress values not to exceed those permitted by the ship's classification society with regard to prevailing sea conditions; and Exchange of ballast in tanks or holds where significant structural loads may be generated by sloshing action in the partially filled tank or hold to be carried out in favourable sea and swell conditions so that the risk of structural damage is minimized. 7.15.2.6 The ballast water management plan should include a list of circumstances in which ballast water exchange should not be undertaken. These circumstances may result from critical situations of an exceptional nature, force majeure due to stress of weather, or any other circumstances in which human life or safety of the ship is threatened.
7.15.3 Crew Training and Familiarization

7.15.3.1 The ballast water management plan should include the nomination of key shipboard control personnel undertaking ballast water exchange at sea. 7.15.3.2 Ships' officers and ratings engaged in ballast water exchange at sea should be trained in and familiarized with the following:
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The ship's pumping plan, which should show ballast pumping arrangements, with positions of associated air and sounding pipes, positions of all compartment and tank suctions and pipelines connecting them to ship's ballast pumps and, in the case of use of the flow through method of ballast water exchange, the openings used for release of water from the top of the tank together with overboard discharge arrangements; The method of ensuring that sounding pipes are clear, and that air pipes and their non-return devices are in good order; The different times required to undertake the various ballast water exchange operations; The methods in use for ballast water exchange at sea if applicable with particular reference to required safety precautions; and The method of on-board ballast water record keeping, reporting and recording of routine soundings.
7.16 IMPACTS OF SOME OF THE WORST INVASIVE AQUATIC SPECIES

Cholera Cholera is an acute intestinal infection caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. It has a short incubation period, from less than one day to five days, and produces an enterotoxin that causes a copious, painless, watery diarrhea that can quickly lead to severe dehydration and death if treatment is not promptly given. Vomiting also occurs in most patients. From polluted harbors and bays, ship ballast can carry the Vibrio cholera, concealed in plankton, to estuaries around the world. The virulent El Tor cholera strain, which causes intestinal disease with symptoms of severe diarrhea, was probably carried by ballast water from Asia to Latin America in 1991, and then spread to Mobile Bay, Alabama, where it was found in oysters in closed shellfish beds.
Figure 7.1 Photo courtesy of Argonne National Laboratory, a U.S. Department of Energy Laboratory
Alewife Non-indigenous, landlocked alewives impact native ecosystems in a number of ways. They alter the zooplankton community, out-compete other fish species for food, feed on the eggs and larvae of other fish, and cause both reproductive failure in trout and salmon and declines in native species. For example, the disappearance of native Lake Ontario
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planktivores such as whitefish and lake herring has been attributed to the introduction of alewives which reduced zooplankton populations. In addition, alewives undergo periodic mass mortalities. When these large-scale die-offs occur, several problems arise. First, any predator fish that utilizes alewife populations as a main source of food will have difficulty finding enough to eat. This results is poor growth rates or declines in game fish such as Chinook, coho, brown trout, and lake trout populations in the Great Lakes. Second, the large numbers of alewives that die in these events wash up on beaches, causing foul odors and public health concerns. Stretches of shoreline in the Great Lakes are often closed for weeks at a time after an alewife die-off so that the thousands of fish can be bull-dozed off the beaches, as is often necessary.
Figure 7.2: Photo courtesy of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Eurasian Ruffe Ruffe pose a threat to native fish because they mature quickly, have a high reproductive capacity, and easily adapt to new environments. Ruffe are more tolerant of poor water conditions and have several anatomical features that give them an advantage over native fishes. Native fish populations ? especially yellow perch, emerald and spottail shiners, trout perch, and brown bullhead have declined in locations where ruffe have become established. Ruffe were first detected in western Lake Superior in 1986. The ruffe population has increased rapidly in the St. Louis River at Duluth-Superior and has spread to other rivers and bays along the south shore or western Lake Superior. They have also spread past the Ontonagon River in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. They are now one of the most abundant fish in five tributaries: the Sand, Flag, Iron, Amnicon, and Brute Rivers. Ruffe have also been detected at Thunder Bay, Ontario, and Alpena, Michigan (Lake Huron).
Figure 7.3: Photo Courtesy of Minnesota Sea Grant
Round Goby Gobies are capable of rapid population growth after they reach new areas. They have shown the ability to out-compete native fish for food and habitat because of their aggressiveness, ability to survive in poor water quality conditions, ability to feed in complete darkness, and long spawning period (April. through September). Another area of concern involves potential predation on the eggs and fry of lake trout.
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After first being discovered in 1990 along the St. Claire River (a Canadian river north of Detroit), gobles have been found in eastern and southern Lake Erie, southern Lake Huron. southern Lake Michigan, and western Lake Superior. They now have access to America's largest watershed because the Grand Calumet River (which begins at Lake Michigan near Chicago) connects with the Mississippi River.
Figure 7.4: Photo courtesy of University of Wisconsin Sea Grant, Photographer: D. Jude
Sea Lamprey Sea lampreys prey on commercially important fish species; such as lake trout, living off of the blood and body fluids of adult fish. During its life as a parasite, each sea lamprey can kill 40 or more pounds of fish. These organisms were a major cause of the collapse of lake trout, whitefish, and chub populations in the Great Lakes during the 1940s and 1950s.
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The sea lamprey was first discovered in Lake Ontario in 1835, Lake Erie in 1921, Lake Huron in 1932, Lake Michigan in 1936, and Lake Superior in 1946. Reproducing populations were found in all of these upper lakes by 1947. The present "hot zone" is the St. Marys River. Sea lampreys produced in the St. Marys River migrate into Lake Huron and northern Lake Michigan. There, the adult sea lamprey population is nearly as large as it was 40 years ago before sea lamprey control when lake trout and whitefish stocks were decimated.
Figure 7.5: Photos courtesy of the Virginia Institute of Marine Science
Zebra Mussels Zebra mussels, Dreissena polymorpha, are small, fingernail-sized, freshwater mollusks accidentally introduced to North America via ballast water from a transoceanic vessel. Since their introduction in the mid-1980s, they have spread rapidly to all of the Great Lakes and an increasing number of inland waterways in the United States and Canada. Zebra mussels colonize on surfaces, such as docks, boat hulls, commercial fishing nets, water intake pipes and valves, native mollusks, and other zebra mussels. Their only 18
known predators, some diving ducks, freshwater drum, carp, and sturgeon, are not numerous enough to have a significant effect on them. Zebra mussels have greatly impacted the Great Lakes ecosystem and economy.
Figure 7.6: Photo courtesy of the Center for Great Lakes and Aquatic Sciences
Spiny Water Flea
The spiny water flea, Bythotrephes (bith-o TREH-feez) cederstroemi, a small predacious crustacean, has an average length slightly I irger than 1 centimeter (0.4 inches) of which 70% is a long, sharp, barbed tail spine. Tht it rapid reproduction, general lack of predators, and direct competition with young fish for food gives them the potential to alter the food webs of the Great Lakes.
Figure 7.7: Photo courtesy of the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Photographer: J. Lindgren
,Spiny water fleas were first introduced into the Great Lakes ecosystem in 1984 via ballast water that was discharged into Lake Huron. By 1987, they had spread to all of the Great Lakes. and currently they infect inland lakes in Michigan and Southern Ontario.
Opossum Shrimp
The oppssum shrimp, Mysis relicta, is an opportunistic feeder with both predatorial and filter feeding habits. Zooplankton, when abundant, serve as the opposum shrimp's primary food source; when scarce, Mysis relicta will feed on suspended organic detritus or from the surface of benthic organic deposits. Within its native range, the opossum shrimp has been shown to be an important prey item for freshwater fishes. However, when introduced into what was considered to be an "empty" niche, its impact on the aquatic community was significant.
Figure 7.8: Photo courtesy of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory
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Future Issues
Dramatic changes and species extinctions of native zooplankton communities have been attributed to its opportunistic lifestyle. Declines in the number and size of game fish have been documented since the introduction of opposum shrimp, provoking doubt regarding their utility as a forage base for game fishes.
Whirling Disease
Z7
Myxobolus cerebralis is a metazoan parasite that penetrates the head and spinal cartilage of fingerling trout where it multiplies very rapidly, putting pressure on the organ of equilibrium. This causes the fish to swim erratically (whirl), and have difficulty feeding and avoiding predators. In severe infections, the disease can cause high rates of mortality in young-of-the-year fish. Those that survive until the cartilage hardens to bone can live a normal life span, but are marred by skeletal deformities.
Figure 7.9: Photo courtesy of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Photographer: Dr. Thomas L. Wellborn, Jr.
Whirling disease originated in Eurasia and is now found in 22 states in the U.S. including: Alabama, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Idaho, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Montana, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Utah, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, and Wyoming. Internationally, South Africa and New Zealand have been invaded by the parasite.
MSX
MSX (Multinucleated Sphere X) disease is caused by a single-celled Protozoan parasite, Haplosporidium nelsoni. MSX is lethal to the eastern oyster, but it is not known to be harmful to humans. Recently, according to the Washington Post, scientists have found genetic evidence that implicates Japanese oysters as the cause of MSX. Its life cycle and means of infecting oysters still remain as mysterious now as they did forty years ago. Its first appearance in mid-Atlantic waters was in Delaware Bay in 1956 where it ravaged oyster beds; the next year it arrived in the Chesapeake Bay.
VHS
VHS (viral haemorrhagic septicaemia) is the most serious viral disease of salmon and trout in Europe. It kills up to 90% of the juveniles in fish farms and hatcheries, and up to 40% of infected adults. Historically, VHS has been a disease of European rainbow trout and primarily a problem in freshwater. It has been known in rainbow trout in Europe since 1938. The disease is seen in most countries of continental Eastern and Western Europe. Until 1988, it had not been present in the United States. However, the VHS virus has now been found in saltwater, and in the U.S. VHS virus was first isolated here in the U.S. in adult coho salmon returning to a hatchery in the Puget Sound area of Washington state.
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Figure 7.10
Purple Loosestrife Purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) grows so densely that it crowds out, kills, and replaces native plants. This is particularly devastating because purple loosestrife replaces plants that animals depend on for food and shelter; and, it has no food and little shelter value. Muskrats are dying out in some areas because their diet of cattails has been severely reduced by purple loosestrife. Infestations can become so bad, that they block water flow. Purple loosestrife can reduce biodiversity rates from 900 to 1 species. This invasive plant can produce up to 2.7 million seeds per plant yearly, and spreads across approximately 1 million additional acres of wetlands each year. Purple loosestrife is a perennial plant native to Europe. It was brought to North America in the early 1800s by immigrants who valued its striking purple flowers. Seeds were also unintentionally transported to the shores of North America in the ballast water of ships. Since then, purple loosestrife has expanded its range; now, it is a serious pest of wetlands and pastures.
Figure 7.11: Photo courtesy of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Photographer: Karen Holland
SAQ 1
(a) (b) (c) What prompted the need to address Ballast Water Management as an important environmental hazard? What IMO Resolution governs Ballast Water Management and what are the objectives of the resolution? What is a Ballast Water Management Plan and what must it contain?
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Future Issues
(d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i)
What records are required to be maintained wrt Ballast water on board? Briefly describe the precautions a vessel must take to minimize environmental pollution by way of efficient ballast water management. What are the various options vessels have w.r.t ballast water management? How can port states monitor/enforce ballast water management practices? What are the means of carrying out ballast water exchange on board? Discuss the pros and cons of the exchange methods. What safety precautions must a vessel take during ballast water exchange? What must the crew be trained and familiarized in w.r.t. ballast water management?
7.17 SUMMARY
In this unit we have learnt the reasons as to why ballast water is considered as an important environmental hazard and the import a nce of the need for every ship to minimize the transfer of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens which though are contained in the ballast water management plan which is ship-specific provides safe and effective procedures for ballast water management, but at the same time, ballast water exchange procedures contained in the plans should be individually assessed for their effectiveness from the environmental point of view and the dangers that they may present to a ship's structural strength and stability.
Note: Some of the pictures/images used in this Unit have been sourced from the internet. We wish to thank the creators/publishers for the usage of their material.
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UNIT 8 MARPOL ANNEXURE IV

Structure
8.1 Introduction
Objectives
8.2 Marpol 73/78, A Brief History 8.3 Annex IV Regulations for The Prevention of Pollution by Sewage from Ships 8.4 Form of Certificate 8.5 Calculations on Sewage Generation 8.6 The Factors on which the Quality of Effluent is Based 8.7 Effluent Quality Standards 8.8 Typical Sewage Treatment Plants 8.9 Summar y
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In the olden times there was no control on the indiscriminate dumping of various types of pollutants and effluents from the Ships at sea. Due to technological advancements and consequent innovations in the marine industry the number of ships sailing at sea increased significantly and the need to curb various types of marine pollution and to safeguard the ocean and coastline was felt by various countries. Consequently a number of seagoing nations joined together and decided to keep a control on the polluting effluents discharged from the ships. The Marine pollutants could be broadly classified in to two categories. They are
(1)
Operational wastes which is produced during the day to day running of the ships and discharged overboard either treated or untreated and Accidental pollution which is caused due to unforeseen or inadvertent incidents on board ships.
(ii)
Figure 8.1
Initially the major concern was directed towards ship-generated pollution by Mineral Oil, Chemicals and Dangerous cargo carried in packages. But, in the recent years emphasis was also given to the other types of pollutants such as Sewage, Garbage and Smoke and Paints on the ships hull.
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Figure 8.2
Sewage The Problem The discharge of raw sewage into the sea can create a health hazard, while in coastal areas, sewage can also lead to oxygen depletion and an obvious visual pollution - a major problem for countries with large tourist industries. The main sources of human-produced sex, age are land-based - such as municipal sewers or treatment plants.
Figure 8.3
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to: enumerate briefly the history and developments related to Marine Pollution in general. state the Regulations in Annex IV of MARPOL 73/78 in a simple and concise manner. explain in brief, the technological advancements in the field of Sewage treatment, Effluent testing and Monitoring
Being conscious of the need to preserve the Marine Environment and to keep the oceans pollution free a multilateral instrument was concluded namely the "International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil" way back in 1954. Though this convention had contributed significantly towards the protection of coastal areas it's effectiveness on preserving the wider areas of ocean was minimum. Ina constant effort to achieve complete elimination of Intentional pollution and to minimize accidental discharges of harmful substances from ships the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, was adopted by the International Conference on Marine Pollution convened by International Maritime Organization (IMO) in November 1973. The above convention was subsequently modified by the Protocol of 1978, which was adopted by the International Conference on Tanker Safety and Pollution prevention (TSPP) convened by IMO in February 19 78. This convention, as modified by the 1978 Protocol, is known as the "International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978" or "MARPOL 73/78".
Figure 8.4
A body called The Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) was formed in 1974 to review and to give clarifications on provisions, which were found to be ambiguous in nature or have given rise to difficulties in implementation. MEPC also provided uniform interpretations, amended the existing regulations and introduced new regulations with the aim of further reducing operational and accidental pollution from ships. The regulations covering the various sources of ship-generated pollution was contained in the Six Annexes of the Convention. They are listed below with their date of entry in to force given in brackets: Annex I Regulation for the Prevention of Pollution by Oil (02nd Oct 1983) Annex 11 Regulation for the Control of Pollution by Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk (06th Apr 1987) Annex III - Regulation for the Prevention of Pollution by Harmful Substances Carried by Sea in Packaged Form (01" Jul '92) Annex IV Regulation for the Prevention of Pollution by Sewage from Ships (27th Sep 2003) 25
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Annex V Regulation for the Prevention of Pollution by Garbage from Ships (3 1 "Dec 1988) Annex VI - Regulation for the Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships (191h May 2005)
8.3 ANNEX IV - REGULATIONS FOR THE PREVENTION OF POLLUTION BY SEWAGE FROM SHIPS
Annex IV contains a set of regulations regarding the discharge of sewage into the sea, ships' equipment and systems for the control of sewage discharge, the provision of facilities at ports and terminals for the reception of sewage, and requirements for survey and certification. It also includes a model International Sewage Pollution Prevention Certificate to be issued by national shipping administrations to ships under their jurisdiction. It is generally considered that on the high seas, the oceans are capable of assimilating and dealing with raw sewage through natural bacteria] action and therefore the regulations in Annex IV of MARPOL 73/78 prohibit ships from discharging sewage within a specified discharging distance of the nearest land, unless they have in operation an approved treatment plant. Governments are required to ensure the provision of adequate reception facilities at ports and terminals for the reception of sewage. The Annex entered into force on 27 September 2003. A revised Annex was adopted on I April 2004, with an entry into force date of 1 August 2005.
Figure 8.5: Sewage dumping poses widespread threat to coastal waters
The revised Annex will apply to new ships engaged in international voyages, of 400 gross tonnage and above or which are certified to carry more than 15 persons. Existing ships will be required to comply with the provisions of the revised Annex IV five years after the date of its entry into force. The Annex requires ships to be equipped with either a sewage treatment plant or a sewage comminuting and disinfecting system or a sewage holding tank. These are covered by the following topics: (A) Definitions For the purpose of Annex IV the following definitions are to be applied. (1) New ship means a ship:
26
(a)
for which the building contract is placed, or the keel of which is laid, or which is at similar stage of construction, on or after the date of entry into force (27th Sep 2003). or
Marpol Annexure IV
(b)
the delivery of which is three years or more after the date of entry into force (27th Sep 2003)
(2) Existing ship means a ship which is not a new ship. (3) Sewage means: (a) (b) (c) (d) drainage and other wastes from any form of toilets and urinals; drainage from medical premises (dispensary, sick bay, etc.) via wash basin, wash tubs and scuppers located in such premises; drainage from spaces containing living animals; or other waste water when mixed with the drainages defined above.
(4) Holding tank means a tank used for the collection and storage of sewage. (5) Nearest land. The term "from the nearest land" means from the baseline from which the territorial sea of the territory in question is established in accordance with international law. Note: For the purpose of the present Convention there is a deviation for this rule in respect of the north-eastern coast of Australia which is indicated in latitudes and longitudes. Please refer to the original version of MARPOL 73/78 for details) (6) International voyage means a voyage from a country to which the present Convention applies to a port outside such country, or conversely. (7) Person means member of the crew and passengers. (8) Anniversary date means the day and the month of each year which will correspond to the date of expiry of the International Sewage Pollution Prevention Certificate. (B) Application The effective implementation date of this Annex was 27th September 2003. A revised annex was adopted on I" April 2004 and entered into force on l" August 2005 The revised Annex applies to new ships engaged in international voyages, of 400 gross tonnage and above and ships of less than 400 gross tors which are certified to carry more than 15 persons. All Existing ships will be required to comply with the provisions of the revised Annex IV five years after the date of its entry into force. The Annex requires ships to be equipped with either a. Sewage Treatment Plant Or Sewage Comminuting And Disinfecting System Or Sewage Holding Tank.
27
Ae r a t "
Secondary
TM*
41MA
Cot r Effluent
I
1.17 "I - *' ~ ' : 1 . 'F . - - I ^ . *. *Ylt* ,Y.V
;Trudge disposal Land Application 1ncmerj1wn

or
Laodf9l
ic)
Figure 8.6
(C) Surveys With respect to this Annex the ships are required to comply with the following survey requirements. I. An Initial survey, before the ship is put in to service for the new ships or 5 years after the entry in to force of this annex for the existing ships, is to be carried out which shall include a complete survey of its structure, equipment, system, fittings, arrangements and material to fully comply with the applicable requirements of this Annex.
Sewage systems Every ship which, is required to comply with the provisions of this Annex shall be equipped with one of the following systems:
A sewage treatment plant which shall be of a type approved b the
y
Administration, in compliance with the standards and test methods developed by the Organization. Or
A sewage comminuting and disinfecting system approved by the
Administration. Such system shall be fitted with facilities to the satisfaction of the Administration, for the temporary storage of the sewage when the ship is less than 3 nautical miles from the nearest land. Or
A holding tank of the capacity to the satisfaction of the
holding satisfaction of the Administration and shall have a means to indicate visually the amount of its contents. 28
Administration for the retention of all sewage, having regard to the operation of the ship, the number of persons on board and the other relevant factors. The holding tank shall be constructed to the
The ship should be equipped with a pipeline leading to the exterior for discharge to a reception facility. This pipe has to be fitted with a standard shore connection as described later on. 2 A renewal survey at intervals not exceeding five years is to be carried out. The nature and requirement of this survey is similar to that for the initial survey. Normally the survey is carried out by officers of the Administration (Flag State). However, this job can be entrusted to the nominated Surveyors or to the Organizations recognized by the Administration. An additional survey is carried out if any modification or changes in the structure, equipment, system, fittings, arrangement or material is made due to any reason such as accidents or defect rectification. This survey is to make sure that the repair or renewal is effectively made, that the material and the workmanship is satisfactory in all respect and comply with the requirements of this annex. The survey of the ship will be carried out to enforce this Annex. However, at any time, if this nominated surveyor or Organization feels that the ship presents a reasonable threat of harm to the marine environment he should take appropriate corrective action. Or the certificate shall be withdrawn and these facts should be notified to the Administration. Also, the Port State authority shall be notified if the ship is in a different country. in such case the Government of the Port State shall assist the surveyor to carry out their obligations under this regulation or take such step to ensure that the ship shall not sail until the defects are rectified. After any survey of a ship is completed, no change shall be made in the structure, equipment, systems, fittings, arrangements or the material covered by the survey with out the sanction of the Administration, except the direct replacement of such equipment and fittings. Whenever any accident takes place or a defect is discovered to the system-or equipment which may substantially affect the integrity of the ship or the efficiency or the completeness of its equipment covered by this annex, the Master or the Owner of the ship shall report at the earliest to the Administration, and the nominated Surveying authority. A report is also made to the Port State if the vessel is in a different country. On investigation, if found necessary the nominated surveying authority shall conduct a resurvey and steps for corrective action shall be taken accordingly.
Marpol Annexure IV
3'
5.
Figure 8.7
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Future Issues
(D) Issue or Endorsement of Certificate An International Sewage Pollution Prevention Certificate shall be issued, after an initial survey or renewal survey as described earlier to any ship which is engaged in voyages or offshore terminals. In the case of existing ships this requirement shall apply five years after the date of entry in to force of this annex. Such Certificate shall be issued or endorsed either by the Administration or by any person or organization duly authorized by it. In every case, the Administration assumes full responsibility for the Certificate. (E) Issue or Endorsement of a Certificate by another Government (1) The Government of a party to the convention may, at the request of the Administration, cause a ship to be surveyed and, if found satisfactory that the provisions of this Annex are complied with, shall issue or authorize the issue of an International Sewage Pollution Prevention Certificate to the ship, and where appropriate, endorse or authorize the endorsement of that Certificate on the ship in accordance with this Annex. A copy of the Certificate and a copy of the survey report shall be transmitted as soon as possible to the Administration requesting the survey. A Certificate so issued shall contain a statement to the effect that it has been issued at the request of the Administration and shall have the same force and receive the same recognition as the Certificate issued under this annex. No International Sewage Pollution Prevention Certificate shall be issued to a ship which is entitled to fly the flag of a State which is not a party.
(2) (3)
(4)
8.4 FORM OF CERTIFICATE

The International Sewage Pollution Prevention Certificate shall be drawn up corresponding to the form given in Marpol Annex IV. If the language used is not English, French or Spanish, the text shall include a translation into one of these languages. The format of the certificate is given on the next two pages.
Z~
(A) Duration and validity of Certificate 1. 2. An International Sewage Pollution Prevention Certificate shall be issued for a period specified by the Administration which shall not exceed five years. The renewal survey can be carried out in a window of (+/-) 3 months of the expiry date of the existing certificate. If the renewal survey is completed during this range dates, the new Certificate will be valid from the actual date of completion of the survey to a date not exceeding five years from the date of expiry of the existing certificate. However, if the renewal survey is completed more than three months before the expiry of the existing certificate, the new certificate shall be valid from the date of completion of the renewal survey to a date not exceeding five years from the date of completion of the renewal survey. If a Certificate is issued fora period of less than five years then the administration may extend the validity to a maximum of five years. If a new certificate cannot be issued or placed on board when a renewal survey has been completed before the expiry date of the existing certificate then the existing certificate shall be endorsed to extend the validity for a maximum period of five months from the date of expiry.
3. 4.
Marpol Annexure IV
INTERNATIONAL SEWAGE POLLUTION PREVENTION CERTIFICATE (1973)
Issued under the Provisions of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, under the authority of the Government of
(Full designation of the country) by ........................................................................................................................................
(full designation of the competent person or organization authorized under the provisions of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973)
Name Ship
Distinctive number or lettes
Port of registry
Gross tonnage
Number of persons which the ship is certified to carry
New/existing ship*
Date of building contract ..................................................................................................... Date on which keel was laid or ship was at a similar stage of construction ................................................................................. Date of delivery ...................................................................................................................
* Delete as appropriate.
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THIS IS TO CERTIFY: (1) The ship is equipped with a sewage treatment plant/comminutes/ holding tank* and a discharge pipeline in compliance with regulation .......................... of Annex IV of the Convention as follows: *(a) Description of the sewage treatment plant: Type of sewage treatment plant ................................................................................. Name of manufacturer................................................................................................ The sewage treatment plant is certified by the Administration to meet the following effluent standards* ......................................................................... *(b) Description of comminuter: Type of comminuter ................................................................................................... Name of manufacturer................................................................................................ Standard of sewage after disinfection........................................................................ *(c) Description of holding tank equipment: Total capacity of the holding tank ................................................................................ m3 Location.......................................................................................................... (d) A pipeline for the discharge of sewage to a reception facility. Fitted with a standard shore connection.
(2) The ship has been surveyed in accordance with regulation .... of Annex IV of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, concerning the prevention of pollution by sewage and the survey showed that the equipment of the ship and the condition thereof are in all respects satisfactory and the ship complies with the applicable requirements of Annex IV of the Convention. This certificate is valid until ...................................................................................... Issued at (place of issue of certificate)
(Date of issue)
Signature of official issuing the certificate
(seal or stamp of the issuing authority, as appropriate) Under the provisions of regulation of Annex IV of the Convention the validity of this certificate is extended until.
Signed (Signature of duly authorized official) Place ...................................................................... Date ...................................................................... (Seal or stamp of the authority, as appropriate)
Delete as appropriate. Parameters should be incorporated.
5.
If a certificate expires when the ship is not in a port, where it can be surveyed, the Administration may extend the validity, for the purpose of completing the present voyage, for a maximum period of three months. This extension is solely for the purpose of completing its voyage and she shall not sail out, by virtue of such extension, from such port with out completing the renewal survey. When a ship is on short voyages the validity of certificate may be extended for a grace period of one month from the date of expiry. In the two cases above , when the renewal survey is completed, the new certificate shall be valid to a date not exceeding five years from the date of expiry of the existing certificate before the extension was granted. In special circumstances, as determined by the Administration, a new Certificate shall be valid to a date not exceeding five years from the date of completion of renewal survey, instead of the date of expiry of the existing Certificate. The certificates which are extended under the rule stated in the above paragraph shall cease to be valid: paragraph If the relevant surveys are not completed within the periods specified in this Annex. If the flag of the ship is changed. Note: The new Administration shall issue the Certificate only after satisfying that the vessel is in compliance the requirements as laid down in this Annex
Marpol Annexure IV
6.
7.
8.
9.
If the ship transfers flag to another country then the certificate will become invalid, except that the certificate will remain valid fora further period of 5 months, till then the new flag state should issue a new certificate and place that onboard the ship. After the transfer takes place the the ship should transfer to the old flag state the copy of the certificate with a copy of the survey report if possible.
(B) Discharge of Sewage I Subject to the provisions of of this Annex, the discharge of sewage into sea is prohibited, except when: the ship is discharging comminuted and disinfected sewage using a system approved by the Administration at a distance of more than 3 nautical miles from the nearest land, or sewage which is not comminuted or disinfected at distance of more than 12 nautical miles from the nearest land, provided that, in any case, the sewage that has been stored in holding tanks shall not be discharged
Figure 8.8
33
Future Issues M
instantaneously but at moderate rate when the ship is en route and proceeding at not less than 4 knots: the rate of discharge shall be approved by the Administration based upon standards developed by the Organization:
C~
the ship has in operation an approved sewage plant which has been certified by the Administration to Meet the operational requirements referred to in this annex, And the test results of the plant are laid down in the ship's international Sewage Pollution Prevention Certificate, And additionally the affluent shall not produce Visible floating solids nor cause discoloration of the surrounding water. 2. The provisions of paragraph I shall not apply to ships operating in the waters under the jurisdiction of a State and visiting ships from other States while they are in these waters and are discharging sewage in accordance with such less stringent requirements as may be Impose by such State.
Figure 8.9
When the sewage is mixed with wastes or waste water covered by other Annex of MARPOL 73/78, the requirements of those Annexes shall be complied with in addition to the requirements of this Annex.
Figure 8.10 sewage dumping Pipe in Ohio
34
33
I C)
Exceptions I The regulations concerning the discharge of sewage do not apply to: the discharge of sewage from a ship necessary for the purpose of securing the safety of a ship and those on board or saving life at sea or the discharge of sewage resulting from damage to a ship or its equipment if all reasonable precautions have been taken before and after the occurrence of the damage, for the purpose of preventing or minimizing the discharge.
Marpol Annexure IN'
Figure 8.11: Sewage dump area near a coast
(D) Reception facilities The government of each Party to the convention, which requires ships operating in waters under its jurisdiction and visiting ships while in its water undertakes to ensure the provision of reception facilities at ports and terminals of the reception of sewage, without causing delay to ships, adequate to meet the needs of the ships using them. The Government of each Party shall notify the Organization, for transmission to the contracting Governments concerned, of all cases where the facilities provided contracting under this regulation are alleged to be inadequate. regulatio Standard Discharge Connections To enable pipes of reception facilities to be connected with the ship's discharge pipeline, both lines shall be fitted with a standard discharge connection in accordance with the following table.
DESCRIPTION Outside diameter Inner diameter Bolt circle diameter Slots in flange
DIMENSION 210 mm According to pipe diameter 170 mm 4 holes, 18 mm in diameter, equidistantly placed on a bolt circle of the above diameter, slotted to the flange periphery. The slot width to be 18 mm 16 mm
Flange thickness
Bolts and nuts (quantity and'dia) 4, each of 16 mm in diameter and of suitable length The flange is designed to accept pipes up to a maximum internal diameter of 100 mm and designe be of steel or other equivalent material having a flat face. This flange, together with a suitable gasket, shall he suitable for a service pressure of 6 kg/cm2. For ships g havin a moulded depth of 5 m and less, the inner diameter of the I discharge connection may be 38 mm. 35
Future Issues
8.5 CALCULATIONS ON SEWAGE GENERATION

The exact amount of sewage and waste water flow generated on board is difficult to quantify, However, the following guidelines are sometimes used.
Sonic of the European designers tend to work on the basis of 70 litres per cap per day (lpcd) of toilet waste including flushing water and about 130150 1pcd of wash water including that from wash basins, laundry etc.
2.
The US authorities suggest that the effluents from toilets may be as high as 1 14 Ipcd and wash water twice that quantity.
L_
In order to reduce the quantity of effluents produced in the toilets, the designers have come out with various innovations such as: (i) (ii) Recycling of flushing water. Vacuum system in which the solid waste is sucked using negligible amount of flushing water The effluents produced in showers, baths and wash basins are normally discharged overboard directly. However, local regulations in certain countries do not permit this.
8.6 THE FACTORS ON WHICH THE QUALITY OF EFFLUENT IS BASED

While discharging treated effluents in territorial waters one or more of the following factors are considered to determine the quality of the said effluents. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): is a measure of the total amount of oxygen
~ 1
I.
which will be taken up by the chemical and organic matter in the effluent. It is important in two fold. Firstly, if the waterway in which the effluent isis overloaded with oxygen absorbing matter then the oxygen content in the effected water will be reduced to a level at which fish, plants and other living organism will not be supported. Secondly, a class of bacteria which can live without oxygen will predominate in the sewage or in the waterway to which it is discharged. The bacteria associated with this condition produce hydrogen sulfide which is toxic. HOD is usually associated with a specific period and that normally taken is five days. This value, written as BOD5 is determined by incubating one liter sample of sewage at 20" C diluted in well oxygenated water. The amount of oxygen absorbed over the five day period is then measured.
C,
2.
Suspended solid contents: is unsightly and over a period of time can give rise to silting problems. They are usually a sign of a malfunctioning sewage plant and when very high, will be accompanied by a high BOD. Suspended solids are measured by filtering a sample through a pre-weighed filter pad which is dried and then reweighed. The E-coliform: is a family of bacteria which live in human intestine. They can be quantified easily in a laboratory test, the result of which is indicative of the human waste present in a particular sewage sample. The result of this test is called a-coll. count and is expressed per 100 ml.
3.
36
Depending up on the quality of effluents produced the various Administrations have recognized several types of sewage plants which are collectively described as Marine Sanitation Devices (MSD). The US Coast Guard recognizes the following distinctive types: Type I: A flow-through device from which the effluent contains no visible floating solids and produces an e-coli count of less than 1000/100 ml. Type II: A flow-through device from which the effluent contains suspended solids of no more than 150 mg/Itr and has an e-coli count of less than 200/100 ml. Type III: A zero discharge device i.e. holding tank or recirculation device.
8.8 TYPICAL SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANTS

Sewage treatment plants are of the following types Biological sewage treatment plant. Chemical sewage plant Biological sewage treatment plan(.
F i g 8 . 1 2 is a Diagrammatic view and Fig 8.13 is a sectional view of a Biological sewage treatment plant. This type is widely seen on board merchant vessels. This is an aerobic type sewage treatment plant which works on extended aeration process. Basically this consists of oxygenating the effluent either by bubbling air through it (in this case) or by agitating the surface. By doing so the family of bacteria is propagated which thrives on the oxygen content and digests the sewage to produce an innocuous sludge. These bacteria reduce the BOD by converting the organic content of the sewage to a chemically and organically inert sludge.
M T E
E A
-el
*PPATION
SETTLING
AERATION
CHLORiNP CONTACT
Figure 8.12: Schematic Diagram of Super Trident Sewage Treatment Unit
In order to exist, the bacteria need air and nutrient (the sewage). If the source of nutrient is cut off of by shutting down the plant or by by-passing the treatment plant, the bacteria die and the plant cannot function correctly unless a new colony of bacteria is generated. This process can take seven to fourteen days. This is also true when the plant is commissioned initially or after major repairs. Bacteria which live in the presence of oxygen are called aerobic. When oxygen is not present the 37
Future Issues
aerobic bacteria cannot live and a different family of bacteria, called anaerobic generated. Though, the anaerobic bacteria are equally capable of producing an
g
inert
sludge, in doing so they generate hydrogen sulphide, carbon dioxide and methane
1. Solenoid valve, controlling fresh water supply to chlorinator 2. Chlorinator. 3. Waste water inlet 4. Transfer port 5. Vent 6. Soil inlets 7. Inlet screen
Aeration section Diffuser Settling compartment Sludge return (airlift ated sludge to aeratlori 12. Stilling chamber 13. Aeration compressors 14. To overboard discharge
8. 9. 10. 11.
Figure 8.13: Example of Extended Aeration Sewage Plant
This plant basically consists of three interconnected tanks. (Please refer to Fig. 8.12 and 8.13). The effluent may be comminuted (passed through a device which consists of a rotating knife-edge drum which acts both as a filter and a cutter) or simply passed through a bar screen from where it passes to the first chamber. Compressed air is supplied to the first chamber via a diffuser which breaks the air in to fine bubbles. After a while, by the action of aerobic bacteria, a biological sludge is formed and is dispersed through out the tank by the agitation caused by the rising bubbles. The liquid from the aeration tank passes to a settling tank where, under quiescent conditions, the activated sludge as it is known, settles and leaves a clear effluent. The activated sludge cannot be allowed to remain in the settling tank as there is no oxygen supplied to this area and if done so, in a very short time the collected sludge would become anaerobic and give off offensive odors (hydrogen sulphide, carbon dioxide and Methane). The sludge is continuously recycled to the aeration tank where it mixes with the incoming waste to assist in the treatment process. Over a period of time there could be build up of sludge in these tanks. At regular intervals, normally three months, the sewage treatment plant is desludged. The
38
desludging operation entails pumping out about three quarter of the aeration tank contents and refilling with clean water. The clear effluent is disinfected in the chlorinator in order to reduce the coliforms to an acceptable level. Calcium or sodium hypochlorite solution or tablets are used for chlorination. In some plants disinfection is carried out by ultra violet radiation. After chlorination the effluents are passed to the collection tank and held there at least for 60 minutes for completing the disinfection process. Normally the effluent discharge pump is operated automatically by the action of level switches Chemical sewage treatment plant Fig 3 shows a diagrammatic representation of Chemical treatment type sewage treatment plant. It is important to maintain the correct chemical dosage rates and these are determined by taking daily sample and performing a simple chemical test. Failure to maintain the correct dosage may result in some chemical odour of the flush water and darkening of its colour. By incorrect dosing the effluent can also develop high alkalinity and consequent corrosion of the system piping and tanks.
Marpol Annexure IV
SALT WATELR--- ~. 1 STORAGE TANK
TO OTHER SERVICES
WATER CLOSETS'YPASS
L
I
j
COMMINUTOR
IN
COMPRESSED AIR SUPPLY PRESSURE

T A N K
SEA- SUCTION i . 1 L~ FILTER

It*-
CHEMICAL
DISSOLVINGBASKET
,N CHEMICAL DOSING TANK RECIRCULATING PUMP
t
TO SULLAGE T AN K S U C TI O N SANITARY PUMP "'TO SULLAGE TANK CHEMICAL TREATMENT TANK SETTLI N G TANK
OVERBOARD DISCHARGE
Figure 8.14: Example of Chemical Sewage Plant
SAQ 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) Define "Sewage" with respect to MARPOL 73/78 Annex IV. To which all categories of ships MARPOL 73/78 Annex IV is applicable. Which all systems are present on ships for dealing with sewage? What are the various discharge criteria for sewage using various methods? What is a Standard discharge connection? What are its dimensions? What are the exceptions under which the discharge criteria are not applicable'?
39
Future issues
(g) (h) (i)
What are the special requirements for discharge of sewage using holding tanks? Briefly describe how does the Biological sewage treatment plant work? Briefly describe how does the Chemical sewage treatment plant work? What are Sewage reception facilities? Why are they required in Ports?
0)
8.9 SUMMARY
Operational wastes which produced during the day to day running of the Ships and discharge of raw sewage into the sea can create a health hazard while in coastal areas. We have learnt that every ship which is required to comply with the provisions of this annex is required to be equipped with either a sewage treatment plant, or a sewage comminuting and disinfecting system or a holding tank, depending on the operation of the ship and number of persons on board. We have also learnt in this unit about the mandatory certificates which are required for ships and about the reception facilities in Pons.
40
UNIT 9 MARPOL ANNEXURE VI - PART A: PREVENTION OF AIR POLLUTION

Structure
9.1 9.2 Introduction
Objectives
.W
History of Air Pollution Legislations
9.3 IMO's Work on Air Pollution 9.4 Factors Affecting Air Pollution 9.5 Annex VI Regulations for the Prevention of Air Pol I ution 9.6 Summar y
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Air pollution is a broad term applied to any chemical, physical (e.g. particulate matter), or biological agent that modifies the natural characteristics of the atmosphere. The atmosphere is a complex, dynamic natural system that is essential to support life on planet earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the earth's ecosystems. Worldwide air pollution is responsible for large numbers of deaths and cases of respiratory disease. Enforced air quality standards, like the Clean Air Act in the United States, have reduced the presence of some pollutants. While major stationary sources are often identified with air pollution, the greatest source of emissions are actually mobile sources, principally automobiles. There are many available air pollution control technologies and urban planning strategies available to reduce air pollution however, worldwide costs of addressing the issue are high. The most immediate method of improving air quality would be the use of bioethanol fuel, biodiesel, solar energy. and hybrid vehicle technologies. Air pollution can be seen on roads, in the vicinity of power stations, and in shipping routes where the traffic density is high. Public demand for clean air, backed up by international protocols, is putting pressure on the shipping industry to improve the emission standards on board merchant vessels.
Figure 9.1
A containership one of about 20 a day travels between the coast of Santa Barbara County and the Channel Islands en route to Long Beach/Los Angeles Harbor. Diesel
41
Future Issues
pollution from ships is the largest single contributor to air pollution in Santa Barbara County.
Objectives
After studying this
U
nit you should be able to:
state in brief the Regulations in Annex VI of MARPOL 73/78 in a simple and concise manner, state the technological advancements in the field of controlling air pollution
from ships.
9.2 HISTORY OF AIR POLLUTION LEGISLATIONS

The issue of controlling air pollution form ships - in particular, noxious gases from ships' exhausts - was discussed in the lead up to the adoption of the 1973 MARPOL Convention. However, it was decided not to include regulations concerning air pollution at the time. The 1972 United,Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm marked the start of active international cooperation in combating acidification, or acid rain. In 1979, a ministerial meeting on the protection of the environment, in Geneva, resulted in the signing of the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution by 34 governments and the European Community. This was the first international legally binding instrument to deal with problems of air pollution on a broad regional basis. Protocols to this Convention were later signed on reducing sulphur emissions ( 1985); controlling emissions of nitrogen oxides (1988); controlling emissions of volatile organic compounds (1991) and further reducing sulphur emissions (1994). In 1987 the Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the Ozone Layer was signed. The Montreal Protocol is an international environmental treaty, drawn up under the auspices of the United Nations, under which nations agreed to cut consumption and production of ozone-depleting substances including chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons in order to protect the ozone layer. A Protocol was adopted in London in 1990 - amending the original protocol and setting the year 2000 as the target completion date for phasing out of halons and ozone-depleting CFCs. A second Protocol was adopted in Copenhagen in 1992, introducing accelerated phase-out dates for controlled substances, cutting short the use of transitional substances and the introduction of phase-out dates for HCFCs and methyl bromide (a pesticide gas which depletes the ozone layer), CFCs have been in widespread use since the 1950s as refrigerants, aerosol propellants, solvents, foam blowing agents and insulants. In shipping, CFCs are used to refrigerate ship and container cargo, insulate cargo holds and containers, air condition crew quarters and occupied areas and refrigerate domestic food storage compartments. Haloes, manufactured from CFCs, are effective fire extinguishers used in portable fire extinguishers and fixed fire prevention systems.
9.3 IMO'S WORK ON AIR POLLUTION

The Protocol of 1997 (MARPOL Annex VI) The Protocol adopted in 1997 included the new Annex VI of MARPOL 73/78, which entered into force on 19 May 2005.
42
MARPOL Annex VI sets limits on sulphur oxide and nitrogen oxide emissions from ship exhausts and prohibits deliberate emissions of zone depleting substances. The annex includes a global cap of 4.5% mom on the sulphur content of fuel oil and calls on IMO to monitor the worldwide average sulphur content of fuel.
Marpol Annexure IV Part
A: Prevention of Air Pollution
Figure 9.2
Annex VI contains provisions allowing for special SOx Emission Control Areas (SECAS) to be established with more stringent controls on sulphur emissions. In these areas, the sulphur content of fuel oil used onboard ships must not exceed 1.5% m/m. Alternatively, ships must fit an exhaust gas cleaning system or use any other technological method to limit SOx emissions. The Baltic Sea Area is designated as a SOx Emission Control area in the Protocol. The North Sea was adopted as SOx Emission Control Area in July 2005. Annex VI prohibits deliberate emissions of ozone depleting substances, which include halons and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). New installations containing ozone-depleting substances are prohibited on all ships. But new installations containing hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are permitted until I January 2020. Annex VI also sets limits on emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) from diesel engines. A mandatory NOx Technical Code, which defines how this shall be done, was adopted by the Conference under the cover of Resolution 2. The Annex also prohibits the incineration onboard ship of certain products, such as contaminated packaging materials and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).
Review of Annex VI
At its 53rd session in July 2005, the MEPC agreed on the need to undertake a review of Annex VI and the NOx Technical Code with a view to revising the regulations to take account of current technology and the need to further reduce emissions from ships. MEPC instructed the Sub-Committee on Bulk Liquids and Gases (BLG) to carry out the review by 2007, and specifically to: examine available and developing techniques for the reduction of emissions of air pollutants; review the relevant technologies and the potential for a reduction of NOx emissions and recommend future limits for NOx emissions. review technology and the need for a reduction of SOx emissions and justify and recommend future limits for SOx emissions
43
Future Issues
consider the need, justification and possibility of controlling volatile organic compounds emissions from cargoes; with a view to controlling emissions of particulate matter (PM), study current emission levels of PM from marine engines, including their size distribution and quantity, and recommend actions to be taken for the reduction of PM from ships. Since reduction of NOx and SO emission is expected to also reduce PM emission, estimate the level of PM emission reduction through this route consider reducing NOx and PM emission limits for existing engines consider whether Annex VI emission reductions or limitations should be extended to include diesel engines that use alternative fuels and engine systems/power plants other than diesel engines review the texts of Annex VI, NOx Technical Code and related guidelines and recommend necessary amendments. July 2005 amendments The Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) at its 53rd session in July 2005 adopted amendments to MARPOL Annex VI, including one on the new North Sea SOx Emission Control Area (SECA). The entry into force date for the North Sea SECA amendment is expected to be 22 November 2006, with its full implementation 12 months later. The Committee noted information gained from monitoring the worldwide sulphur content in fuel oils for 2004 which gave a three-year (2002-2004) rolling average of sulphur content in fuel oil worldwide of 2.67% m/m. The MEPC adopted Guidelines on on-board exhaust gas-SOx cleaning systems; Survey Guidelines under the Harmonized System for Survey and Certification for MARPOL Annex Vk Unified interpretations of MARPOL Annex VI; and Guidelines for Port State Control under MARPOL Annex VI. The MEPC also adopted amendments to update the NOx Technical Code. The MEPC approved Interim Guidelines for Voluntary Ship CO2 Emission' Indexing for Use in Trials. MEPC 54 outcome At its 54th session in March 2006, a working groDp was established to consider issues relating to the prevention of air pollution from ships, including follow-up action to the IMO Policies and practices related to the reduction of greenhouse .gas emissions from ships (resolution A.963(23)).
44
Figure 9.3
Following the work by the group, the MEPC approved two circulars aimed at assisting implementation of MARPOL Annex VI:1. The MEPC Circular on Bunker Delivery Note and Fuel Oil Sampling, to clarify how to comply with regulation 18, which places requirements on ship owners and fuel oil suppliers in respect of bunker delivery notes and representative samples of the fuel oil received and on Parties to the 1997 Protocol to regulate the bunker suppliers in their ports. The circular urges all Member States, both Parties and non-Parties to the 1997 Protocol, to require fuel oil suppliers in their ports to comply with the requirements and to raise awareness of the necessity to enhance implementation and enforcement of regulation 18 of Annex VI. 2. The MEPC circular on Notification. to the Organization o n ports or terminals where volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emissions are to be regulated, which notes that regulation 15 of Annex VI requires Parties to inform the Organization of their intention to introduce requirements for the use of vapour emission control systems and to notify the Organization of ports and terminals under their jurisdiction where such requiren ents are already in force. However, many terminals are implementing or operating such practices without notification to the Organization. The Committee shared the concern that, since there is no circulation of such information, it is difficult for owners and operators to prepare for these changes at ports and terminals. The circular reiterates that Parties to the 1997 Protocol are required to notify the Organization without delay with information on ports and terminals under their jurisdiction at which VOCs emissions are or will be regulated, and on requirements imposed on ships calling at these ports and terminals. Any information received by the Organization on the availability of vapour emission control systems will be circulated through MEPC circulars so that owners and operators will have up to-date information on current and future requirements for the utilization of such systems. As instructed by MEPC 53, the Sub-Committee on Bulk Liquids and Gases (BLG) will undertake a review of MARPOL Annex VI and the NOx Technical Code with a view to revising the regulations to take account of current technology and the need to further reduce air pollution from ships. The progress of this work will be reported to the next session of the MEPC. The Committee and its Working Group on Air Pollution had long and extensive debates on how to follow up resolution A.963(23) on IMO Policies and Practices related to the Reduction of dreenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships. By the resolution, the Assembly urged MEPC to identify and develop the necessary mechanisms needed to achieve the limitation or reduction of GHG emissions from international shipping. Among the items considered was whether only emission of CO2 or of all six greenhouse gases identified by the Kyoto Protocol should be included. The MEPC agreed to consider the follow-up actions to resolution A.963(23) in a technical and methodological perspective and to concentrate the work on CO2 emissions. The Committee also agreed to continue the work at the next session and, in particular, to consider further a draft work plan to identify and develop the mechanisms needed to achieve the goal set by the Assembly At IMO, the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) in the mid1980s had been reviewing the quality of fuel oils in relation to discharge requirements in Annex I and the issue of air pollution had been discussed. In 1988, the MEPC agreed to include the issue of air pollution in its work programme following a submission from Norway on the scale of the
Marpol Annexure VI Part - A: Prevention of Air Pollution
45
Future Issues
problem. In addition, the Second International Conference on the Protection of the North Sea, held i n November 1987, had issued a declaration in whit h the ministers of North Sea states agreed to initiate actions within appropriate agree such its IMO, "leading to improved quality standards of heavy fuels and to actively support this work aimed at reducing marine and atmospheric Pollution." At the next MEPC session, i n March 1989, various countries submitted papers referring to fuel oil quality and atmospheric pollution, and it was agreed to look at the prevention of air pollution from ships - as well as fuel oil quality - as part of the committee's lon g -term work pro g ramme, starting in March 1990. In 1990, Norway submitted a number of papers to the MEPC giving an overview on air pollution from ships. The papers noted:
(a)
(b)
tons per year - about 4 percent of total lobal sulphur emissions. Emissions Z7 over open seas are spread out and effects moderate, hut o n certain routes the emissions create environments problems, includin g En g lish Channel, South China Sea, Strait of Malacca. Nitrogen oxide emissions from ships were put at around 5 million tons per year - about 7 percent of total global emissions. Nitrogen oxide emissions cause or add to regional problems including acid rain and health problems in regiona areas such as harbours.
Sulphur emissions from ships' exhausts were estimated atg4.5 to 6.5 million
(c)
Emissions of CFCs from the world shipping fleet was estimated at 3,0006,000 tons - approximately 1 to 3 percent of yearly global emissions. Halon globa from shipping were put at 300 to 400 tons, or around 10 percent
of world total.
A diagram to help explain the process of global warming and how greenhouse warming gases create the "greenhouse effect" is given in Figure 9.4.
5 sorne hat is able to pass through the gases. Radiation
2. Planet's atmosphere
contains Greenhouses
6. some heat just cant pass through a nd remains atmosphere, adding to the
3. Solar radiation passes through the gases.
ris es from the surface.
Figure 9.4: Pictorial Depiction of Green House Effect
46
9.4 FACTORS AFFECTING AIR POLLUTION

(a)
Marpol Annexure V1 Part A: Prevention of Air Pollution
Green house gases add to natural 'greenhouse effect' causing global warming. The six green house gases are nitrous oxide (dinitrogen oxide or N2O) Carbon dioxide, methane, hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs), per fluorocarbons (PFCs) and Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF 6 ). In November 2003, IMO adopted resolution A.963(23) IMO Policies and practices related to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from ships. At its 52nd session i n October 2004, the Marine Environment Protection Committee made progress on developing draft Guidelines on the CO2 Indexing Scheme and urged Members to carry out trials using the scheme and to report to the next session. One purpose of developing guidelines on CO, emission indexing is to develop a simple system that could be used voluntarily by ship operators during a trial period. The Committee agreed that a CO2 indexing scheme should be simple and easy to apply and take into consideration matters related to construction and operation of the ship, and market based incentives. At its 53rd session in July 2005, the MEPC approved Interim Guidelines for Voluntary Ship CO2 Emission b flexing for Use in Trials. Meanwhile, the Committee recognized that IMO guidelines on greenhouse gas emissions have to address all six greenhouse gases covered by the Kyoto Protocol (Carbon dioxide (CO2); Methane (CH 4 ); Nitrous oxide (N20); Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs); Perfluorocarbons (PFCs); and Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6).
(b)
Ozone is a gas composed of 3 atoms of oxygen. Sunlight and heat cause Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) to react with Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) to form ground level ozone. This ground level ozone is bluish in color and is part of smog which is found in urban areas. This can cause respiratory problems in human beings, damage crops and building materials. This also interferes with the production and storage of food in plants and its overall health. The naturally occurred ozone which is in the stratosphere (15 to 40 km above the earth surface) acts as a protective layer and prevents harmful UV rays from reaching the earths surface. Ozone depleting Substances (ODS): means the compounds that contribute to stratospheric Ozone depletion. These includes CFCs (chlorofluorocarbon) HCFCs (Hydro chlorofluorocarbons), Halon (a compound consisting of Methyl Bromide, Carbon tetrachloride and methyl chloroform). The Ozone layer in stratosphere is constantly created and destroyed through natural cycles. When ODS reach the y throug it is broken down under intense UW light and chlorine or bromine atoms are released. These atoms accelerate the destruction process of ozone resulting in a lower than normal ozone level. CFCs were widely used as refrigerants and are prohibited from the date of entry in to force of Annex VI. HCFCs are chosen to replace CFCs and will he permitted till 01 January 2020 as it is less harmful compared to CFCs.
(c)
Ozone-depleting substance that may be found on board ship include, but not limited to: Halon 1211 Bron chlorodifluoromethane Halon 1301 Bromotrifluoromethane Halon 2402 1,2-Dibromo- 1, 1,2,2-tetrafl uoroethene (also known as Halon 114B2) CFC- I I Trichlorofluoromethane CFC-12 CFC-113 CFC-1 14 Dichlorodifluoromethane 1, 1,2-Trichloro- 1,2,2-trifluoroethane 1,2-Dichloro-1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethane
4l
Future Issues
CFC- 115
C h I oropent afl uoroethane
(d) Volatile Organic Components (VOCs): When Petroleum products or crude oil is
loaded or discharged from a ship a large quantity of lighter components from the cargo are evaporated this oil vapor is known as VOCs or Volatile Organic Components. Evaporation also occurs during voyage due to splashing of cargo with in the tank. As per certain studies carried out it is estimated that, about 1 m tonnes of cargo is lost due to this type of evaporation in one year. This also has a climatic impact of about 20 times greater than that of Carbon dioxide, one of the gases responsible for green house effect. 'The main harmful substances produced In the combustion process are Nitrogen oxides (NOx), Sulphurs oxides (SOX), Carbon dioxide. and Particulate matter (soot). These are harmful to human health and environmental.Emission of NOx and SOX can eventually cause acid,position wet or dry (wet - rain, fog or snow and dry particles or gas). In gencral terms this is knownn as acid rain. One member of NOx, nitrous oxide (NO) and Carbon dioxide green house gases. NOx also helps in formation of ground level ozone. Engine manufacturers are doing their best by entrancing the qualit y A engine design in order to improve the emission standards. Another factor which affects the quality of combustion is the fuel. The present day marine fuels are comparatively cheap "end of the barrel" heavy fuels which are high in sulphur content. Lighter fuels which are low in sulphur content are more expensive and are in short supply. In order to achieve cleaner emission the following are considered. 1. Scrubbing and cleaning the exhaust gases before it is let out to atmosphere. 2. Switching to a better quality fuel when the ship is in an environmentally fragile sea area. Shutting down the power plant completely and plugging to shore power while in environmentally sensitive ports.
3.
9.5 ANNEX VI - REGULATIONS FOR THE PREVENTION OF AIR POLLUTION

This Annex entered into force on 19th May 2005.
Note: The following is a simplified version of the relevant regulations. Though every care has been taken to maintain the meaning while interpreting, the original N version of the rules is to be referred for any clarification. Regulation 8 Form of Certificate
The International Air Pollution Prevention Certificate shall be drawn up in an official language of the issuing country in the form corresponding to the model given in appendix I to this Annex. If the language used is not English, French, or Spanish, the text shall include a translation into one of these languages.
48
Form of IAPP Certificate (Regulation 8)
Marpol Annexure VI Part A: Prevention of Air Pollution
INTERNATIONAL AIR POLLUTION PREVENTION CERTIFICATE
Issued under the provisions the Protocol of 1997 to amend the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships. 1973 as modified of the Protocol of 1978 prelating thereto, and a amended by resolution MEPC, 132(53), (hereinafter referred to as "the Convention" ) under the authority of the Government of:
(full designation of the country)
By ........................................................................................................................................
(full designation of the competent person or organization authorized under the provisions of the Convention)
Name of Ship
Distinctive number or letters
IMO number
Port of registry Gross Tonnage
Ty pe of ship tanker ships other than a tanker
49
Future Issues
THIS IS TO CERTIFY:
That the ship has been surveyed in accordance with regulation 5 of Annex VI of the Convention, and
2.
That the survey ws that the equipment, systems, fittings, arrangements and materials fully comply with the applicable requirements of Annex VI of the Convention.
This certificate is valid until................... subject to surveys in accordance with regulation 5 of Annex VI of the Convention.
Issued at
(place of issue of certificate)
(Date of issue)
(Signature of duly authorized official/ issuing the certificate)
(Seal or stamp of the authority, as appropriate)
50
I
Marpol Annexure V1 Part - A: Prevention of Air Pollution
ENDORSEMENT FOR ANNUAL AND INTERMEDIATE SURVEYS
THIS IS TO CERTIFY that at a survey required by regulation 5 of Annex VI of the Convention the ship was bound to comply with the relevant provisions of the Convention.
Ar
Annual survey:
Signed............................................................. (Signature of duly authorized official) Place ............................................................... Date ................................................................
Annual*/ Intermediate* survey:
Signed ........................................................... (Signature of duly authorized official) Place ............................................................... Date ................................................................
J,
Annual*/ Intermediate* survey:
Signed ........................................................... (Signature of duly authorized official) Place ............................................................... Date ................................................................
Annual survey:
Signed............................................................. (Signature of duly authorized official) Place ............................................................... Date ................................................................
* Delete as appropriate
51
Future Issues
Regulation 9 Duration and alidity of Certificate (1) An International Air Pollution Prevention Certificate shall beisued fora period specified by the Administration, which shall not exceed five years from the date of issue subject to annual, intermediate and periodical surveys.
Regulation 12 Ozone depleting substances Annex VI prohibits any deliberate emissions of ozone-depleting substances and equipment containing such substances, shall be delivered to appropriate reception facilities when removed from a ship. New installations which contain ozonedepleting substances are prohibited on all ships after the entry into force date, except that new installations containing hydrochlorflourocarbons (HCFCs) are permitted until 1 January 2020. The use of Halon in fire extinguishing systems and equipment is already prohibited for new buildings. For new buildings, this requirement in Annex VI will therefore always be complied with. More restrictive requirements for ozone depleting substances are in place regionally, e.g. in the European Union (EU). Regulation 13 Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) Regulation 13 of Annex VI concerns NOx-emission from diesel engines and shall apply to:
each diesel engine with a power output of more than 130 kW which is installed on a ship constructed on or after I January 2000; and each diesel engine with a power output of more than 130 kW which undergoes a major conversion on or after I January 2000.
This regulation does not apply to: Emergency diesel engines, engines installed in life boats or for any equipment intended to be used solely in case of emergency. The phrase "major conversion ", means a modification of an engine where:
the engine is replaced by a new engine built on or after I January 2000, or any substantial modification is made to the engine, as described in the NOx Technical Code 1.3.2 (e.g. changing camshaft, fuel injection system, or any other NOx-related settings or components), or the maximum continuous rating of the engine is increased by more than 10%
For this purpose, Substantial Modification is defined as follows: For engines installed on vessels constructed on or after 1 January 2000, a Substantial Modification means any modification to an engine that could potentially cause the engine to exceed the emission standards set out in Regulation 13 of Annex VI. Routine replacement of engine components by parts specified in the Technical File that do not alter emission characteristics shall not be considered a "Substantial Modification", regardless of whether one part or many parts are replaced.
52
For engines installed on vessels constructed before January 2000, a Substantial Modification means any modification made to an engine which increases its existing emission characteristics established by the simplified measurement method as described below in excess of the allowances set out in the NOx Technical file. -These changes include, but are not limited to, changes in its operations or in its technical parameters (e.g. changing camshaft, fuel injection systems, air systems, combustion chamber configuration, or timing calibration of the engine)
Marpol Annexure V I Part A: Prevention of Air Pollution
According to Annex VI the operation of applicable diesel engines are prohibited except when the emission of nitrogen oxides from the engine is within the following limits: (i) (ii) (iii) 17,0 g /kWh when n is less than 130 rpm 45,0 x 0.2) g/kWh when n is 130 or more but less than 2000 rpm 9,8 g /kWh when n is 2000 rpm or more
where n = rated engine speed (crankshaft revolution per minute) and the emission of nitrogen oxides are calculated as total weighted emission of NO2.
N XV % h O'k %
18 16 14
Ltt 8 6 4
1)
I
Engine speed(RPM)
Figure 9.5 . Certification
and Onboard Verification
The EIAPP (Engine International air pollution ) certificate is required for all diesel engines as described above andll be issued for marine diesel engines after demonstrating compliance with NOx emission limits. The certification process is to be carried out in accordance with the NOx Technical Code issued by IMO. Surveys and Inspections Following the regime of the LAPP certificate, the diesel engines will also be subject for the following surveys: An initial survey before the ship is put into service or before the IAPP Certificate is issued for the first time. Periodical surveys at intervals specified by the Administration, but not exceeding five years, A minimum of one intermediate survey during the period of validity of the certificate.
53
Future Issues
Annual Surveys (or a Flag Administration may instead implement unscheduled inspections as an alternative to Annual surveys) Regulation 14 - Sulphur Oxides (SOx) General Upon entry into force of Annex VI to MARPOL on the 19 May 2005, the sulphur oxide (SOx) emissions from ships will be controlled by setting a limit of 4.5% on the sulphur content of marine fuel oils. Further, a limit of 1.5% on the sulphur content of marine fuel oil will apply in designated SOx Emission Control Areas (SECAs). IMO has currently agreed on the designation of two SECA's as per below. The first designated SECA is the Baltic Sea Area which has been agreed that will enter into force on the 19 May 2006. The second area, the North Sea Area and the English Channel has also been agreed, but due to the amendment process in IMO, it has been indicated that it will not enter into force as a SECA until 19 November 2007. It is expected that further SECA's will be designated in the future and IMO has set forth certain criteria for designating such SECA's. It should however be noted that the amendment process within IMO may take considerable time. For the sake of good order, it should be noted that the limitations in sulphur content applies to all fuel oils (heavy fuel oils, marine diesel oils and gas oils) and regardless of use on board (i.e. in combustion engines, boilers, gas turbines etc.).
Figure 9.6: Indication of SECA's
Currently, the average sulphur content in fuel oils is in the region of 2.7%. Results of the comprehensive number of fuel samples tested by DNV Petroleum Services indicate that only 0.2% of the fuel oils tested have a sulphur content exceeding the required 4.5%. However, it also indicates that only 4% of the fuel oils supplied today have a sulphur content of 1.5% or less. It has been estimated that the low sulphur fuel oil demand in the SECA's will be in the region of 14-20 million tons per year, of which approximately 0.7 million tons per year is available in North West Europe today. Exhaust Gas Cleaning systems As an alternative to using marine fuel oil with a 1.5% sulphur content in SECA's, an exhaust gas cleaning system or other equivalent system may be used (abatement technologies). The emission criteria for such systems are 6 g SOx/kWh.
54
&-YAM. W
Exhaust gas cleanings system
Figure 9.7
Development of a type approval standard for such systems is on goingin IRMO. The current available abatement technology is based on seawater scr ebbing principles. There is however a few concerns related to these types of scru bber bber type systems: Annex VI states that port states may prohibit discharge of scrubber effluent overboard in ports within SECA's unless it can be documented that the effluent complies with criteria set by that port state. A mitigating measure is installation of filtration/treatment systems. It has been indicated that conventional scrubber technology may he struggling to meet the emission criteria at high exhaust gas discharge flows. Its has been indicated that there is a risk of blue-sheen originating from the scrubber overboard discharge. Although, not necessarily constituting an environmental hazard, the mere risk of such occurrences is to some operators unacceptable. There are space considerations in the engine room and more specifically the funnel. Although it has been indicated that the more advanced scrubber types can replace standard silencers, the associated piping systems may represent a challenge. Pressure drop in scrubbers has also been indicated as a limitation, particular in way of main engines uptakes. Tanker owners have had mixed experiences with corrosion of inert gas scrubbers and associated piping systems. Low Sulphur Heavy Fuel It has been indicated that experience in terms of low sulphur residual (or heavy) fuel oil blending is varying and that quality problems are to be expected. Although there is limited usage of (blended) low sulphur fuel oils, low sulphur processing of fuel oils may lead to additional quality problems such as instability, incompatibility, ignition and combustion difficulties and an increase of catalytic fines levels. Regrettably one has also seen cases where chemical waste has been introduced in such fuel. In light of the required demand for low sulphur fuel oils, there have also been concerns over the potential increase of sulphur content in high sulphur fuel oils. Fuel tank/system configuration It should be noted that when approaching a SECA the fuel must be changed over to the 1.5% sulphur content fuel and completed before entering the SECA.
55
Future Issues
For ships with standard fuel oil system configurations (one service and settling tank), this will involve filling of settling tanks with low sulphur fuel oil, adequate fuel treatment of same and subsequent filling of service tank, as well as flushing of the fuel service piping systems of high sulphur fuel oil. The current problems with incompatibility between heavy fuel oils, and between heavy fuel oils and marine diesels are not expected to disappear with increased demands for low sulphur heavy fuel oils (excessive sedimentation/sludging and separator and filter problems).
tank
rra
T..k
Tank
Po,sstbie arrangementditional fueloil tanks
The below shows the arrangement of fuel oil tank piping arrangement as per the optional DNV class notation FUhich enables handling of different fuel qualities.
0-0 Pipo --t t vA ITI Tank T. 1. 2 t u x j$ MCR
ta.*
24 lip,
To
tank
MF (I ';ij;w ' my " 'w e ak , T"k t .t ~ q _

lank
F - 4 .0 PLICOWt
H'I'dfing of Jiflersni fuels.
Figure 9.8
Considering the differences in cost, some owners are installing an additional set of service and settling tanks for low sulphur fuel oils. Additional bunker tanks are considered installed for the same reasons. Such measures would also simplify change-over procedures and bunker management. Inadequate availability of low sulphur heavy fuel oils may force owners to increase the consumption of low sulphur diesel oils within SECA's. Owners will therefore have to assess whether the diesel oil tank capacity needs to be upgraded. The differences in cost between low and high sulphur heavy fuel oils as well as between heavy fuel oils and low sulphur diesel oils, has led some owners to consider separating fuel treatment and service piping systems. This is increasingly important with respect to potential requirements to use of ultra low sulphur fuels in EU ports (Auxiliary engines and boilers). In order to facilitate safe and simple change-over, the installation of separate marine gas oil/diesel oil supply piping with heating capabilities should be
considered. (While separate direct diesel oil supply lines are often arranged for auxiliary diesel engines, the same is less frequently encountered for boilers and main engines.) The below serves as examples of proposed modifications regarding duplicated heavy fuel oil service and settling tanks and piping systems. Change-over procedures Change-over between heavy fuel oil grades is standard practice and so is changeover from heavy fuel oil to marine diesel oil in connection with e.g. drydockings. Changeover from heavy fuel oil to marine gas oil is however completely different and clearly not common standard. If gas oil is mixed in while the fuel temperature is still very high, there is a high probability of gassing in the fuel oil service system with subsequent loss of power. It should be acknowledged that the frequency and timing of such change-over may increase and become far more essential upon entry into force of SECA's and the EU proposed amendments Additionally, the time, ship's posit ons at the start and completion of change-over to and from 1.5% fuel oil must be recorded in a logbook (e.g. ER log. book), together with details of the tanks involved and fuel used. It can be anticipated that the same will be applicable with respect to the EU proposal upon entry into force. Bunker management In view of the change-over requirements, bunker grade segregation constraints, uncertainty in terms of low-sulphur fuel oil availability and potential quality problems, the flexibility in bunker management may be impaired. In addition to the potential increase in fuel oil cost, it could also result in increased frequency of bunkering. Further, owners/managers and charterers may need to amend their bunker specifications, fuel supply agreements as well as charter parties to take the new requirements into account. Regulation 15 Volatile Organic Compounds Emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from tankers may by each party to Annex VI be regulated in its ports and terminals. Such requirements shall be given in a list published by IMO. The list shall also specify size of tankers, and which cargoes, that requires vapour emission control system. All tankers which are subject to vapour emission control in accordance with above list shall be provided with an approved vapour collection system, and shall use such system during the loading of such cargoes. Existing tankers which are not fitted with vapour collection systems may be accepted for a period of three years after the terminal was included in the above list. DNV has for many years had class notations VCS 1 and 2 for vapour control systems complying with IMO Guidelines (MSC/Circ.585), and USCG regulations. It may be noted that a vessel complying with VCS- 1 or 2 will comply with regulation 15. This regulation shall oilyapplyarriers when the type of loading and containment systems allow safe retention ofon-methane VOCs on board, or their safe return ashore. Regulation 16 Shipboard Incineration Onboard incineration outside an incinerator is prohibited except that sewage sludge and sludge oil from oil separators may be incinerated in auxiliary power plants and boilers when the ship is not in ports, harbours and estuaries. Incineration of Annex 1,11 and Ill cargo residues, of PCB's (Polychlorinated biphenyls), of garbage containing more than traces of heavy metals and of refined petroleum products containing halogen compounds is always prohibited. haloge
Annexure V1 Part A: Prevention of Air Pollution
57
Future Issues
Incineration of PVC's (polyvinyl chlorides) is prohibited except in shipboard incinerators type approved according to resolutions MEPC 59(33) or MEPC 76(40). Monitoring of combustion flue gas outlet temperature shag required at all times and waste shall not be fed into a continuous-feed shipboard incinerator when the temperature is below the minimum allowed temperature of 850C. For batch-loaded shipboard incinerators, the unit shall be designed so that the temperature in the combustion chamber shall reach 600C within 5 minutes after start-up. It must be ensured that the incinerators' flue gas outlet temperature monitoring system is operational. All incinerators installed on or after I January 2000 shall be type approved in accordance with Resolution MEPC 76(40) giving the IMO standard specification for shipboard incinerators. For such incinerators a manufacturer's operating manual is required. Regulation 18 Fuel Oil Quality General While fuel oil quality is currently primarily a matter between owners/managers (and charterers) and suppliers, it will under Annex VI of MARPOL 73/78 also become a statutory matter. In addition to requirements limiting the sulphur content of oil fuel, Annex VI contains requirements preventing the incorporation of potentially harmful substances, and in particular waste streams (e.g. chemical waste), into fuel oils. Regulation 18 specifically requires that fuel oil supplied to ships is to be free from inorganic acids or chemical wastes that could jeopardise the safety of the ship, be harmful to ships' personnel, or which would contribute overall to additional air pollution. The addition of small amounts of additives intended to improve performance is however permitted. It has been indicated that Regulation 18 may be enforced in case a ship is involved in accidents or near-accidents where fuel quality is a suspected contributor. Bunker delivery notes It is a requirement of Regulation 18 that any fuel oil for combustion purposes delivered to and used onboard shall be recorded by means of a Bunker Delivery Note (BDN). This implies that a bunker delivery note shall be presented for every barge delivery and every grade. Bunker Delivery Notes are required to contain all specific information as follows: Name and IMO number of receiving ship Bunkering port Date of conmmencement of bunkering Name, address, and telephone number of marine fuel oil supplier Product name Quantity (metric tons) Density at 15 oC (kg/m3) Sulphur content (% m/m) A declaration signed and certified by the fuel oil supplier's representative that the fuel oil supplied is in conformity with regulation 14 and 18 (Le. that the fuel supplied has a sulphur level below 4.5% and that the fuel is free from inorganic acid, does not include any added substance or chemical waste 5
which either jeopardises the safety of ships, adversely affects the performance of the machinery, is harmful to personnel, or contributes overall to additional air pollution). Further, Resoiution MEPC.96(47) recommends that the seal number of the associated MARPOL Annex VI fuel sample is included in the BDN's for crossreference purposes. The BDN's are to be kept on board and readily available for inspection at all times. It shall be retained fora period of three years after the fuel oil has been delivered on board.
.4
MARPOL 73/78 Annex VI fuel oil samples Regulation 18 requires that every BDN is to be accompanied by a representative sample of the fuel oil delivered, taking into account the guidelines in Resolution MEPC.96(47). The sample is to be sealed and signed by the supplier's representative and the master or officer in charge of the bunker operation on completion of bunkering operations, and retained under the ship's control until the fuel oil is substantially consumed, but in any case fora period of not less than 12 months from the time of delivery. For the sake of good order it should be noted that the practical purpose of this sample is to enable port states to verify the sulphur content of the fuel, as well as to verify that the fuel oil quality is in accordance with Regulation 18. As Annex VI specifies that the Annex VI sample is not to be used for commercial purposes, DNV Petroleum Services recommends that for ship's already participating in a fuel oil quality testing scheme, the Annex VI sample should be the fourth sample (in addition to the sample sent to laboratory for testing, suppliers sample and the retained onboard sample). The reason is that it is considered an advantage to always have a MARPOL Annex VI sample onboard in case of port state controls. Sampling procedures Note that the referred to Resolution MEPC.96(47) specifies in detail that the fuel sample is to be obtained at the receiving ship's inlet bunker manifold and is to be drawn continuously throughout the bunker delivery period. The term continuously drawn is specified to mean a continuous collection of drip sample throughout the delivery of bunker fuel. Sampling methods are further clarified as either; manual valve-setting continuous-drip sampler (equivalent to DNV Petroleum Services' Line sampler), time-proportional automatic sampler, or flow-proportional automatic sampler.
Figure 9.9
Further the guidelines specify that sample bottle labels are to contain the following information:
Future Issues
Location at which, and the method by which, the sample was drawn Bunkering date Name of bunker tanker/bunker installation Name and IMO number of the receiving ship Signatures and names of the supplier's representative and the ship's representative Details of seal identification Bunker grade. Sample inventory Resolution MEPC.96(47) also contains recommendations on sample storage location. Specifically the samples are to be kept in a safe storage location, outside the ship's accommodation and where personnel would not be exposed to vapours which may be released from the sample. Further, the retained sample should be stored in a sheltered location where it will not be subject to elevated temperatures, preferably at a cool/ambient temperature, and where it will not be exposed to direct sunlight. On tankers, the cargo sample locker would be considered an adequate storage space. Alternatively, a suitable locker (with opening ensuring adequate air flow) in an adequately ventilated area of the engine room located at a safe distance from ignition sources and hot surfaces may be considered The above guideline also recommends that an inventory system is developed (e.g. log book) to keep track of the retained samples. Supplier's responsibility While most IMO conventions place full responsibility on the ships and ship owners,Regulation 18 places a certain responsibility on the suppliers (fuel oil quality declaration, BDN and the Annex VI fuel oil sample by continuous drip and at the receiving ships manifold). Annex VI of MARPOL also contains instruments to encourage port states to ensure that suppliers fulfill their obligations. Port states are therefore required to: Maintain a register of local suppliers of fuel oil;
Figure 9.10
Require local suppliers to provide the BDN and sample, certified by the fuel oil oilsupplierthatthefueloilmeetstherequirementsofregulations14and18.
5,9
Require local suppliers to retain a copy of the bunker delivery note for at least three years for inspection and verification by the Port State as necessary; Take action as appropriate against fuel oil suppliers that have been found to deliver fuel oil that does not comply with that stated on the Bunker Delivery Note; Inform the Flag Administration of any ship receiving fuel oil found to be noncompliant with the requirements of regulations 14 or 18 of this Annex. Inform IMO for transmission to Parties to the Protocol of 1997 of all cases where fuel oil suppliers have failed to meet the requirements specified in regulations 14 or 18. However, despite the suppliers' responsibilities and the instruments available, previous experience from Port State Controls indicates that it is advisable for owners/managers themselves to ensure compliance. In order to assist ships in ensuring that the operational requirements are met, it should be considered to include clauses related to MARPOL Annex VI compliance in bunker contracts and agreements with suppliers, as well as charter parties. Third party inspections
It can be expected that upon implementation, class surveyors, port state inspectors and possibly also vetting inspectors will scrutinise onboard documentation and records (e.g. sampling procedures, change-over procedures, ER log books, BDN's, sample inventory log books etc.), as well as the fuel oil sample inventory. Consultations with port states indicate that analysis of the onboard Annex VI samples will be carried out upon suspicion, e.g. in case of an accident or near accident.
Marpol Annexure VI Part V: Prevention of Air Pollution
Based on experiences with port state inspectors scrutinising of oil record books related to sludge and oily bilge water inventory and balance, owners and managers could expect that similar practice could be applied with respect to high-sulphur and lowsulphur fuel movements and consumption when operating in SECA's or the EU (bunker quantity is required specified in BDN's). Accordingly, it is advisable that crews are instructed and trained to thoroughly verify that the supplied quantity is in accordance with that specified in the BDN's, or alternatively that independent bunker quantity surveyors are hired for this purpose. Consultations with some port states indicate that they will require compliance as of 19 May 2005. Owners and managers are advised to ensure compliance accordingly. However, fuel oil quality testing represents a proactive approach, both in terms of verifying compliance prior to any port state control, and more importantly as a safeguard against the adverse effects of poor fuel oil quality in combustion machinery. Hopefully, third parties may also consider test reports from a reputable and accredited independent testing laboratory as equivalent to additional testing of onboard samples. Further participation in such a scheme ensures that ships have access to compliant sampling equipment (sample bottles, seals, line samplers and cubitainers).
SAQ 1
(a) (b) (c) What is air pollution and what are its sources? What is the objective of Annex VI of Marpol? What forms of air pollution does it address? What were the initial legislative initiatives taken to address air pollution from ships?
Future Issues
(d) What points were required to be reviewed by INTO during its 54th Session k An w.r.t air pollution? (e) What are the following
(i) (ii) GAG'S Ozone
(iii)
(iv)
ADS
VOC's
(f)
What is IAPP? On what conditions is it issued? What is its validity?
(g) What are the various surveys a vessel is subject to be eligible for an IAPPC? (h) What are the methods of verification of compliance with Regulation 13 of Annex VI w.r.t NOx emissions? Briefly describe each one. (i What are SECAS? Name the SECAS in force at the present time. Briefly discuss the concerns involved with fuel changeover when vessels enter SECAS. 0) Briefly discuss the revised bunkering and sampling procedures in compliance with Annex VI including reference to BDN, its contents and significance.
9.6 SUMMARY
Reducing Sulphur emissions and, controlling emissions of Nitrogen Oxides and volatile organic compounds has been a major concern of the environmental authorities ies worldwide for over three decades. Under the auspices of the United Nations, many nations have also agreed to but consumption and production of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and haloes which are ozone-depleting substances. In this unit, we have seen that Marpol Annex VI sets limits on Sulphur Oxide and Nitrogen Oxide emissions from ship exhausts and prohibits deliberate omissions of ozone depleting substances. The Marine environment protection committee (MEPc) of the IMO has brought out number of amendments to MARPOL Annex VI. In this unit we have also familiarized burselves about the shipboard incineration, available methods to control air pollution and briefly, solutions for producing cleaner energy
62 62
UNIT 10 MARVEL ANNEXURE VI - PART B:

REGULATION FOR THE
PREVENTION OF AIR POLLUTION
FROM SHIPS
Structure
10:1 10.2 introduction bbjectives Annex V1 -- Regulations for the Prevention of Air Pollution from ships regulation 14 onwards. 10.2.1 Background to Sox Pollution 10.2.2 Background to Volatile Organic Compounds 10:2.3 Background to Incinerators 10.3 Available Methods to Control Air Pollution 10.3.1 Sulphur Oxides Reduction 10.3.2 Nitrogen Oxides and other Pollutants Reduction 10.3.3 Fuel Substitution 10.4 10.5 Future of Air Pollution Legislations Solutions for Producing "Cleaner" Energy
10.6 Summary
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The Annex VI of the Marpol 73/78 is made with the purpose to regulate the emission in to atmosphere of specific pollutants from ships by limiting the emission of Nitrogen Oxides from large marine diesel engines, by governing the amount of Sulphur content in marine fuel, e iine ige ssion of volatile organic compounds during cargo operations mof l t t s u, nh m i in tankers. prohibiting the emission of Ozone depleting substances, setting standards for Shipboard incinerators and fuel quality and establishing emission control standards for platforms and drilling rigs at Sea. I
Figure 10.1
Future Issues
Objectives
After studying, this unit you shall be able to: briefly enumerateRegulations 14,15,16,17,18 & 19 of Marpol Annexure VI and Regulations state as to how sulphur and nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic compounds can harm your health.
10.2 ANNEX VI REGULATIONS FOR THE PREVENTION OF AIR POLLUTION FROM

Regulation 14 Sulphur oxides (SOx)
General requirements ( I) The sulphur content of any fuel oil used on board ships shall not exceed 4.5 m/m. The worldwide average SUIP111.11'content of residual fuel oil supplied for use on board ships shall be monitored taking into account guidelines to be developed by the Organization.
% A-
(2)
Requirements within SOx emission control areas (3) For the purpose of this regulation, SOx emission control areas shall include: (a) (b) the Baltic Sea area as defined in regulation 10(l)(b) of Annex 1, the North Sea Area as defined in regulation 5(1)(f) of Annex V and any other sea area, including port areas, designated by the Organization in accordance with criteria and procedures for designation of SOx emission control areas with respect to the prevention of air pollution from ships contained in appendix III to this Annex.
(4)
While shill are within SOx emission control areas, at least one of the following conditions shall be fulfilled: (a) (b) the sulphur content of fuel oil used on board ships in a Sox emission control area does not exceed 1.5% m/m an exhaust gas cleaning system, approved by the Administration taking into account guidelines to be developed by the Organization, is applied to reduce the total emission of sulphur oxides from ships, including both auxiliary and main propulsion engines, to 6.0 g SOx/kW h or less calculated as the total weight of sulphur dioxide emission. Waste streams from the use of such equipment shall not be discharged into enclosed ports, harbours and estuaries unless it can be thoroughly documented by the ship that such waste streams have no adverse impact on the ecosystems of such enclosed ports, harbours and estuaries, based upon criteria communicated by the authorities of the port State to the Organization. The Organization shall circulate the criteria to all Parties to the Convention; or any other technological method that is verifiable and enforceable to limit SOx emissions to a level equivalent to that described in sub-paragraph (b) is applied. These methods shall be approved by the Administration taking into account guidelines to be developed by the Organization.
Z~
(c)
(5) The sulphur content of fuel oil referred to in paragraph (1) and paragraph (4)(a) of this regulation shall be documented by the supplier as required by regulation 18 of this Annex. (6)
64
Those ships using separate fuel oils to comply with paragraph (4)(a) of this regulation shall allow sufficient time for the fuel oil service system to be fully
64
flushed of all fuels exceeding 1.5% m/m sulphur content prior to entry into a SOx emission control area. The volume of low sulphur fuel oils (less than or equal to 1.5% sulphur content) in each tank as well as the date, time, and position of the ship when any fuelchangeover operation is completed, shall be recorded in such logbook as prescribed by the Administration. (7) During the first 12 months immediately following entry into force of the present Protocol, or of an amendment to the present Protocol designating a specific SOx emission control area under paragraph (3)(b) of this regulation, ships entering a SOx emission control area referred to in paragraph (3)(a) of this regulation or designated under paragraph (3)(b) of this regulation are exempted from the requirements in paragraphs (4) and (6) of this regulation and from the requirements of paragraph (5) of this regulation insofar as they relate to paragraph (4)(a) of this regulation.
Marpol Annexure VI Pail B: Regulation for
the Prevention or Air Pollution from Ships
10.2.1 Background to Sox Pollution

SOx and the fine particulate products of their transformation sulphates and acid aerosolscause a variety of negative impacts on people and the environment. This includes direct health damage, mainly related to the respiratory system, which is most severe for asthmatic children. S02 emissions also cause reduced visibility, corrosion of materials, reduced agricultural production and soiling. SOx emissions are a major contributor to acid precipitation. One beneficial impact is the cooling effect of aerosols resulting from SOx emissions. The cooling has offset a significant part of the greenhouse warming over the cooling significan hemisphere, where SOx pollution is most severe.
Regulation 15 Volatile Organic Compounds
(1)
If the emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from tankers are to be regulated in ports or terminals under the jurisdiction of a Party to the Protocol of 1997, they shall be regulated in accordance with the provisions of this regulation. regulated regulation A Party to the Protocol of 1997 which designates ports or terminals under its jurisdiction in which VOCs emissions are to be regulated, shall submit a notification to the IMO. This notification shall include information on the size of tankers to be controlled, on cargoes requiring vapour emission control systems, and the effective date of such control. The notification shall be submitted at least six months before the effective date.
(3)
(4)
The Government of each Party to the Protocol of 1997 which designates ports or terminals at which VOCs emissions from tankers are to be regulated shall ensure that vapour emission control systems, approved by that Government taking into account the safety standards developed by the Organization, are provided in ports and terminals designated, and are operated safely and in a manner so as to avoid undue delay to the ship. The Organization shall circulate a list of the ports and terminals designated by the designate to the Protocol of 1997 to other Parties to the Protocol of 1997 and Member States of the Organization for their information. All tankers which are subject to vapour emission control in accordance with the provisions of paragraph (2) of this regulation shall be provided with a vapour collection system approved by the Administration taking into account the safety standards developed by the Organization, and shall use such system during the loading of such cargoes. Terminals which have installed vapour emission control systems in accordance with this regulation may accept existing tankers which are not fitted with vapour collection systems for a period of three years after the effective date identified in paragraph (2). This regulation shall only apply to gas carriers when the type of loading and containment systems allow safe retention of non-methane VOCs on board, or their safe return ashore.
(5)
(6)
65
Future Issues
Figure 10.2
10.2.2 Background to Volatile Organic Compounds

Volatile organic compounds change easily from liquid form to vapor. What are Volatile Organic Compounds? Organic compounds are chemicals that contain carbon and are found in all living things. Volatile organic compounds, sometimes referred to as VOCs, are organic compounds that easily become vapors or gases. Along with carbon, they contain elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, sulfur or nitrogen.
C~
Volatile organic compounds are released from burning fuel, such as gasoline., wood, coal, or natural gas. They are also released from solvents, paints, glues, and other products that are used and stored at home and at work. Many volatile organic compounds are also hazardous air pollutants. Volatile organic compounds, when combined with nitrogen oxides, react to form ground-level ozone, or smog. Examples of volatile organic compounds are gasoline, benzene, formaldehyde, solvents such as toluene and xylene, and perchloroethylene (or tetrachloroethylene), the main solvent used in dry cleaning. Many volatile organic compounds are commonly used in paint thinners, lacquer thinners, moth repellents, air fresheners, hobby supplies, wood preservatives, aerosol sprays, degreasers, automotive products, and dry cleaning fluids. How might I be exposed to Volatile Organic Compounds? You can be exposed to volatile organic compounds outdoors by breathing polluted air that contains them. You are most likely to be exposed to volatile organic compounds outdoors in the summer, when the sun and hot temperatures react with pollution to form smog, Indoors, products that contain volatile organic compounds release emissions when you use them, and to a smaller degree, when they are stored. You can be exposed to volatile organic compounds at home if you use cleaning, painting, or hobby supplies that contain them. You can also be exposed if you dry-clean your clothes with home dry-cleaning products; if you dry-clean your clothes at a professional dry-cleaners; or if you use graphics and crafts materials such as glues, permanent markers, and photographic solutions. How can Volatile Organic Compounds affect my Health? The health effects of volatile organic compounds can vary greatly according to the compound, which can range from being highly toxic to having no known health effects. The health effects of volatile organic compounds will depend on nature of the volatile organic compound, the level of exposure, and length of exposure. Benzene is known to be a human carcinogen; formaldehyde and perchloroethylene are reasonably. anticipated to be carcinogens." People at the highest risk of long-term
11
66
to these three volatile organic compounds are industrial workers who have prolonged exposure to the compounds in the workplace; cigarette smokers; and people who ha% e prolonged exposure to emissions from heavy motor vehicle traffic. Long-term exposure to volatile organic compounds can cause damage to the liver, kidneys and central nervous system. Short-term exposure to volatile organic compounds can cause eye and respiratory tract irritation, headaches, dizziness, visual disorders, fatigue, loss of coordination, allergic skin reactions, nausea, and memory impairment.
Marpol Annexure Vi
Part - B: Regulation for the Prevention of Air
Pollution from Shipsexposure
Figure 10.3
Regulation 16 Shipboard incineration (1) (2) Except as provided in paragraph (5), shipboard incineration shall be allowed only in a shipboard incinerator. (a) Except as provided in sub-paragraph (b) of this paragraph, each incinerator installed on board a ship on or after I January 2000 shall meet the requirements contained in appendix IV to this Annex. Each incinerator shall be approved by the Administration taking into account the standard specifications for shipboard incinerators developed by the Organization. {(b) The Administration may allow exclusion from the application of sub-paragraph (a) of this paragraph to any incinerator which is installed on board a ship before the date of entry into force of the Protocol of 1997, provided that the ship is solely engaged in voyages within waters subject to the sovereignty or jurisdiction of the State the flag of which the ship is entitled to fly. Nothing in this regulation affects the prohibition in, or other requirements of, the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, 1972, as amended, and the 1996 Protocol thereto. Shipboard incineration of the following substances shall be prohibited: (a) (b) (c) (d) Annex I, II and ICI cargo residues of the present Convention and related contaminated packing materials; polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs); garbage, as defined in Annex V of the present Convention, containing more than traces of heavy metals; and refined petroleum products containing halogen compounds.
(3)
(4)
(5) Shipboard incineration of sewage sludge and sludge oil generated during the normal operation of a ship may also take place in the main or auxiliary power plant or boilers, but in those cases, shall not take place inside ports, harbours and estuaries. (6) (7) Shipboard incineration of polyvinyl chlorides (PVCs) shall be prohibited, except in shipboard incinerators for which IMO Type Approval Certificates have been issued. All ships with incinerators subject to this regulation shall possess a manufacturer's operating manual which shall specify how to operate the incinerator within the limits described in paragraph 2 of appendix IV to this Annex.
67
Future Issues
(8) (9)
Personnel responsible for operation of any incinerator shall be trained and capable of implementing the guidance provided in the manufacturer's operating manual. operating Monitoring of combustion flue gas outlet temperature shall be required at all times and waste shall not be fed into a continuous-feed shipboard incinerator when the temperature is below the minimum allowed temperature of 850C. For batch-loaded shipboard incinerators, the unit shall be designed so that the temperature in the combustion chamber shall reach 600C within five minutes after start-up.
(10) Nothing in this regulation precludes the development, installation and operation of alternative design shipboard thermal waste treatment devices that meet or exceed the requirements of this regulation.
10.2.3 Background to Incinerators

Incineration is a solid waste treatment technology involving burning waste at very high temperatures. Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment systems are described as "thermal treatment". In effect, incineration of waste materials converts the waste into heat, gaseous emissions to the atmosphere and residual ash. Incineration has a number of outputs such as the ash and the emission to the atmosphere of combustion product gases and particulate matter.
Figure 10.4 : An Incineration plant
Gaseous Emissions The combustion product gases exhausted to the atmosphere by incineration are a source of concern. The main pollutants in the exhaust gases include acid gases such as hydrogen chloride, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides (referred to as NOx), and carbon dioxide. Solid Outputs Incineration produces fly ash and bottom ash just as is the case when coal is combusted. The fly ash, by far, constitutes more of a potential health hazard than does the bottom ash because the fly ash contains toxic metals such as lead, cadmium, copper and zinc as well as small amounts of dioxins and furans. The bottom ash may or may not contain significant levels of health hazardous materials.
CN
Regulation 17 Reception facilities I (a) (b) The Government of each Party to the Protocol of 1997 undertakes to ensure the provision of facilities adequate to meet the: needs of ships using its repair ports for the reception of ozone depleting ubstances using and equipment containing such substances when removed from ships; needs of ships using its ports, terminals or repair ports for the reception of exhaust using gas cleaning residues from an approved exhaust gas cleaning system when discharge
68
into the marine environment of these residues is not permitted under regulation 14 of this Annex; without causing undue delay to ships, and (c) (2) needs in ship breaking facilities for the reception of ozone depleting substances and equipment containing such substances when removed from ships. Each Party to the Protocol of 1997 shall notify the Organization for transmission to the Members of the Organization of all cases where the facilities provided under this regulation are unavailable or alleged to be inadequate.
Z.-
Marpol Annexure VI Part B: Regulation for the Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships
Figure 10.5
Regulation 18 Fuel oil Quality
(1)
Fuel oil for combustion purposes delivered to and used on board ships to which this Annex applies shall meet the following requirements: (a) (i) except as provided in sub-paragraph (b): the fuel oil shall be blends of hydrocarbons derived from petroleum refining. This shall not preclude the incorporation of small amounts of additives intended to improve some aspects of performance; the fuel oil shall be free from inorganic acid; the fuel oil shall not include any added substance or chemical waste which either: jeopardizes the safety of ships or adversely affects the performance of the machinery, or is harmful to personnel, or contributes overall to additional air pollution; and (b) fuel oil for combustion purposes derived by methods other than petroleum refining shall not: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) exeed the sulphur content set forth in regulation 14 of this Annex; cause an engine to exceed the NOx emission limits set forth in regulation 13(3)(a) of this Annex; contain inorganic acid; and jeopardize the safety of ships or adversely affect the performance of the machinery, or be harmful to personnel, or contribute overall to additional air pollution.
(ii) (iii)
(2)
This regulation does not apply to coal in its 'solid form or nuclear fuels. 69
Future Issues
(3)
For each ship subject to regulations 5 and 6 of this Annex, details of fuel oil for combustion purposes delivered to and used on board shall be recorded by means of a bunker delivery note which shall contain at least the information specified in appendix V to this Annex. The bunker delivery note shall be kept on board the ship in such a place as to be readily available for inspection at all reasonable times. It shall be retained for a period of three years after the fuel oil has been delivered on board. (a) The competent authority of the Government of a Party to the Protocol of 1997 may inspect the bunker delivery notes on board any ship to which this Annex applies while the ship is in its port or offshore terminal, may make a copy of each delivery note, Bend may require the master or person in charge of the ship to certify that each copy is a true copy of such bunker delivery note. The competent authority may also verify the contents of each note through consultations with the port where the note was issued. The inspection of the bunker delivery notes and the taking of certified copies by the competent authority under this paragraph shall be performer as expeditiously as possible without causing the ship to be unduly delayed.
(4)
(5)
4
(b)
(6) The bunker delivery note shall be accompanied by a representative sample of the fuel oil delivered, taking into account guidelines to be developed by the Organization. The sample is to be sealed and signed by the supplier's representative and the master or officer in charge of the bunker operation on completion of bunkering operations and retained under the ship's control until the fuel oil is substantially consumed, but in any case for a period of not less than 12 months from the time of delivery. (7) Parties to the Protocol of 1997 undertake to ensure That appropriate authorities designated by them:(a) maintain a register of local suppliers of fuel oil; (b) require local suppliers to provide the bunker delivery note and sample as required by this regulation, certified by the fuel oil supplier that the fuel oil regulation, fuel the requirements of regulations 14 and 18 of this Annex; (c) (d) require local suppliers to retain a copy of the bunker delivery note for at least three years for inspection and verification by the port State as necessary; take action as appropriate against fuel oil suppliers that have been found to deliver fuel oil that does not comply with that stated on the bunker delivery note; inform the Administration of any ship receiving fuel oil found to be noncompliant with the requirements of regulations 14 or 18 of this Annex; and inform the Organization for transmission to Parties to the Protocol of 1997 of all cases where fuel oil suppliers have failed to meet the requirements specified in regulations 14 or 18 of this Annex. In connection with port State inspections carried out by Parties to the Protocol of 1997, the Parties further undertake to: (a) , inform the Party or non-Party under whose jurisdiction a bunker delivery note was issued of cases of delivery of noncompliant fuel oil, giving all relevant information; and (b) ensure that remedial action as appropriate is taken to bring noncompliant fuel oil discovered into compliance.
(e) (f)
(8)
70
Figure 10.6
Regulation 19 Requirements for platforms and drilling rigs (1) Subject to the provisions of paragraphs (2) and (3) of this regulation, fixed and floating platforms and drilling rigs shall comply with the requirements of this C Annex. (2) Emissions directly arising from the exploration, exploitation and associated offshore processing of sea-bed mineral resources are, consistent with article 2(3)(b)(ii) of the present Convention, exempt from the provisions of this Annex. Such emissions include the following: (a) emissions resulting from the incineration of substances that are solely and directly the result of exploration, exploitation and associated offshore processing of sea-bed mineral resources, including but not limited to the flaring of hydrocarbons and the burning of cuttings, muds, and/or stimulation fluids during well completion and testing operations, and flaring arising from upset conditions; the release of gases and volatile compounds entrained in drilling fluids and cuttings; emissions associated solely and directly with the treatment, handling, or storage of sea-bed minerals, and emissions from diesel engines that are solely dedicated to the exploration, exploitation and associated offshore processing of sea-bed mineral esources.
(b) (c) (d) (3)
The requirements of regulation 18 of this Annex shall not apply to the use of hydrocarbons which are produced and subsequently used on site as fuel, when approved by the Administration.
10.3 AVAILABLE METHODS TO CONTROL AIR POLLUTION

There area number of ways to reduce nitrogen oxides and sulphur oxides emissions from marine diesel engines. The review take in consideration also the most recent development in the field as obtained from the 22th CIMAC International Congress on Combustion Engines held in Copenhagen at the end of Engine 1998. The emissions.control technology can be classified as primary and secondary strategies. The former refers to the methods that control the harmful species formation during combustion process.
71
Future Issues
The latter aims to remove the nitrogen oxides and sulphur oxides from engine exhaust stream. This is often called after treatment.
10.3.1 Sulphur Oxides Reduction

Primary Methods The primary method of reducing sulphur oxides emissions is by reducing fuel sulphur content. Reduction of the sulphur content in the fuel is essential for the control of sulphur oxides emissions because that is the source from where the sulphur comes from. The sulphur oxides emissions are proportional to the sulphur concentration in fuel. Secondary Methods Sulphur oxides emissions reductions can be, also, obtained by water scrubbing of marine exhaust. Owing to the ability of sea water to adsorb/neutralize some pollutants, sea water scrubbing of marine exhaust can be used. The adoption of a scrubbing system using water to remove the sulphur exhaust from a power plant onshore can be referred back to early 1930s. The first prototype exhaust gas seawater washing system was installed onboard the ferry M/S Kronprins Harald in early 1991, which was followed by extensive trials. After about 1700 hrs operation/trial. up to 92% of sulphur oxides reduction was claimed. The principles of exhaust gas seawater washing for removal of sulphur lie in the inherent natural alkalinity of seawater, i.e. the presence of HCO3 and SO4. With a specially designed washing system, S02 in the engine exhaust can be dissolved in seawater then discharged into the sea. As it is a power consumable device, its capacity is limited by the electrical power available on board. The main concern in using seawater washing systems is that the discharge of spent water may in turn pollute the sea. S/S Kronprins Harald's experience showed the pollution of discharge water to the sea is negligible since the sulphate, the major concern in the spent water, is one of the major dissolved constituents of natural seawater. The use of a scrubber onboard ship offers the possibility of facilitating exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). As discussed next, the application of EGR on marine diesel engines is limited by the high sulphur content of the low grade fuel. The combination of scrubber with EGR may well solve the problem and supply cleaner gases for recirculation. Thus, further nitrogen oxides reduction can be reached by increasing the EGR rate.
10.3.2 Nitrogen Oxides and other Pollutants Reduction

Primary Methods Primary methods are about engine combustion control, i.e., in principle, to reduce the peak combustion temperature and pressure. The primary means of reducing nitrogen oxides nitroge increase the formation of other species in the exhaust, mostly particulate, CO, HC and rise of fuel consumption due to the decreased thermal efficiency (generally, 10% nitrogen oxides reduction causes 1% increase in consumption). C Combustion Modification (a) Injection Timing Retard Retarded fuel injection has been widely used on marine diesel engines and is considered as one of the most effective ways for reducing engine nitrogen oxides emissions due to the reduced peak combustion temperature. This method distinguishes itself that no specific engine design modification is required. The amount of nitrogen oxides reduction depends on the retardation and on the fuel injection duration. Tests shows that this retarding brings nitrogen oxides down by 4 to 5%.
72
Retarded injection has a significant adverse effect on fuel consumption. Retarding increases the SFOC (specific fuel oil consumption) approximately by 1%. 10 to 15% of nitrogen oxides reduction by retarded injection has been recommended as the best potential reduction. (b) Modified Injectors Reducing the maximum combustion pressure decreases nitrogen oxides emissions up to 12% with an increased fuel consumption up to 5%. However, increasing compression ratio and fuel injection nozzle hole diameter decrease nitrogen oxides emissions up to 23% with an increased fuel consumption up to 1.5%. A reduction of some 40-60% on nitrogen oxides, emissions is expected, without penalty on fuel consumption, by improved combustion control. Miller Systems and Turbocharging with Aftercooling This method refers to the lowering of the intake air temperature to reduce the max combustion temperature. The Miller system and turbocharger cooling produce such an effect. 20% of NOx reduction has been claimed by this method. However, this only yields approximately 10% reduction in NOx for shipboard application since marine diesel engines often operate in the tropical areas. This method has not become popular since the small amount of NOx reduction is not proportional to the investment cost. Fumigation of Intake Air This another method for intake treatment, normally offers to 5 to 10% of reduction in nitrogen oxides. Lowering Maximum Gas Temperature in the Cylinder The quantity of NOx emissions from two-stroke marine diesel engines can be reduced up to 80% by keeping maximum gas temperature in the cylinder lower; this effect is great in the case of current high-performance engines with high temperature. Exhaust Gas Recirculation Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) works on the principle of re-introducing a portion of the exhaust gases into the engine combustion chamber, to suppress the peak combustion temperature and hence to reduce NOx emissions effectively. The reduction in NOx (max. combustion temperature) by EGR is mainly due to the effects of: (i) The heat capacity of CO2 contained in the recirculated exhaust gas is about 25% higher than that of N2 and 02 , which absorbs more energy during the combustion, therefore, results in a lower combustion temperature rise; The lower partial pressure of 02 in the combustion air, resulting from the recirculation of lower oxygen concentrated exhaust gas, leads to a lower combustion temperature; Both above decrease the combustion velocity which in turn results in an additional temperature decrease.
(ii)
(iii)
EGR has been widely used in automotive applications for NOx emissions control. For marine diesel engines, it is only at the testing stage. Up to 20% of EGR has been tested on marine diesel engines and a 50% reduction in NOx has been reported by different investigators.
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Future Issues
Non Catalytic Reduction This work similarly to an SCR (selective catalytic reduction, discussed later), converting NOx into N2 and H20 by direct injection of ammonia (NH3) into the engine combustion chamber. NOx reacts with NH3 immediately when the temperature is around 1000 'C. Two requirements have to be met for such an application, i.e. (i) (ii) the reducing agent (NH3) has to be injected on the completion of the main fuel combustion process since NH3 is also combustible: it has to be distributed homogeneously through the combustion chamber due to the high reaction speed required (50 m/s). ]'his method is not so satisfactory as SCR due to the high ammonia consumption. To obtain a 50% reduction in NOx , 4 times the stoichiometric NH3 is required. This means that only 10-12% of ammonia is actively reacted with NOx and the rest probably burned off. The cost of ammonia is about the same as heavy fuel oil.
10.3.3 Fuel Substitution

Water Injection Injection of water to the engine combustion can be carried out in the manner of direct injection into the engine combustion chamber or to the intake manifold. Humidification of the intake air with water at a high pressure directly into the combustion chamber during the combustion period. The finely atomized water droplets vaporize immediately after being injected into the combustion chamber. The combined effect of vaporization absorbing heat, relatively high molar heat capacity of water and reduced partial pressure of oxygen brings down the peak combustion temperature and hence lowers the NOx formation. It is found that water injection timing depending on the injection amount is crucial. The effectiveness of NOx reduction with direct water injection is typically 60%. In addition to the NOx reduction, water injection has some of the other benefits claimed by using emulsified fuel. At optimum condition, direct water injection into the combustion , hamber is more effective than the injection to intake air, however, the effect is not so good as using emulsified fuels Water/Diesel mixture (Emulsified fuel) Application of water in oil emulsion is an alternative way of direct water injection. This has been considered as a mutual technique for improving diesel engine combustion, thermal efficiency and emissions. As far emissions are concerned, it has been claimed that a reduction of 24 to 50% in NOx was achieved in a medium speed engine application. In a high speed engine test, the NOx reduction was not very significant. whilst CO emission decreased as much as 20% at high load and speed. Smoke capacity was reduced by 50% at idle conditions. Besides the lower emissions, some other impressive advantages by using emulsified fuels have been claimed, e.g. a 34% annual cost saving in combustion chamber component spares due to the cleaner combustion reducing wear rates, and also savingstn lube oil - Zn in consumption. As a result of cleanliness, the overhaul period could be extended by 20%, To meet the stringent emission regulations, it is necessary to enlarge the amount of water addition to the fuel. This can be achieved by fuel with 47% water content has been tested on an engine at 50% load which results in a reduction of NOx of more than 60% Clean Diesel Fuels with low nitroZn contents will reduce NOx formation from the combustion of gen nitrogen content in the fuel, but it is not substantial since it only contributes less than 20% of NO in the engine exhaust.
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Secondary Methods Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) SCR systems have been successfully used onboard ships and been considered as the most exceptional method for NO emission to meet the future stringent regulations. Its potential has been well illustrated by a few examples of onboard ship application. The reduction rate in NO can be more than 95%. An SCR plays the function of a reactor attached in the exhaust system, where ammonia or urea is introduced to react with NO and NO2 in the exhaust gas and discharged in the form of water and nitrogen. In practice urea is often employed to replace ammonia because ammonia is flammable, toxic and has a sharp odor. In contrast to ammonia, urea is harmless and easier to be handled. The use of low sulphur content fuel is of substantial benefit to the application of SCR systems. In an SCR some of the S02 in the exhaust gases is oxidized to S03, which later will form H2S03 (sulphurous acid) or even H2SO4 (sulphuric acid) meeting with the water in the exhaust system. Also when H2SO3 is combined with NH3,ammonia salt will he formed which is a solid \kith a high melting point resulting in an increase in particulate emission. An SCR in principle does not affect the engine combustion and its thermal efficiency. However, the running cost of the system is 7 to 10% of the fuel cost. The capital cost of installation is 50 to 100% of the engine cost. This figure is expected to be reduced by 30 to 40% in next few years.
Scrubbed & re-heated exhaust gases
Overboard Discharge of cleaned water
Scrubbed gas re-heat section
Intimate mixing of exhaust

pu and vs water
Separation andfbwtion Rant
*, Sea Water S.W. to cyclone separator & heat exchanger Exhaust Gases
V
S.W. Inlet
Sludge ashore to authorised CoAtractof
Exhaust gas cleaning system

I
Figure 10.7
Scrubber Seawater Washing System In additional to the reduction of S02 the scrubber also functions as a filter, so that soot emission can be reduced by 99% and 40% reduction in nitrogen oxides.
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Future Issues
10.4 FUTURE OF AIR POLLUTION LEGISLATIONS

Ocean going vessels represent the fastest growing, least regulated sources of pollution in the United States. Each day in large ports such as Long Beach, California, ships generate as much pollution as one million cars. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has proposed new rules to limit the air pollution emitted by ocean going vessels such as cruise ships, oil tankers and cargo vessels. The regulations, which conservation groups called "toothless," were released the same day as an annual report by the American Lung Association that charges the federal agency with failing to protect the public and the environment from dirty air. The EPA said it may introduce additional requirements later on, including a proposal to cut emissions from new ship engines by about 30 percent after 2007, and regulations aimed at foreign flagged ships visiting U.S. waters. Air pollution from ships is expected to jump over the next two decades, as worldwide shipping is projected to triple by 2020 as a result of global trade agreements. Globally, the world's biggest ships account for 14 percent of total nitrogen oxides (NOx) and 16 percent of all sulfur oxide emissions from petroleum sources. According to the EPA, large ships emit 273 thousand tons per year - 748 tons each day - of NOx into U.S. air.
.4
Figure 10.8
Given recent technology advances, a 90 to 95 percent decrease in NOx emissions appears well within reach, the Bluewater Network argues. Sulfur levels could be established to meet similar levels already achieved by Sweden, the group says. Of those living in the 678 counties monitoring ozone, the vast majority of the most vulnerable lived in the almost 400 counties receiving a grade of F in the ALA report. Almost three-quarters of the seniors and more than 70 percent of children who had an asthma attack in the past year live in these counties marine shipping industry, oil tanker owners are represented by an association called Intertanko, which has heavily lobbied the Administration to delay or weaken proposed EPA regulations for ocean going vessel emissions.
M E P C 5 4 O ut c o me In the
At its 54th session in March 2006, a working group was established to consider issues relating to the prevention of air pollution from ships, including follow-up
76
action to the IMO Policies and practices related to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from ships (resolution A.963(23)). Following the work by the group, the MEPC approved t wo circulars aimed at assisting implementation of MARPOL Annex VI:1. The MEPC Circular on Bunker Definer, Note and Fuel Oil Sampling, to clarify how to comply with regulation 18, which places requirements on ship owners and fuel oil suppliers in respect of bunker delivery notes and representative samples of the fuel oil received and on Parties to the 1997 Protocol to regulate the bunker suppliers in their ports. The circular urges all
Z~
Marpol Ann \ Ie Part B: Regulations for the Prevention of fir Pollution from Ships
Member States, both Parties and non-Parties to the 1997 Protocol, to require fuel oil suppliers in their ports to comply with the requirements and to raise awareness of the necessity to enhance implementation and enforcement of regulation 18 of Annex VI. The MEPC circular on Notification to the Organization on ports or terminals
where volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emissions are to be regulated,

which notes that re g ulation 15 of Annex VI requires Parties to inform the Organization of their intention to introduce requirements for the use of vapour emission control s y stems and to notify the Or g anization of ports and terminals u nd e r the ir ju r isd ic tion whe r e su c h re q u ire me nts are a lre a dy in for ce . However many terminals ace implementing or operating such practices Without notification t o the o o rganization.The Committee shared the concern that. ,since there is no circulation of such information, it is difficult for owners and operators to prepare for these changes at ports and terminals. The circular reiterates that Parties to the 1997 Protocol are required to notify them Organization without delay with information oil ports and terminals und,_r their jurisdiction at which VOCs emissions are or will be regulated, and on requirements imposed oil ships calling at these ports and terminals. An y information received by the Organization on the availability of vapour emission control systems will be circulated through MEPC circulars so that owners and operators will have up to-date information on current and future requirements for the utilization of such systems. As instructed by MEPC 53, the Sub-Committee on Bulk Liquids and Gases (BIB .G) will undertake a review of MARPOL Annex VI and the NOx Technical Code with a view to revising the regulations to take account of current technology and the need to further reduce air pollution from ships. The pro g ress of this work will be reported to the next session of the MEPC. The Committee and its Working Group on Air Pollution had lon g and extensive debates on how t o follow UP resolution A.963(23) on IMO Policies and Practices related to the Reduction of Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships. By the resolution. the Assembly urged MEPC to identify and develop the necessary mechanisms needed to achieve the limitation or reduction of GHG emissions from international shippin g . Among the items considered was whether only emission of CO2 or of all six greenhouse gases identified by the Kyoto Protocol should be included. The MEPC agreed to consider the follow-up actions to resolution A.963(23) in a technical and methodological perspective and to concentrate the work on CO2 emissions. The Committee also agreed to continue the work at the next session and,
Z:'
in particular, to consider further a draft work plan to identify and develop the mechanisms needed to achieve the goal set by the Assembly.
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Future Issues
10.5 SOLUTIONS FOR PRODUCING "CLEANER" ENERGY

Hydro power, currently supplying only six percent of the world's energy, is a renewable ener g y source. Ener g y is produced b y hydraulic turbines that rotate with the force of rushing water (higher to lower elevation). It is one of the most clean and cheapest way of producin g energy, but it can also chan g e the flow of rivers and increase sediment which kills fish. It is a large investment for developing countries.
Figure 10.9: Hydro Power Plant on a River
Denmark is currently the world leader in wind power. By 2030. fifty percent of Denmark's energy could be produced by wind power. Randall Swisher, executive director of the American Bind Ener g y Association sa y s. "If this country made an a g g ressive development push, by 2020 eighteen percent of the country's energy could be supplied by wind power." Wind power emits no g reenhouse g ases. but it takes up large amounts of land. In order for it to be a reliable source, scientists must de v elo p better power stora g e techniques. Another c onc e r n of pe ople is nois e pollu tion tha t t he la r g e wind mills pr od u c e a long with t he reliability of wind.
Figure 10.10: A Field of Wind Mills
Solar power uses photovoltaic cells (PV's) to gather thermal energy directly from the sun and use it to produce electricity. One community could be supplied by one field of PV's .
Passive solar cells could also be used to heat water, replacing the need for today's hot water replacing 78
heaters. PV's do not emit any greenhouse gases, but they are very expensive and more development is needed in order for this to be realistic energy source for the future.
Marpol Annexiure V I Part B: Regulation for the Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships
Figure 10.11 : A Field of PV's gathering sunlight to produce Power
Nuclear power is strong is Europe with about forty-two percent of their energy produced by fission. Nuclear generations provides about 17% of world electricity, avoiding the emission
of up to ?.3 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide annually. France produces 76% and Lithuania produces 85.6% of its energy by nuclear fission. People are antinuclear because of 3 Mile Isle .d in 1979 and Chernobyl in 1986. However, many experts say that it is a safe, clean, and reliable source of energy. Nuclear Fission produces no greenhouse gases, but does produce highly toxic radioactive wastes. I C_ -
Figure 111.12: Nuclear power plants have had success in Europe but not in the United States
SAQ 1
(a) How is Sox pollution controlled: (i) (ii) (h) (c) (d) (e) (t) Outside emission control area Inside emission control area?
What are Volatile Organic compounds? How do they cause pollution'? Why are reception facilities required? What is an incinerator? Incineration of which all substances is prohibited? Which all qualities should Fuel oils possess? 79
Future
Issues
(g) (h) (i) (j)
What is a Bunker delivery Note'? What are the requirements for the same? What are the responsibilities of appointed Govt. bodies with respect to bunker Suppliers? What are the primary and secondary methods to control SO emlission? Write a short note on the primary and secondary methods to control NOx emission'?
10.6 SUMMARY
In this unit we have learnt the consents of regulations 14 to 19 of the Marpol Annex VI and abort the background to SO pollution Characteristics of the Volatile organic Co1111)01111(1 Gaseous emissions produce incimerators Requirements of the port reception facilitiesFuel oils which may cause an engine to exceed them Nitrogen Oxide emissions Requirements for Platf o rms and drilling rigs.
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UNIT 11 FUEL CONSERVATION

Structure
I1.1 Introduction
Objectives
11.2 113 11.4 11.5 1 1.6 1 1.7 11.8 11.9
Overview of Energy Resources Worldwide. Solar Energy Wind Energy Tidal Flnergy Wave Energy Hydropower Energy Marine Current Energy Factors Affecting Fuel Consumption
on
Board Ships
11.10 New Innovations i n Shipping towards Fuel Conservation 11.11 Summary
11.1 INTRODUCTION
This module discusses Fuel conservation as an ur g ent need that must he addressed by all forums. It also introduces unconventional means of energy such as Soar. Wind, Tidal, Hydropower and Marine Current energy.
The Inevitable Increase in Energy Consumption

It is easy to predict that world energy demand, and especially that for electricity, will increase greatly during this 21st century, not onl y because of demographic pressures but also throu g h an improvement in livin g standards in the less developed cou n t r ies which will represent 7 billion inhabitants in 2050 (78k of the total). Consumption of primary energy will increase up to threefold by the middle of this Z7 century, and the increase will b e even grater for electricit y . In view of this situation, many Sources of energy will be necessary, but for environmental reasons, a high priority should be the development of all technically feasible potential from clean renewable sources, especially hydropower.
Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to enumerate present status and future of the fossil fuels and describe various alternative sources of energy and new innovation in shipping towards fuel conservation:
11.2 OVERVIEW OF ENERGY RESOURCES WORLDWIDE

The main findin g s of the 2001 Survey of Energy Resources produced by the World 0 ener g y Council confirms that conventional commercial fossil fuels, encompassin g coal, oil and natural gas, remain in adequate supply,-with a substantial resource base. g a s to the 1998 Survey, coal and natural gas reserves increased somewhat, while those of oil declined slightly for following reasons: proved recoverable reserves of oil, which are largely concentrated in the Middle East, declined, while those of gas, which are more evenly spread, increased;
81
mule kqw-,
fewer giant fields were discovered i n the 1990's t h a n in the 1960's (albeit a larger proportion were in deeper offshore waters); the discoveries of new oil fields were concentrated in a smaller number of countries in the 1990's than in the earlier periods; more recently the additional discoveries have been less than the oil produced; the oil industry's technological challen g es posed b y the ultra-deep offshore have not yet been met satisfactorily. The e findin g s of the 2001 survey are confined to reserve assessments and some of the suppl aspects, and does not discuss oil demand. Thus the implications of environmental concerns, such as climate change, on t he supply and demand for oil have not been addressed. This may impl y a more optimistic outlook for future oil demand growth. given a growing world population and rising energy demand, despite a possible tightening of Y environmental laws. Natural gas, on the other hand, confidently appears as a cleaner fossil fuel set to play a g reater role in satisfyin g energy demand. Encoura g ed by t h e recent steady g as production and demand i n the Asia Pacific region, (particularly in China) increase in and also in Africa, as well as b y the prospect of market incentives promoted by the Clean Development Mechanism, it is assumed that the current increase in demand for natural gas is an indication of a lon g -term trend. Advanced technologies such as combined-cycle power plants, acid gas re-injection, hydrogen fuel cells, etc. could expand the frontiers of both natural gas demand and supply. Despite the high predictability of Tidal energy's resource and timing, long construction times, high capital intensity and low load factors are likely to make switching over to this form of energy a costly proposition. Scotland, Australia, Denmark and the USA, have a high potential for wave energy supply it could provide 10% of the current world electricity supply (if appropriately harnessed) and the potential synergies with the offshore oil and g as industry. However, a number of ne c e ssa r y tec hnologic a l impr ove me nts a r e still r e quir e d a nd fu ll u tilisa tion of wave energy potential appears to be some way off. It is acknowled g ed that there has been little research into utilising Marine current energy for power generation and toda y no commercial turbines are in operation (thus making the assessment of production costs difficult). There is, however, a large global marine current resource potential which possesses a number of advantages over other renewables, such as its higher energy density, highly predictable power outputs, independence from extreme atmospheric fluctuations and a zero or minimal visual impact. It is expected that Uranium will remain i n ample supply over the next decade despite an 8 1 /( decline between 1 January 1997 and 1 January 1999 i n known world uranium resources. From 1991 through 1999 over 40% of the total world uranium requirements Z~ were met from non-mine supplies, more than half of which came from the Russian Federation's stockpiles. Another important suppl y source has been from dismantled nuclear weaponry. On the Nu c le a r powe r gene r a tion sid e , it is r e por ted tha t the r e ha s be e n a vir tu a l sta g nation in the number of nuclear power plants in North America and Western Europe. a slow growth in Eastern Europe and an expansion in East Asia. Both the International Energy A g ency (IEA) and the International Atomic Ener g y Agency (IAEA) expect that in the comin g two decades the current and new additions i n Asia and in countries with economics i n transition would roughly balance those being retired. Major recent developments include the significant economic advanta g e of fully depreciated nuclear power plants, which encourages life extension programmes in liberalised power markets such as t he US: moves towards earlier closures of nuclear power plants h\ anti-nuclear g overnments in Europe, the shorter construction periods and low e r Operating Co s t s of recent standardised plants, as in France. Japan and the Republic of Korea; important
82
steps taken towards nuclear waste disposal i n the USA. Sweden and Finland and ong oing worldwide efforts to develop new reactor technologies, evolutionary and innovative reactor designs . Nuclear is expected to play an important role in ensuring secure and sustainable electricity supply and in reducing global greenhouse gas emissions. Hydropower accounts for 19% of the world electricity supply, utilising one third of its economically exploitable potential. Hydro projects have the advanta g e of avoiding emissions of greenhouse gases, S02 and particulates. Their social impacts, such as land transformation, displacement of people. and impacts o n flora, sedimentation and water quality can be mitigated by taking appropriate steps early In the planning process. it Z__ taking is believed that generally hydro power is competitive, when all factors are taken into account. Despite the development of modern solar energy over the past forty or fifty years, the technolo g y still needs a higher profile and more involvement from scientists, engineers. environmentalists, entrepreneurs, financial experts, publis h ers, architects, politicians and civil servants. A new generation of solar-energy pioneers has to be nurtured.
Fuel Conservation
Figure 11.1: Evolution of Oil Price ($/bbl) (Dated Brent) 1997/2001
There has been a steady growth in the size and output of Wind turbines, now available with capacities of up to 3 MW for offshore machines. The support provided by national governments influences development patterns: for example, wind farms in the USA and the United Kingdom and single machines (or clusters of two or three) in Denmark and Germany. Environmental issues Surrounding wind energy pertain to noise, television and radio interference, dan g er to birds, and visual effects, but in many cases, sensitive siting can solve these problems. It is expected that due to the sapid capacity g rowth in many countries and regions. global installed wind capacity subject to further improvements in performance and costs, will show a significant growth. Z:1 The period 1996-1999 was marked by lar g e variations in the price of crude oil. The price per barrel started to slide in late 1997 and finally bottomed out at $10/bbl at the end of 1998. Two factors can be held responsible for this decline: a slowdown in the g rowth of oil demand and a supply surplus. In 1997, the economic crisis in Asia sharply reduced oil demand growth even as the non-observance of production quotas by OPEC countries led to excess supply. To help counteract this price collapse, OPEC decided to cut production by 1.5 million B/d in March 1999. This drop in production, combined with the recovery of oil demand growth and a tight situation on the reformulated g asoline market in the United States, caused prices to rebound to over $35/bbl (in July 2000). Confronting this price escalation, OPEC boosted production four more times during 2 000 for a total increase of 3.7 million b/d, enabling the price to stabilise in the vicinity of $25/bbl. The Debate over Oil Reserves During the 1990's. the debate over oil reserveshresources generated controversy between the "pessimists" and the "optimists". The "pessimists" advocate the position that the world is finite and some its recoverable oil resources. To make their argument. they rely on - scripitive pl c ar C~ de 83
Future Issues
statistics and base their conclusions on the statistical study of past discoveries, considering all oil and gas fields to be static objects (with no evolution in the size of initially recoverable reserves). The pessimists believe that all of the oil-bearing re g ions worth explorin g have already been explored and that the big fields have already been discovered, ergo future discoveries will be small. They claim that the official figures for proven reserves have been overestimated for some regions and that world oil production is currently at its optimum and will decrease steadily in future.
The "optimists"
hold a dynamic concept of reserve s and believe that a method based s olely on applying descriptive statistics to past discoveries will only yield a partial ima g e of actual potential. The y also point that today only 35% to 4 0 % of the oil present in discovered fields is recovered. Accordin g to an optimist, any improvement in this recovery rate, allows the industry t o tap substantial additional reserves. They also point out that the boundary between conventional and nonconventional hydrocarbons is not fixed, but has continued to shift regularly over time. For instance, optimists note that it is now both feasible and profitable to exploit fields at water depths exceeding 1 000 metres, which was still thought to be impossible 15 years ago.
11.3 SOLAR ENERGY

Introduction
Some issues are daily fare in the newspapers, but solar energy, in its various forms, is not among them. From time to time in the past fifty years it has made the news, but usual( in conjunction with an energy or environmental crisis. That was the J LI, case during the first oil shock in 1973, and it is so today too, now that the public has become concerned about global warmingand climate change.
Z7 C~
Figure 11.2
Like so many other topical subjects, solar energy is a complex matter, but usually the amount of space it receives in the media is only enough fora summary description. Nonetheless, some statistical projections remain in people's minds. One that is often cited e.g., in a report by Shell Renewables, a division of one of the world's largest oil companies is that by the year 2050, one half of the energy used worldwide will come from solar and other renewable sources. In the past few years, however, modern solar technologies have been penetrating the market at faster and faster rates, and an optimistic view of the sector's future seems fully justified.
84
A Technologically Advanced World Until the discovery of fossil fuels and the beginning of the industrial revolution, the sun's energy in its different forms, direct and indirect (such as wind and biomass) was the sole energy source that inspired and enabled the development of human societies. Since then, and especially in the past one hundred years - a relatively short span of time - a powerful energy infrastructure that now covers practically the entire planet and is based on fossil fuels and nuclear energy has been built. Today the world consumes 9 billion tons per year, compared with around 500 million tons in 1860. While these energy uses and infrastructure do not yet benefit billions of poor people who still try to make do with firewood, they give humanity a power over nature that earlier generations never knew; they had to survive with the renewable energy of the sun.
Fuel Conservation
Figure 11.3
This power helps us live more comfortably than past generations, but while it meets new needs, it also carries the risk of irreversibly altering natural balances, both local and global. The world's population has been growing rapidly over the last century and continues to grow. We were 1.6 billion in 1900; we have now passed the 6 billion mark. If this trend continues, the human population will rise to about 9 billion by 2050. The increasingly crowded world has also become a world of cities. Fifty percent of the population already lives in cities and the figure is expected to rise to 75% by the year 2050. Dozens of cities already number more than 10 million people. Solar Energy, Past and Future With the exception of nuclear, geothermal and tidal energy, all forms of energy used on earth originate from the sun's energy. Some are renewable, some are not. Renewable is the term used for forms of energy that can be regenerated, or renewed, in a relatively short amount of time. The regeneration process may be continuous and immediate, as in the case of direct solar radiation, or it may take some hours, months or years. This is the case of wind energy (generated by the uneven heating of air masses), hydro energy (related to the sun-powered cycle of water evaporation and rain), biomass energy (stored in plants through photosynthesis), and the energy contained in marine currents. The flow of renewable solar energies on earth is essentially equal to the flow of energy due to solar radiation. Every year, the sun irradiates the earth's land masses with the equivalent of 19 trillion tons. A fraction of this energy could satisfy the world's energy requirements, around 9 billion tons per year. For thousands of years, the sun's renewable energy was humanity's sole source of energy. Its role started to decrease only a few centuries ago, with the progress of 85
Future Issues
industrialisation. the diffusion of new technologies, and the discovery of new fossil fuels (coal has been used since ancient times) and eventually nuclear power. Today solar sources provide around 10% of the energy used worldwide, but in the developing countries their share is still of the order of 40%. This contribution could start growing again, thanks to progress in solar technology and the pressure of recurrent energy 4:1 again, technolog environmental erises related to fossil fuels and nuclear power.
To raise the contribution to 50% of world energy use by 2050, as suggested in the Shell Renewables report, would require sweeping changes in our energy infrastructure. These A, changes can be achieved only through the parallel development of a new, more change way of thinking about our environment and how we generate and use energy: a new culture that should pervade every part of society and shape the responsibilities of each.
Current Solar Technologies Solar technologies some primitive, some more advanced have been used in all ages and in every corner of the world, but the invention and development of modern solar technologies goes back only forty or fifty years. By now the world has seen numerous practical demonstrations that sophisticated solar-powered facilities can be built and operated successfully as part of energy systems ranging from the scale of an individual home, to a large industrial or commercial complex, or even a whole city or rural area. As early as the 1980's, a 354-MW solar power plant was built in the Mojave Desert, in California. Here the heat contained in solar rays, concentrated by reflecting troughs and raised to 400C, produces steam that runs a conventional power generator. When the sun is not shining, the plant switches to natural gas. The latest generation of this type of plant incorporates new engineering solutions and new scientific principles such as non-imaging optics, which makes it possible to build much more efficient concentrators at lower costs. These developments open new prospects for the technology in the sunniest parts of the C7 world. A solar technology that has already had a great impact on our lives is photovoltaics. Not in terms of the amount of electricity it produces (in 1999 only 200 MW were installed), but because of the fact that photovoltaic cells working silently, not polluting can generate electricity wherever the sun shines, even in places where no other form of electricity can be obtained. For instance, photovoltaic cells generate the power that runs space satellites. Without telecommunications satellites, many of our now-routine activities from watching internationally broadcast entertainment to using cell phones would still be in the realm of science fiction. And space exploration and research too might still be science fiction. On earth, photovoltaic technology is used to produce electricity in areas where power lines do not reach. In the developing countries, it is significantly improving living conditions in rural areas. Thanks to its flexibility, it can be incorporated in packages of energy services and thus offer unique opportunities to improve rural health care, education, communication, agriculture, lighting and water supply. The use of energy in the form of heat is one of the largest items in the energy budget. In t, Europe, for instance, it accounts for around 50% of total energy consumption: around 630 million tons, of which 383 in low-temperature heat and 247 in medium- and hightemperature heat. Today, low-temperature (<100C) thermal solar technologies are reliable and mature for the market. Worldwide, they help to meet heating needs with the installation of several million square metres of solar collectors per year. These technologies can play a very important role in advanced energy-saving projects, especially in new buildings and structures that require large amounts of hot water, heating and cooling.
86
Fuel ct;
1.4 WIND ENERGY

World wind energy capacity has been doubling every three years during the last decadetwo years have been even faster, as shown in Figure 13.1. It and growth g r a t e s in the F i g u r e i s doubtful whether any other energy technology is growin , or has grown, at such a rate. r wind capacity at the end of 2000 was around 17 5 MW and generation T o t a l wo ld PQ annual consumption of electricity in wind now approximately with but Denmark, with
__"P ' 11
conservatio n
P"
Singapore. Germany, with over 6 000 MW, has the highest ";k over 2 000 MW, has the highest level per capita and the production accounts ik), 1 12% of Danish electricity.
Figure 11.4
'hind d capacity, MOM
15, 0 T)
10.00D
5,00-1
Is
n #_
1996 Year
1992
2iXIO
Figure 11.5: Growth of World Wind Capacity
The attractions of wind as a source of electricity which produces minimal quantities of greenhouse gases has led to ambitious targets for wind energy in many parts of the world. More recently, there have been several developments of offshore wind installations and many more are planned. Although offshore wind- g enerated electricity is generally more expensive than onshore, the resource is very large and there are few environmental larg
Whilst wind ener g is generally developed in the industrialised world for environmental energy it has attractions in the developing world as it can be installed quickly in areas C, where electricity is urgently needed. In many instances it may be a cost-effective solution if fossil fuel sources are not readily available. In addition there are many applications for
87
Future Issues
wind energy in remote regions, worldwide, either for supplementing diesel power (which I a and other installations on an tends to be expensive) or for supplying farms, homes and individual basis.
11.5 TIDAL ENERGY

The tide moves a huge amount of water twice each day, and harnessing it could provide a great deal of energy - around 20% of Britain's Leeds though the ener gy s upply is reliable and plentiful, converting it into useful electrical power is not easy. There are _:o L_eight main sites around Britain where tidal power stations could usefully be built, including the Severn, Dee, Solway and Humber estuaries. Only around 20 sites in the world have beep identified as possible tidal power stations. These work rather like a hydro-electric scheme, except that the dam is much bigger. A huge dam (called a "barrage") is built across a river estuary. When the tide goes in and out, the water flows through tunnels in the dam. The ebb and flow of the tides can be used to turn a turbine or it can be used to push air through a pipe, which then turns a turbine. Large lock gates, like the ones used on canals allow ships to pass. If one was built across the Severn Estuary, the tides at Weston-super-Mare would not go out nearly as far - there'd be water to play in for most of the time. But the Severn Estuary carries sewage and other wastes from many places (e.g. Bristol & L, Gloucester) out to sea. A tidal barrage would mean that this stuff would hang around Weston-super-Mare an awful lot longer! Also, if you're a wading bird that feeds on the exposed mud flats when the tide goes out, then you have a problem, because the tide won't be going out properly any more
Tu r b i n e F ge n e r a t o r
Figure 11.6
.Advantages of Tidal energy Once you've built it, tidal power is free. It produces no greenhouse gases or other waste. It needs no fuel. It produces electricity reliably. \()I expensive to maintain.
I ides are totally predictable.
Disadvantages of Tidal energy barrage across an estuary is very expensive to build, and affects a very wide area the environment is changed for many miles upstream and downstream. Many i rd rely on the tide uncovering the mud flats so that they can feed. There are few suitable sites for tidal barrages:
L ~
conservation
only provides power for around 10 hours each day, when the tide is actually moving in or out. oceans of the rotatin g earth. The relative motions of these bodies cause the surface of the oceans to be raised and lowered periodically, according t o a number or interacting cycles. These include:
I A half day cycle, due to the rotation of the earth within the gravitational field of the
~u
moon
14 day cycle, resulting from the gravitational field of the moon combinin g with that of the sun to give alternating spring (maximum and neap (minimum) tides
A half year cycle, due to the inclination of the moon's orbit to that of the earth, giving rise to maxima in the spring tides in March and SeptemberThe
range of a spring tide is commonly about twice that of a neap tide, whereas the longer period cycles impose smaller perturbations. In the open ocean, the maximum amplitude of the tides is about one metre.. Tidal amplitudes are increased substantially towards the coast, particularly in estuaries. This is mainly caused b y shelving of the sea bed and funnelling of the water by estuaries. In some cases the tidal range can be further amplified by reflection of the tidal wave by the coastline or resonance. 'This is a special effect that Occurs in long, trumpet sh aped estuaries, when the length of the estuary is close to one quarter of the tidal wave length. 'These effects combine to give a mean spring tidal range of over I I m i n the Severn Estuary (UK). Asa result of these various factors, the tidal range can vary substantially between different points on a coastline. The amount of ener g y obtainable from a tidal energy scheme therefore varies with location and time. Output changes as the tide ebbs and floods each day; it can also vary by a factor of about four over a spring-neap cycle. Tidal energy is, however, highly predictable in both amount and timing. The available energy is approximately proportional to the s qua r e of the tidal range. Extraction of ener g y from the tides is considered to be practical only at those sites where the energy is concentrated i n the form of large tides and the geography provides suitable sites for tidal plant construction. Such sites are not commonplace but a considerable number have been identified in the UK, France, eastern Canada, the Pacific coast of Russia, Korea, China. Mexico and Chile. Other sites have been identified along the Patagonian coast of Argentina, Western Australia and western India.
11.6 WAVE ENERGY

Ocean waves are caused by the wind as it blows across the sea. Waves are a pow erfu I source of energy. The problem is that it's not easy to harness this energy and convert it into electricity in large amounts. Thus, wave power stations are rare. There are several methods of getting energy from waves, but one of the most effective works like a swimming pool wave machine in reverse. At a swimming pool, air is blown in and out of a chamber beside the pool, which makes the water outside bob up and down, causing waves. At a wave power station, the waves arriving cause the water in the chamber to rise and fall, which means that air is forced in and out of the hole in the top of the chamber. We place a turbine in this hole, which is turned by the air rushing in and out. The turbine turns a generator. A problem with this design is that the rushing air can be very noisy, unless a silencer is fitted to the turbine. The noise is not a hu g e problem anyway, as the waves make quite a bit of noise themselves.
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Future Issues
Once you've built it, the energy is free, needs no fuel and produces no waste or pollution. One big problem is that of building and anchoring something that can withstand the roughest conditions at sea, yet can generate a reasonable amount of power from small waves. It's not much use if it only works during storms!
Advantages
I he energy is free - no fuel needed, no waste produced.Not expensive to operate and maintain. in produce a great deal of energy.
depends on the waves - sometimes you'll get loads of energy, sometimes nothing. sometimes nothing
'
a suitable site, where waves are consistently strong, ',wine designs are noisy.
\lust be able to withstand very rough weather.
Figure 11.7
Wave power technologies have been around for nearly thirty years. Setbacks and a general lack of confidence have contributed to slow progress towards proven devices that genera g have a oodprobabilityofbecomingcommercialsourcesofelectricalpower.
t , Z--
11.7 HYDROPOWER ENERGY

Although hydropower currently provides about one fifth of the world's electricity supply, zn development of the world's remaining technical potential could, by no means, cover the growth in future demand. This development, together with the existing installed hydropower capacity will make a substantial contribution to the avoidance of greenhouse gas emissions and the related climate change issues. Hydroelectricity, at present the most important of the clean, economically feasible, renewable energy options, can be a major benefit of a water resources development project; however, it is seldom the only benefit. Hydropower stations integrated within multipurpose schemes generally subsidise other vital functions of a project, such as Irrigation, water supply, improved navigation, flood mitigation, recreational facilities, and so on.
90
Fuel Conservation
. "
Oceania
1 9 %
Middle East
4,h `/(
North America
Id
9i xiihAnteric 1F.4% Asia 2F:
hgtwie 11.9 How It Works?
A dam is built to trap water; usually in a valley where there is an existing lake. Water is allowed to How through tunnels in the dam, to turn turbine, and thus drive generators. The dam is much thicker at the bottom than at the top, because the pressure of the water increases with depth. Hydro-electric poWer stations can produce a great deal of power very cheaply. When it was first built, the rvrHoeDm,nhClrdvrupe mco ie, ovr a " te o aoe, pld uh f " o o s i the electricity for the city of Las Vegas; however now Las Vegas has grown so much, the city gets most of its energy from other sources
L_ C',
Figure 11.9
Gravivional potential energy is stored in the water above the dam. Because of the great height of the water, it will arrive at the turbine at high pressure, which means that we can extract a great deal of energy from it. The water then flows away downriver as normal. In mountainous countries such as Switzerland and New Zealand, hydro-electric power provides more than half of the country's energy needs. An alternative is to build the station next to a fast-flowing river. However with this arrangement the flow of the water cannot be controlled, and water cannot be stored for later use.
&Advantages
Hydroffyd Toweris
virtually free.
91
Futures Issues
Much more reliable than wind, solar or wave power.
Water can be stored above the dam ready to cope with peaks in demand. a Hydro-electric power stations can increase to full power very quickly, unlike other power stations. Electricity can be generated constantly Disadvantages of Hydro-Power The dams are very expensive to build. However, many dams are also used for flood control or irrigation, so building costs can be shared. building Building a large dam will flood a very large area upstream, causing problems for II animals that used to live there. a Finding a suitable site can be difficult - the impact on residents and the environment may be unacceptable. Water quality and quantity downstream can be affected, which can have an impact on plant life.
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f H y d r o p o w e r
The most important characteristics of hydropower can be summarised as follows: It is a proven and well advanced technology, with more than a century of experience. Modern power plants provide extremely efficient energy conversion; It plays a major role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions in terms of avoided generation by fossil fuels. Hydro is a relatively small source of atmospheric g enerating options; emissions compared with fossil-fired C It has the lowest operating costs and longest plant life, compared with other largescale generating options. Once the initial investment has been made in the necessary civil works, the plant life can be extended economically by relatively cheap maintenance and periodic replacement of the electromechanical equipment; As hydro plants are often integrated within multipurpose developments, the projects can help to meet other fundamental human needs (for example, irrigation for food supply, domestic and industrial water supply, flood protection). The reservoir water may also be used for other functions such as fisheries, discharge regulation downstream for navigation improvements, and recreation. Hydropower plants can help to finance these multipurpose benefits, as well as some environmental improvements in the area, such as the creation of wildlife habitats; The 'fuel' (water) is renewable, and is not subject to fluctuations in market conditions. Hydro can also represent energy independence for many countries.
11.8 MARINE CURRENT ENERGY

The global marine current energy resource is mostly driven by the tides and to a lesser extent by thermal and density effects. The tides cause water to flow inwards twice each day (flood tide) and seawards twice each day (ebb tide) with a period of approximately 12 hours and 24 minutes (a semi-diurnal tide), or once both inwards and seawards in approximately 24 hours and 48 minutes (a diurnal tide). In most locations the tides are a combination of the semidiurnal and diurnal effects, with the tide being named after the most dominant type. The strength of the currents varies, depending on the proximity of the moon and sun relative to Earth. The magnitude of the tide-generating force is about 68% moon and 32% sun due to their respective masses and distance from Earth. Where the semi-diurnal tide is dominant, the largest marine currents occur at new moon and full moon (spring tides) and the lowest at the first and third quarters of the moon (neap tides). With diurnal tides, the current strength varies with the declination of the moon (position of the moon relative to 92 the equator). The largest currents occur at the extreme declination of the moon and lowest
currents at zero declination. Further differences occur due to changes between the distances of the moon and sun from Earth, their relative positions with reference to Earth and varying angles of declination. These occur with a periodicity of two weeks, one month, one year or longer. and are entirely predictable. Generally the marine current resource follows a sinusoidal curve with the largest currents generated during the mid-tide. The ebb tide often has slightly larger currents than the flood tide. At the turn of the tide (slack tide), the marine currents stop and change direction by approximately 180. The strength of the marine currents generated by the tide vary, depending on the position of a site on the earth, the shape of the coastline and the bathymetry (shape of the sea bed). Along straight coastlines and in the middle of deep oceans, the tidal range and marine currents are typically low. Generally, but not always, the strength of the currents is directly related to the tidal height of the location. However, in land-locked seas such as the Mediterranean, where the tidal range is small, some sizeable marine currents exist. There are some locations where the water flows continuously in one direction only, and the strength is largely independent of the moon's phase. These currents are dependent on large thermal movements and run generally from the equator to cooler areas. The most obvious example is the Gulf Stream, which moves approximately 80 million cubic metres of water per second. Another example is the Strait of Gibraltar where in the upper layer, a constant flow of water passes into the Mediterranean basin from the Atlantic (and a constant outflow M the lower layer). Areas that typically experience high marine current flows are in narrow straits, between islands and around headlands. Entrances to lochs, bays and large harbours often also have high marine current flows. Generally the resource is largest where the water depth is relatively shallow and a good tidal range exists. In particular, large marine current flows exist where there is a significant phase difference between the tides that flow on either side of large islands. There are many sites world-wide with velocities of 5 knots (2.5 m/s) and greater. Countries with an exceptionally high resource include the UK, Ireland, Italy, the Philippines, Japan and parts of the United States. Status of Technology Useful energy can be generated from marine currents using completely submerged turbines comprising of rotor blades and a generator. Water turbines work on the same principle as wind turbines by using the kinetic energy of moving fluid and transferring it into useful rotational and electrical energy. The velocities of the currents are lower than those of the wind, however owing to the higher density of water (835 times that of air) water turbines are smaller than their wind counterparts for the same installed capacity. The global marine current energy resource is very large, and it has a number of advantages over other renewables. Benefits of utilising marine current energy, including: The resource has four times the energy density of. a good wind site, so the diameter of water turbines can be less than half that of a wind turbine for the same energy output; The water velocities and therefore power outputs are completely predictable, once accurate site measurements have been taken; Water turbines will not need to be designed for extreme atmospheric fluctuations as required with wind turbines, meaning that the design can be better cost-optimised,, With increased conflicts over land use, water turbines offer a solution that will not occupy land and has minimal or zero visual impact; The greatest resource is in close proximity to coastlines and many areas with high population densities; The technology is potentially modular and avoids the need for large civil engineering works.
Fuel Conservation
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Future Issues
11.9 FACTORS AFFECTING FUEL CONSUMPTION ON BOARD SHIPS

More than 150 billion tons of fuel oil is consumed on the seas per year. The value is more than 30 billion USD. Approximately 15%, or more than 20 billion tons at a total value of approximately 3 billion USD are pure waste, resulting from traditionally accepted 'microfouling'. Billions of dollars more in fuel are wasted due to limited treatment of hulls in drydock, resulting in higher fuel consumption that lives with the ship over the course of a drydock period. The reason is that marine growth starts at the same moment the ship's hull touches the water. In the beginning, no fouling can be seen, however, after some time the submerged surfaces appear to be a bit slimy, when touched. Not alarming, in any way, but the resistance `micro-fouling' of the hull against propulsion is increased by up to 10%. Later, a transparent green tinge seems to spread over large parts of the hull. Still not alarming, however, the hydrodynamic resistance is now increased by up to 20%. When algae, seaweed, and barnacles start to adhere to the hull, it is easy to understand and traditionally accepted that the performance has diminished greatly and that it is time for some action. The increase in resistance at this stage may exceed 50%. A scrubbing of a hull in this described condition by divers will most probably damage, or even destroy, the anti fouling coating, and then fuel consumption (or reduced speeds at same fuel consumption) will worsen in a short time frame. Dry-docking at this stage is of course possible, however, this means extra costs and loss of hire. So very often, the ship will just continue operation at lower and lower speed, creating losses as described above. The first two stages of slime and growth alone penalize a tanker by a few tenths of a knot, undetected by traditional analysis of noon data, yet can be cleaned without damaging the coating (per coating manufacturer's guidelines). Furthermore, it is common to find tankers that have lost 1.0 to 1.5 knots as they approach a 5-year dry-dock. During the construction period of a ship, naval architects and marine engineers expend effort to optimize the hull form, the propeller shape, and the mechanical propulsion unit where every single percent of power loss counts. At the delivery of the ship, the performance is carefully tested, and penalties paid, if the maximum speed does not reach the promised parameters. Unfortunately, when the ship has been in service for some time, there have been no practical methods of evaluating precise performance losses due solely to fouling and then benchmarked against sea trials (clean, smooth hull).
11.10 NEW INNOVATIONS IN SHIPPING TOWARDS FUEL CONSERVATION

Rising fuel price trends, concern over climate change and the need to meet regulatory requirements all focus renewed priorities on the conservation of energy. Fuel conservation may be achieved by efficient operational methods as well as by innovative technology as follows.Sky Bails of Germany are developing an international patent pending propulsion system, harnessing the power of wind. World trade relies on cargo vessels to transport good around the globe with 98.2% of all intercontinental goods carried via sea, and 98% of all cargo vessels powered by diesel engines. All this equates to the fact that 25 billion Euros worth of fuel was bought in the year 2002 alone. The innovative SkySails system saves a considerable amount of fuel over long voyages, therefore cutting costs and helping the environment. The Skysails system consists of a large towing kite filled with compressed air, and an autopilot and wind-optimised route management system. The features of the SkySails technology enable ships to use wind power with entirely novel performance characteristics.
94
The optimally shaped aerofoil profiles of the Skysail, available with sail areas of up to 5,000 square metres can be be released to a fully adjustable height of 500m. The high altitude operation of the Skysail is important as wind speed increases at height, even when little wind is perceived at sea level sufficient wind energy is available higher in the sky. This combined with refined weather route management systems ensures adherence to schedules is easy. A ship with a SkySails system does not heel, i.e. it does not tilt to the side with the force of the wind. The ship and its crew are not put at risk. Any potential danger to the ship is excluded by the aerodynamic autopilot force control. Because the SkySails system operates fully automatically the existing crew is sufficient for the operation of the ship and the sail. During flying operations an autopilot controls the handling of the Skysail.
Fuel Conservation
Figure 11.10
Further, a cargo ship designed to run exclusively on renewable energy made its debut in the Nordic Pavilion at the World Expo 2005. It harnesses the power of the sun, wind and water and releases zero emissions into the environment. A concept model of the E/S Orcelle, a cargo ship designed by the Scandinavian shipping company, Wallenius Wilhelmsen, was displayed in the Nordic Pavilion. E/S stands for Environmentally sound Ship. Designed for a future with declining supplies of fossil fuels and increasing environmental responsibility, the concept vessel would have a capacity of 10,000 standard cars and would use only renewable energy sources and naturally-charged fuel cells for power. The innovative vessel is named in honor of the Irrawaddy dolphin, known in French as the Orcelle dolphin. currently high on the endangered species list of WWF, the global conservation organization.
Figure 11.1 t: The E/S Orcelle, Wallenius Wilhelmsen's vision of a zero emission car carrier for the year 2025. (Image courtesy Wallenius Wilhelmsen)
The ship's design incorporates a cargo deck area equivalent to 14 football fields. Three giant rigid sails manufactured of special lightweight composite materials are covered in solar panels to help drive the ship at its cruising speed of 15 knots. Wave power is utilized through a series of 12 fins, which will be able to transform wave energy into hydrogen, electricity or mechanical energy. The fins double as propulsion units, driven either by wave energy or other renewable energy sources onboard. The Orcelle is also
95
Future Issues
powered by two variable-speed electric propulsion systems known as pods. This propulsion system eliminates the traditional stern propeller and rudder arrangement. Around half the energy on the E/S Orcelle will be produced by fuel cells,- a rapidly 9 1 developing new technology. These cells will combine hydrogen and oxygen to generate the electricity which will be used in the pod propulsion systems and the fins, while also producing electricity for other uses onboard. The only by-products from this process are water vapor and heat. The ship's hull is a pentamaran, a new design concept in trans-ocean shipping. The design consists of a wave-piercing slender hull fitted with four outriggers for added stability in heavy seas. Cargo carrying capacity has been optimized, so that the Orcelle could carry approximately 10,000 cars - around 50 percent more than today's car carriers - while having a similar weight in tonnage terms. This increased level of efficiency has been achieved through the use of lightweight materials, including aluminium and thermoplastic composites, and also by eliminating the need for ballast water tanks.
SAQ 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) World Energy council in its 2001 Survey of Energy resource found the world oil reserves declining. Name three conventional commercial fossil fuels. What alternative energy sources are available in the world to the conventional commercial fossil fuels? What does the term 'OPEC" means? Name countries which are members of this organization. What are the pessimists' and optimist's views regarding the world fuel oil reserves? What does one mean by the term renewable energy of the sun"? Which is the Solar Power generation technologywhich has had a great impact on our day to day lives.
State the advantages and disadvantages of 'tidal energy'. What are the advantages and disadvantages of "Wave Energy". Where is hydro power energy used? Do you think it can be used to propel a ship? Why?(k) When does marine growth Start building up on the Ship's Side & bottom" (1) What increases the hydrodynamic resistance against in propulsion in the initial Stages upto 20%. What is the increase in hydrodynamic resistance once algae, seaweed and barnacles start adhering to the Ship's hull? What reduction in speed would you expect in a tanker due to marine fueling is approaching a '5 year' dry dock? What is special about the ship E/S Orcelle?
(m) (n) (o)
11.11 SUMMARY
Year 2001 survey of the energy resources produced by the World Energy Council confirms that the conventional fossil fuels vizcoal, oil and gas remain in adequate supply. However, technological advances have been made in the world in the field of Solar energy, Wind energy, Tidal energy, Wave energy, Current energy and hydropower energy. In this unit we have taken a brief look at the progress made in the past by these resources and the prospects they hold in future to provide alternative source of energy to fossil fuels.
96
UNIT 12 DOUBLE HULL

Structure
12.1 Introduction
Objectives
12.2 Background - Do we really need protection for Bunker Tanks? 12.3 Development of Tanker Oil Spills 12.4 The SNAME Study 12.5 Regulatory Framework 12.6 Representative Case Histories of Bunker Oil Spills 12.7 Summary
12.1 INTRODUCTION
A number of recent bunker tank spills have occurred in environmentally sensitive regions and have demonstrated that even relatively small spills can have a significant environmental impact and incur substantial cleanup costs. In the wake of such spills, regulators have initiated a debate on the need for enhanced regulations related to protection of all tanks carrying fuel oil irrespective of the type of the ship. INTERTANKO raised awareness among ship operators of the forthcoming regulations for the protection of bunker tanks on all ship types. INTERTANKO, represents some 250 independent tanker owners and operators (oil, chemical gas and tankers) from 45 countries that operate over 2 100 tankers.
Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to State the circumstances which led the Marine Environment Protection Committee of the IMO to bring about the new regulation that will require bring double hull protection of fuel oil tanks on all Ships. List provisions prescribed for double hull protection
12.2 BACKGROUND - DO WE REALLY NEED PROTECTION FOR BUNKER TANKS?

On a global basis, the maritime industry has excellent records for safety and environmental protection. In the wake of the Exxon Valdez accident, the tanker industry was subject to continuous regulatory change and introduced self imposed better practices. As a result of this, there was a dramatic reduction in the spillage of oil from tankers worldwide. Development of Tanker Oil Spills The reductions in oil spillage realized by tankers and tank barges has not carried over to other vessels, and in the 1990s other vessels have become responsible for an increasing percentage of the total oil spillage. Although tanker cargo oil spills, tanker operational discharges and pipeline spills are still responsible for the majority of "Transportation of Petroleum" inputs, the contribution of the bunker spills has actually increased, as shown in the following graphs.
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Future Issues
Development of tanker oil spills
Figure 12.1
The graph below is from the 2002 Study "Oil in the Sea III: Inputs, Fates, and Effects" carried out by the Ocean Studies Board and Marine Board of the US National Academy of Sciences. ("Consumption of Petroleum" includes land-based runoff, operational discharges from other vessels and atmospheric deposition).
Arod dwi&,(l 99DZ1
Release ofPatiote= '--- So u rce lay

B.nl,er Spji's From Vessels
10,11,
Consumption of
Petroleum
38% Natural Seeps 46%
Extraction of Petroleum 3%
Figure 12.2
98
Further information can be obtained from the more detailed breakdown of spills by source carried out in the SNAME Study. This indicates that during the period from 1992 to 1997, ships were responsible for about 54% of the oil spilled into US waters. Of this, freighters were responsible for about 4% of the total oil spillage in the US waters, while oil spills from tankers accounted for 5%. The category of freighters includes commercial cargo vessels such as bulk carriers, containerships, ro-ros, and general cargo ships. (The other vessel category includes freight barges, tow and tugboats, fishing boats, unclassified vessels, and all other vessels except tankers, tank barges and freighters).
A number of recent spills have occurred in environmentally sensitive regions such as the coasts of Alaska and Oregon, and Humbolt Bay in California. Spills such as that from the Kure (about 4,500 gallons spilled in Humbolt Bay) have demonstrated that even relatively small spills can have a significant environmental impact and incur substantial cleanup costs. Some of these accidents are briefly presented in an annex to this presentation. It is also noteworthy that some 3 years ago, the International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation, ITOPF, which was set up to give assistance in case of oil spills at sea, has enlarged its membership to types of large commercial ships other than tankers. In its last few Annual Reports, ITOPF records having given more assistance in pollution accidents from nontanker vessels than in those from tankers. Even though the aggregate amount spilled from bunker tanks is potentially much less than from a major tanker accident, the nature of these bunker fuels and their impact on the marine environment have given rise give the expectation that bunker tanks should be designed and built with a better protection against damage caused in collision and grounding.
UNKNOWN or OTHER 4% SOURCES_ 7% TANKSHIPS
Double Hull
Fr , %
PIPELINES P0,
TANK3ARGES 31%
F R E IG H TE R S
4%
OTHER VESSELS
"W
(..ducting frighters) 14%
Figure 12.3: Spill in US Waters by Source (for period 1992-1997)
All this background information indicates that it was only a matter of time until new regulations for better protection of bunker tanks against spills caused by groundings and collisions are proposed.
12.3 THE SNAME STUDY

Before regulatory developments took place, the industry itself had taken some steps to study the necessity of better protection of bunker tanks and how such protection could be quantified. Probably the most advanced work done so far was the Study developed by the US y r Societ of Nava l A c hitects and Marine engineers or SNAME. The scope of their study was to relative risk of bunker spills from different ship types, ,f(-weluv,,a methodology for calculating expected oil outflow from bunker 1 , .d Mk1--kiiL e commercial vessel accidents; cvaluatc the influence of alternative tank configurations on projected oil assess the capital costs associated with each configuration, and the impact on safety and vessel operations; and; present findings and recommendations for mitigating accidental oil spillage from bunker tanks. The assessment of risk was extended to evaluate the frequency of such accidents. This has been done by using the United States Coast Guard database of petroleum spills occurring within the navigable waters of the US. The USCG database includes
99
Future Issues
information on the amount of spillage, the type of vessel involved, and causality. The frequency and volume of spillage from bunker tanks on freighters is estimated through analysis of these historical data. The SNAME Ad Hoc Panel also examined six accidents involving breaching of fuel oil tanks. These case histories provide insight into the types of accidents that occur, and the severity of hull damage encountered. Arranging double hull protection around the bunker tanks is one means of mitigating the risk of spillage. The location and size of the fuel oil tanks also influence the likelihood and expected volume of oil spills.
12.5 REGULATORY FRAMEWORK

Regulation 13F of MARPOL 73/78 requires all new tankers above 5,000 DWT to have a double hull, a mid-deck, or an alternative arrangement approved by the International Maritime Organization (IMO). OPA 90 mandates double hull construction for all new tank vessels calling US waters. However, both regulations apply only to cargo oil tanks, and any fuel oil tanks located within the cargo tank length. The cargo tank length extends from the aft-most cargo tank boundary to the collision bulkhead. As tankers typically have their bunker tanks arranged in the engine room, these tanks can be located adjacent to the shell. The motivation behind the new regulation is to obtain a similar degree of double hull protection to fuel oil tanks on ships as to that of cargo tanks in oil tankers. At its 53rd session in July 2005, IMO's Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) approved for future adoption a new MARPOL Annex 1 regulation on oil fuel tank protection. The draft regulation is intended to apply to all ships with an aggregate oil fuel capacity of 600 M3 and above delivered on or after 1 August 2010. The draft regulation includes requirements fora maximum capacity limitation of 2,500 m3 per oil fuel tank, their protected location and performance standards for accidental oil fuel outflow, as an alternative. The draft regulation also requires Administrations to consider general safety aspects, including the need for maintenance and inspection of wing and double bottom tanks or spaces, when approving the design and construction of ships in accordance with the regulation. IMO's Marine Environment Protection Committee, MEPC, have completed the work on a new regulation that will require double hull protection of fuel oil tanks on any kind of ship. This regulation will apply to all ships with an aggregate oil fuel capacity of 600 m3 and above: For which the building contract is placed on or after [ I August 2007]; or In the absence of a building contract, the keels of which are laid or which are at a similar stage of construction on or after [1 February 2008]; or The delivery of which is on or after [1 August 2010]; or which have undergone a major conversion? for which the contract is placed after [1 August 2007]; or In the absence of contract, the construction work of which is begun after [1 February 2008]; or Which is completed after [I August 2010].
100
Double Hull
Figure 12.4
Regulation 12A The regulation will apply to all oil fuel tanks except small oil fuel tanks, 30 m3 and smaller, provided that the aggregate capacity of such excluded tanks is not greater than 600 m3. Individual oil fuel tanks shall not have a capacity of over 2,500 m3. .Alternative Method Alternatively to the above ships may be designed to comply with an accidental oil fuel outflow performance standard given in the regulation. The design must then be assessed with respect to the level of protection against oil fuel pollution in the event of collision or grounding on the basis of a mean oil outflow parameter. Depending on the fuel tanks of the ship the alternative method may result in partly double hull or no double hull protection of oil fuel tanks. Consequences for Yards and Owners Yards and designers should already now start to consider the coming regulation V, and look at how this will affect their ship desiC_ Owners should consider early gns. implementation and the possibility to include the regulation as a requirement for ships to be built prior to the entry into force of the regulation. Conclusions The results of the SNAME probabilistic oil outflow analysis on the 25 vessels indicated a wide variation in bunker oil outflow performance in the existing fleet. Most designs have bunker oil tanks located adjacent to the shell. These are, of course, more vulnerable to damage than double-hulled tanks. The risk of penetrating a tank during a collision, allision, or grounding tends to increase with the area of the side shell bounding the tank. Also, tanks located forward and tanks located adjacent to the bottom shell are particularly vulnerable. The distance of double-hulled tanks from the shell and the size of the tanks are also contributing factors to outflow performance. Providing double hull protection for bunker tanks reduces both the number of spills and the quantity of outflow, but comes at a cost. This cost is especially high for containerships, smaller bulk carriers and smaller tankers, as the size of the ship must be increased. 101
Future Issues
12.6 REPRESENTATIVE CASE HISTORIES OF BUNKER OIL SPILLS Case histories for six accidents involving damage to bunker tanks are summarized below. C LThese include two high energy collisions (the President Washington - Hanjin Hong Kong energy and the Alexia - Eno, two allisions (the Julie N and the Kure), and two groundings (the Kuroshima and the New Larissa).
COLLISION : PRESIDENT WASHINGTON HANJIN HONGKONG
1~
In May 1994, at the entrance to Pusan Harbor, the containership Hanjin Hong Kong struck the containership President Washington on the port side near amidships. The bow of the Hanjin Hong Kong penetrated the side shell of the President Washington in way of an empty bunker tank and an adjacent ballast tank. extending about 2.5 metres beyond the longitudinal bulkhead. Two adjacent cargo holds were flooded. There was only minor oil pollution to the harbour from the residual HFO in the damaged bunker tank. The tank arrangement on the President es] damage is representative of most container ships where the significant percentage of bunker oil is stored in wing tanks outboard of the cargo holds. However, it is likely that the extent of damage from the penetration of the Hanjin Hong Kong bow would have exceeded any practical double hull protection of the bunker tank in this high energy collision.
Figure 12.5: President Washington
COLLISION ENIF - ALEXIA
102
Figure 12A Enif and Alexia
In July 1995 the 230-metre bulk carrier Alexia collided with the 157-metre bulk carrier Enif in the Gulf of Mexico near the entrance to the Mississippi River. The Alexia's bow imbedded in the port side of the Enif, just aft of amidships. It extended into No. 3 Hold, approximately half way through her beam. As a result of the collision three bunker tanks and one diesel oil tank on the Enif spilled approximately 360 m3 (95,000 gallons) of mixed diesel and IFO 180. There was only bow structural damage to the Alexia with no oil spillage.The ships were successfully separated and lightered without additional spillage. After the third day only sheens were reported around the Enif, and visible evidence of the spill disappeared a few days later. The port bunker tank and centreline diesel oil tank on the Enif were damaged from direct contact with the Alexia bow. The starboard bunker tank was damaged from the resultant shifting of the cargo of coiled steel plate. The impact and penetration of the Alexia bow caused the hatch covers to collapse into the hold below causing collateral damage to a double bottomed bunker tank at the forward end of the hold. The force of this collision and the extent of bow penetration was so substantial that the double hull protection afforded by the outboard port bunker tank failed to protect the diesel oil tank. Similarly, (here are no practical design options that would have prevented the collateral to the port side and double-bottomed bunker tanks.
ALLISION JULIE N MILLION DOLLAR BRIDGE, PORTLAND, MAINE, USA
Double Hull
Figure 12.7: Julie N
In September 1996 the product tanker Julie N struck the south side of the Million Dollar Bridge in Portland, Maine, as the ship transited the draw span. Pilot error was the cause of the accident. The contact with the bridge buttress resulted in an oil spill of 353 m3 (93,200 gallons) of heavy bunker fuel and 327 m3 (86,400 gallons) of No. 2 home heating fuel, cargo oil. The oil spill covered 13.7 miles of shoreline and led to a massive clean-up response. Total costs reportedly approached $50 million. The damage to the Julie N occurred below the waterline. on the port side of the bow just aft of the collision bulkhead. The side shell ripped open the hole measuring approximately 10 metres in length by 4 metres in depth. A HFO bunker tank located immediately aft of the collision bulkhead was breached, and the bulkhead at the forward boundary of the port cargo tank was ruptured. The transverse penetration into the bunker tank from the contact with the bridge buttress was limited, and there is a good possibility that double hull protection would have prevented this oil spill.
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Future Issues
ALLISION - KURE HUMBLE BAY PIER
Figure 12.8: Pier at Humbolt Bay
In November 1997 the 195-metre bulk carrier Kure contacted the pier while shifting berth at the Louisiana Pacific Dock in Humbolt Say. Damage to the hull consisted of a 350mm hole about 3 metres above the waterline in way of a forward bunker tank. About 17.2 m3 (4537 gallons) of IFO 180 was discharged into the bay before the hole could be plugged. The local wetlands and shoreline were heavily impacted by the oil spill. Double hull protection would certainly have prevented the spill from this minor and very localized puncture through the hull.
GROUNDING - KUROSHIMA
Figure 12.9: Kuroshima
November 1997, the 116-meter refrigerator ship Kuroshima went hard aground at Summer Bay near Dutch Harbor, Alaska. The grounding resulted in the breeching of two double bottom bunker tanks and about 174 m3 (46,000 gallons) of heavy fuel oil spilled. An additional 288 m3 (76,000 gallons) of HFO was pumped from the ship to holding tanks ashore to prevent further spillage and to lighten the ship. The salvage effort took three months to free the ship, and a costly oil cleanup and recovery operation ensued.
In
104
This oil spill would likely have been averted if the bunker tanks were located outside of the double bottom spaces.
GROUNDING - NEW CARISSA
Double Hull
Figure 12.10: New Carissa
In early February 1999 the wood chip bulk carrier New Carissa drifted aground off the central Oregon coast. Initially, though hard aground on a sand bottom, there was no known oil spill. As storm seas pounded the ship against the bottom, oil began to leak from the ship, and pollute the nearby coastline. Bunker fuel was located in three centreline double-bottomed tanks below Cargo Holds No. 2 to No. 4, and an additional double-bottomed tank on the portside below Cargo Hold No.5. Diesel oil was stored in the starboard double-bottomed tank across from the No. 5 DB. At the time of the grounding the ship had approximately 60% bunkers on board, consisting of about 1,363 m3 (360,000gallons) of HFO and 114 m3 (30,000 gallons) of diesel oil. It is difficult to know how much HFO escaped from the grounded vessel, and how much burned-off during the salvage operation. Estimates of HFO spillage range from 189 m3 (50,000 gallons) to 265 m3 (70,000 gallons). To date, salvage and oil spill clean-up costs have exceeded $20 million. The bunker tank arrangement on the New Carissa was typical of many bulk carriers where bunker oil is predominantly stored in double-bottomed tanks below the cargo holds. However, it is uncertain whether alternative bunker tank arrangements would have averted this spill. The structural failure and breaking up of the vessel would probably have opened up any tanks in the midships region of the vessel. regio
SAQ I
What factors influenced greater attention to conservation of energy and alternative sources of energy? (b) (c) (d) (e) Briefly describe the various sources of energy being harnessed by man. Define "Renewable Source of Energy" and cite examples. Describe the working principle of harnessing Tidal Energy and Wave Energy. Compare the pros and cons of (i) Tidal Energy (ii) Hydropower energy. 105
Future Issues
What prompted an international maritime debate on double bottom protection for Fuel Oil Tanks? What did the SNAME study intend to achieve? To which vessels does Regulation 12A of Annex 1 of the MARPOL apply? What alternative method has been suggested to pre-empt fuel oil pollution? What effect has this new regulation had on Ship Owners?
12.7 SUMMARY
In this module we have made a brief study of case histories involving six accidents where bunker tanks were damaged and the new IMO regulation that will require double bull protection of fuel oil tanks.
Note: Some of the pictureslimages used in this Unit have been sourced from the internet. We wish to thank the creators/publishers for the usage of their material.
106
UNIT 13 PLACE OF REFUGE

Structure
13.1 Introduction
Objectives
13.2 Background on "Castor", "Prestige" and "Erika" incidents 13.3 Objectives of Providing a Place of Refuge 13.4 Guidelines for Action required of masters and/or Salvors of Ships in need of a place of Refuge 13.5 Guidelines for actions expected of Coastal States 13.6 Summary
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Background on the "Castor" incident The decision by IMO'S Maritime Safety Committee (MSC) at its 74th session in May 2001 to look at the problem of places of refuge came in the wake of the incident in the new year of 2001 in which the salvors of the fully-laden tanker Castor were unable to find a sheltered place to effect cargo transfer and repairs for some 35 days. The incident sparked a great deal of cone ern about the provision of refuge for ships in distress and the then IMO Secretary-General Mr. William A O'Neil urged IMO Members to place the issue of offering refuge to disabled ships high on the Organization's agenda. refuge hig the beginning of 2001, the fully laden 31,068 dwt tanker Castor developed a structural problem in the Mediterranean Sea en route from the Romanian port of Constanza to Lagos, Nigeria. The ship suffered damage to the hull resulting in a 24m crack (below) running from port to starboard halfway along its length. Following the incident, the classification society (American Bureau of shipping) withdrew the ship's certificates.
I
Figure 13.1
The ship was deemed to present a serious risk of explosion and rupture of the hull and the authorities of Morocco and Gibraltar prohibited its entry into waters or ports under their jurisdiction. Castor then sailed towards the vicinity of the south-eastern coast of Spain, accompanied by the Tsavliris tug Nicolay Chiker, with which the tanker's owner had agreed to effect transhipment of the cargo under a commercial salvage contract. The
107
Future Issues
Spanish Maritime Authority requested the ship to keep at a distance from the Spanish coast. A report, issued following the inspection of the ship by the Spanish authorities, described the situation as one of extreme seriousness due to the high risk of explosion, and recommended that the ship should not enter any port and should keep at a distance from the coast to minimize the consequences of a possible catastrophe. Bringing the ship close to the Spanish coast for unloading, either by transhipment to another ship or by discharge to land installations was rejected as presenting a higher risk for the population, coastal properties and the environment than transhipment on the high seas. Spain stationed a helicopter, two salvage vessels, a maritime rescue rapid intervention craft as well as a Spanish Navy patrol boat in the area. After units of the Spanish maritime rescue service had evacuated the 26 crew members, shipowners, salvage operators and other interested parties were informed that appropriate measures should be adopted to ensure that the ship withdrew from its current position and remained at a distance of at least 30 nautical miles from the Spanish coast, in the light of the unacceptable risk posed to Spanish coastal interests. Eventually, after being similarly unable to find shelter off Algeria, the Castor was towed to a relatively sheltered spot off the coast of Tunisia where her cargo was safely unloaded.
Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to: explain the problems involved in providing a needy Ship a place where she can take shelter when there is a possibility that he Ship herself may do harm to that place or the environment, state objectives of providing place of refuge, describe the role of Masters and Salvors of ships needing place of refuge and state expected role of coastal states in providing place of refuge.
13.2 BACKGROUND ON "CASTOR", "PRESTIGE" AND "ERIKA" INCIDENTS

Background on the Prestige" accident On Wednesday, 13th of November 2002, the single-hulled oil tanker Prestige, flying the Bahamas flag, sent a distress call offshore the region of Cape finisterre (Galicia, Spain). The tanker was carrying 77,000 tonnes of heavy fuel oil loaded in St Petersburg (Russia) and Ventspils (Latvia), was heading to Singapore via Gibraltar. The vessel developed a reported 30 degrees starboard list whilst on passage in heavy seas and strong wind and so requested the partial evacuation of the crew. Twentyfour of the twenty-seven crew members were evacuated by helicopter while the captain, the first mate and the chief mechanic stayed aboard. As the engine was damaged, the ship became out of control and derived according to the weather conditions. An aerial observation revealed a fuel leak at sea. All night long, the tug boats Ria de Vigo, Alonso de Chaves, Charuca Silveira and lbaizabal I from the Sociedad de Salvamento y Seguridad Maritima (SASEMAR), the Spanish organization in charge of the sea rescue and pollution control, tried to take in tow the oil tanker. The emergency towing system of the ship didn't work and the different attempts failed. In the end, the Prestige was taken in tow by a ship from Smit salvage on the 14th of November. It was towed to the north-northwest all day, and then to the 108'
south. On the 15th, it was torn over 35 metres on the right side. On the 16th, its towing was turned to the south-west to avoid the Portuguese waters. On the 19th at 9 am, the vessel broke in two, coordinates 42 15N and 1208W, at about 130 nautical miles off the Spanish coasts, west south-west of Cape Finisterre. At 12 o'clock, the stern part of the Prestige sank into 3500 metres of water. The bow part followed at about 4 pm.
;I
IW
Places of Refuge
3.05pm, ship evacuated
02, midday, leakage observed

W%
is
13/ 11/02, drifting vessel
18/11/02, 10arn, no leakage obse ed "'.
rv
W4,
1.
19/11/02, Sam, vessel broke in two
Figure 13.2
Background on the "Erika" accident On December 11, 1999, the Maltese tanker Erika, laden with 31,000 tonnes of heavy fuel n6, en route from Dunkirk (France) to Livorno (Italy) in very rough sea conditions (Westerly wind, force 8 to 9, with 6 m swell), was faced with structural problems off the Bay of Biscay. After sending an alert message, then proceeding to transfers from tank to tank, the ship master informed the French authorities that the situation was under control and that he was heading to the port of Donges, at reduced speed. On the 12, at 6:05 a.m. he sent a Mayday: the ship was breaking up. A rescue operation was immediately launched and the crew was winched sound and safe by French Navy helicopters, backed up by Royal Navy reinforcements, in extremely difficult conditions. The Erika split up in two parts at 8:15 a.m. (local time) in international waters, about thirty miles south of Penmarc'h (Southern Brittany). The quantity of oil spilt at that time was estimated between 7,000 and 10,000 tonnes. The bow sank during the following night, within little distance from the place where the ship broke up. The stern was taken in tow by the salvage tug Abeille Flandre on December 12, at 2:15 p.m., to avoid its drifting towards the
13.3 OBJECTIVES OF PROVIDING A PLACE OF REFUGE

1.1 Where the safety of life is involved, the provisions of the SAR Convention should be followed. Where a ship is in need of assistance but safety of life is not involved, these guidelines should be followed. 1.2 The issue of .places of refuge. is not a purely theoretical or doctrinal debate but the solution to a practical problem: What to do when a ship finds itself in serious 109
Future Issues
difficulty or in need of assistance without, however, presenting a risk to the safety of life of persons involved. Should the ship be brought into shelter near the coast or into a port or, conversely, should it be taken out to sea? 1.3 When a ship has suffered an incident, the best way of preventing damage or pollution from its progressive deterioration would be to lighten its cargo and bunkers; and to repair the damage. Such an operation is best carried out in a place of refuge. 1.4 However, to bring such a ship into a place of refuge near a coast may endanger the coastal State, both economically and from the environmental point of view, and local authorities and populations may strongly object to the operation. 1.5 While coastal States may be reluctant to accept damaged or disabled ships into their area of responsibility due primarily to the potential for environmental damage, in fact it is rarely possible to deal satisfactorily and effectively with a marine casualty in open sea conditions. 1.6 In some circumstances, the longer a damaged ship is forced to remain at the mercy of the elements in the open sea, the greater the risk of the vessel's condition deteriorating or the, sea, weather or environmental situation changing and thereby becoming a greater potential hazard. 1.7 Therefore, granting access to a place of refuge could involve a political decision which can only be taken on a case-by-case basis with due consideration given to the balance between the advantage for the affected ship and the environment resulting from bringing the ship into a place of refuge and the risk to the environment resulting from that ship being near the coast. Background 1.8 There are circumstances under which it may be desirable to carry out a cargo transfer operation or other operations to prevent or minimize damage or pollution. For this purpose, it will usually be advantageous to take the ship to a place of refuge.
C~
1.9 Taking such a ship to a place of refuge would also have the advantage of limiting the extent of coastline threatened by damage or pollution, but the specific area chosen may be more severely threatened. Consideration must also be given to the possibility of taking the affected ship to a port or terminal where the transfer or repair work could be done relatively easily. For this reason the decision on the choice and use of a place of refuge will have to be carefully considered. 1.10 The use of places of refuge could encounter local opposition and involve political decisions. The coastal States should recognize that a properly argued technical case, based on a clear description of the state of the casualty, would be of great value in any negotiations which may take place. Purpose of the Guidelines 1.12 The purpose of these Guidelines is to provide Member Governments, shipmasters, companies (particularly in connection with the ISM Code and procedures arising there from), and salvors with a framework enabling them to respond effectively and in such a way that, in any given situation, the efforts of the shipmaster and shipping company concerned and the efforts of the government authorities involved are complementary. In particular, an attempt has been made to arrive at a common framework for assessing the situation of ships in need of assistance. 1.13 These Guidelines do not address the issue of operations for the rescue of persons at sea, inasmuch as the practical difficulties that have given rise to the examination of the issue of places of refuge relate to problems other than those of rescue. Two situations can arise:
1 10
the ship, according to the master's assessment, is in need of assistance but not in a distress situation (about to sink, fire developing, etc.) that requires the evacuation of those on board; or those on board have already been rescued, with the possible exception of those who have stayed on board or have been placed on board in an attempt to deal with the situation of the ship. 1.14 If, however, in an evolving situation, the persons on board find themselves in distress, the rules applicable to rescue operations under the SAR Convention, the IAMSAR Manual and documents arising there from have priority over the present Guidelines (and procedures arising here from). 1.15 In any case the competent MRCC should be informed about any situation which may develop into a SAR incident. 1 16 Even though a .rescue. operation, as defined in the International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue (SAR) is not the case, the safety of persons must nevertheless be constantly borne in mind in the application of these Guidelines, particularly in two respects: if the ship poses a risk (explosion, serious pollution, etc.) to the life of persons in the vicinity (crews of salvage vessels, port workers, inhabitants of the coastal area, etc.), if persons voluntarily stay (master, etc.) or go (fire-fighters and other experts, personnel of marine salvage or towage companies, etc.) on board to attempt to overcome the difficulties experienced by the ship. 1 17 These Guidelines do not address the issue of liability and compensation for damage resulting from a decision to grant or deny a ship a place of refuge. Definitions 1.18 Ship in need of assistance means a ship in a situation, apart from one requiring rescue of persons on board that could give rise to loss of the vessel or an environmental or navigational hazard. 1.19 Place of refuge means a place where a ship in need of assistance can take action to enable it to stabilize its condition and reduce the hazards to navigation, and to protect human life and the environment. 1.20 MAS means a maritime assistance service, as defined in resolution A.950(23), responsible for receiving reports in the event of incidents and serving as the point of contact between the shipmaster and the authorities of the coastal State in the event of an incident.
Places of Refuge
13.4 GUIDELINES FOR ACTION REQUIRED OF MASTERS AND/OR SALVORS OF SHIPS IN NEED OF A PLACE OF REFUGE
Appraisal of the situation 2.1 The master should, where necessary with the assistance of the company and/or the salver, identify the reasons for his/her ship's need of assistance. Identification of hazards and assessment of associated risks 2.2 Having made the appraisal referred to in paragraph 2.1 above, the master, where necessary with the assistance of the company and/or the salver, should estimate the consequences of the potential casualty, in the following hypothetical situations, taking into account both the casualty assessment factors in their possession and also the cargo and bunkers on board: if the ship remains in the same position;
111
Future Issues
if the ship continues on its voyage; if the ship reaches a place of refuge; or if the ship is taken out to sea.
Identification of the required actions 2.3 The master and/or the salver should identify the assistance they require from the coastal State in order to overcome the inherent danger of the situation. Contacting the authority of the coastal State 2.4 The master and/or the salver should make contact with the coastal State in order to transmit to it the particulars referred to in paragraphs 2.1 to 2.3 above. They must in any case transmit to the coastal State the particulars required under the international conventions in force. Such contact should be made through the coastal State's Maritime Assistance Service (MAS), as referred to in resolution A.950(23). Establishment of responsibilities and communications with all parties involved . 2.5 The master and/or the salver should notify the MAS of the actions that are intended to be taken and within what period of time. 2.6 The MAS should notify the master and/or the salver of the facilities that it can make available with a view to assistance or admittance of the ship to a place of refuge, 11' required. Response actions 2.7 Subject, where necessary, to the coastal State's prior consent, the shipmaster and the shipping company concerned should take any necessary response actions, such as signing a salvage or agreement or the provision of any other service for the purpose of dealing with the situation. 2.8 The master, the company and, where applicable, the salver of the ship should c omply with the practical requirements resulting from the coastal State's decisionC7 making process referred to in paragraphs 3.12 to 3.14.
Reporting procedures 2.9 The-reporting procedures should be in accordance with the procedures laid down in the safety management system of the ship concerned under the ISM Code or resolution A.852(20) on Guidelines for a structure of an integrated system of contingency planning for shipboard emergencies, as appropriate.
13.5 GUIDELINES FOR ACTIONS EXPECTED OF COASTAL STATES

3.1 Under international law, a coastal State may require the ship's master or company to take appropriate action within a prescribed time limit with a view to halting a threat of danger. In cases of failure or urgency, the coastal State can exercise its authority in taking responsive action appropriate to the threat. 3.2 It is therefore important that coastal States establish procedures to address these issues, even if no established damage and/or pollution have occurred. 3.3 Coastal States should, in particular, establish a Maritime Assistance Servict (MAS). Assessment of places of refuge 112
Generic assessment and preparatory measures 3.4 It is recommended that coastal States endeavor to establish procedures consistent with these Guidelines by which to receive and act on requests for assistance with a view to authorizing, where appropriate, the use of a suitable place of refuge. 3.5 The maritime authorities (and. where necessary, the port authorities) should, for each place of refuge, make an objective analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of allowing a ship in need of assistance to proceed to a place of refuge. Unless neighboring States make the necessary arrangements to establish a joint service. 3.6 The aforementioned analysis, which should take the form of contingency plans, is to be in preparation for the analysis provided for below when an incident occurs. 3.7 The maritime authorities, port authorities, authorities responsible for shore side safety and generally all governmental authorities concerned should ensure that an appropriate system for information-sharing exists and should establish communications and alert procedures (identification of contact persons, telephone numbers, etc.), as appropriate.
Places of Refuge
3.8 The aforementioned authorities should plan the modalities for a joint assessment of the situation. Event-specific assessment Analysis factors 3.9 This analysis should include the following points: seaworthiness of the ship concerned, in particular buoyancy, stability, availability of means of propulsion and power generation, docking ability, etc., nature and condition of cargo, stores, bunkers, in particular hazardous goods; distance and estimated transit time to a place of refuge-, whether the master is still on board; the number of other crew and/or salvors and other persons on board and an assessment of human factors, including fatigue; the legal authority of the country concerned to require action of the ship in need of assistance; if the ship is insured, identification of the insurer, and the limits of liability available; agreement by the master and company of the ship to the proposals of the coastal State/salver to proceed or be brought to a place of refuge; provisions of the financial security required; commercial salvage contracts already concluded by the master or company of the ship; information on the intention of the master and/or salver; designation of a representative of the company at the coastal State concerned; risk evaluation factors and any measures already taken. 113
whether the ship concerned is insured or not insured;
Future Issues
Expert analysis 3.10 An inspection team designated by the coastal State should board the ship, when
appropriate and if time allows, for the purpose of gathering evaluation data. The team should be composed of persons with expertise appropriate to the situation. 3.11 The analysis should include a comparison between the risks involved if the ship remains at sea and the risks that it would pose to the place of refuge and its environment. Such comparison should cover each of the following points: safeguarding of human life at sea; safety of persons at the place of refuge and its industrial and urban environment (risk of fire or explosion. toxic risk, etc.); risk of pollution; if the place of refuge is a port, risk of disruption to the port's operation (channels, docks, equipment, other installations); evaluation of the consequences if a request for place of refuge is refused, including the possible effect on neighboring States; and due regard should be given, when drawing the analysis, to the preservation of the hull, machinery and cargo of the ship in need of assistance. After the final analysis has been completed, the maritime authority should ensure that the other authorities concerned are appropriately informed. Decision-making process for the use of a place of refuge 3.12 When permission to access a place of refuge is requested, there is no obligation for the coastal State to grant it, but the coastal State should weigh all the factors and risks in a balanced manner and give shelter whenever reasonably possible.
3.13 In the light of the outcome of the assessment provided for above, the coastal State
should decide to allow or refuse admittance, coupled, where necessary, with practical requirements.
3.14 The action of the coastal State does not prevent the company or its representative
from being called upon to take steps with a view to arranging for the ship in need of assistance to proceed to a place of refuge. As a general rule, if the place of refuge is a port, a security in favor of the port will be required to guarantee payment of all expenses which may be incurred in connection with its operations, such as: measures to safeguard the operation, port dues, pilotage, towage, mooring operations, miscellaneous expenses, etc.
13.6 SUMMARY
We have learnt about the tanker accidents which took place between 1999 to 2002 and the problems which the ship's captain faced with different authorities. It is a fact that a ship which is in need of assistance or in a serious difficulty could possibly be a threat to the port and it may he difficult for the authorities to decide whether she should be brought closer to the port or be towed further away from the port. In this module we have learnt about the guidelines to be followed for the ships which are in the need for a place of refuge.
114
UNIT 14 GREEN PASSPORT

Structure
14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 Introduction
Objectives
Brief History of the Issue of Ship Recycling in IMO IMO Guidelines on Ship Recycling Reporting System for Ships Destined for Recycling Ship Recycling Fund
14.6 Future Working Arrangements 14.7 14.8 Guidelines for the development of the Ship Recycling Plan Conclusions
14.9 Summar y
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Ship recycling contributes to sustainable development and is the most environmentally friendly way of disposing of ships with virtually every part of the hull and machinery capable of being re-used. However, while the principle of ship recycling is a sound one, the reported status of working practices and environmental standards in recycling facilities in certain parts of the world often leaves much to be desired. 1.2 Noting the growing concerns about environmental safety, health and welfare matters in the ship recycling industry, and the need to reduce the environmental, occupational health and safety risks related to ship recycling, as well as the need to secure the smooth withdrawal of ships that have reached the end of their operating lives, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) has taken swift action to develop a realistic and effective solution to the problem of ship recycling, which will take into account the particular characteristics of the world of maritime transport.
Figure 14.1
115
Future Issues
Figure 14.2
Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to: describe meaning of the term 'Green Passport', enumerate salient features of the guidelines to all the stakeholders in ship recycling.
14.2 BRIEF HISTORY OF THE ISSUE OF SHIP RECYCLING IN IMO

2.1 The issue of ship recycling was first brought to the attention of the IMO Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) at its forty-second session in 1998 and at the following sessions of the Committee it was generally agreed that IMO has an important role to play in ship recycling, including preparation of a ship before recycling commences, and a co-coordinating role towards the ILO and the Basel Convention in recycling matters. At MEPC 47 (March 2002), the Committee agreed that, for the time being, IMO should develop recommendatory guidelines to be adopted by an Assembly resolution.
14.3 IMO GUIDELINES ON SHIP RECYCLING

3.1 As mentioned in the above paragraph 2.2, the IMO Guidelines on Ship Recycling L, were adopted on 5 December 2003 by resolution A.962(23). Objectives and Background guidance flag 3.2 The Guidelines have been developed to provide guidance to fla g, port and States, ship owners, ship recycling facilities, ship builders and marine equipment suppliers as to "best practice", which takes into account the ship recycling process throughout the life cycle of the ship. The Guidelines seek to: encourage recycling as the best means to dispose of ships at the end of their operating lives; provide guidance in respect of the preparation of ships for recycling and minimizing the use of potentially hazardous materials and waste generation during a ship's operating life; during foster inter-agency co-operation; and encourage all stakeholders to address the issue of ship recycling. 116
Green Passport
Figure 14.3: Safety and Working environment for workers here production of reinforcement bars
Figure 14.4: Identification of Potentially Hazardous Materials
3.3
The Guidelines place a significant emphasis on the identification of potentially hazardous materials on board ships prior to recycling and introduce the concept of the Green Passport. The Green Passport for ships is a document providing information with regard to materials known to be potentially hazardous utilised in the construction of the ship, its equipment and systems. This document should accompany the ship throughout its operating life and successive owners of the ship should maintain the accuracy of the Green Passport and incorporate into it all relevant design and equipment changes; with the final owner delivering the document, with the ship, to the recycling facility.
3.4 Acknowledging that a number of the problems associated with ship recycling might be addressed at the design and construction stage, the Guidelines encourage ship designers and shipbuilders to take due account of the ship's ultimate disposal when designing and constructing a ship.
1 17
Future Issues
Figure 14.5: Design and Construction of Ships
3.5 The use of materials which can be recycled in a safe and environmentally sound manner, the minimization of the use of materials known to be potentially hazardous to health and the environment, the consideration of structural designs that could facilitate ship recycling and the promotion of the use of techniques and designs which, without compromising safety or operational efficiency, contribute towards the facilitation of the recyclin g operation are some of the recommendations provided by the Guidelines with regard to the design and construction of ships. 3.6 Manufacturers of marine equipment that contains hazardous substances are also encouraged to design the equipment so as to facilitate the safe removal of those substances, or give advice as to how such substances can be safely removed at the end of the working life of the equipment.
Figure 14.6: Use of Potentially Hazordous substances
3.7 Minimization of the use of potentially hazordous substances and of waste generation is also recommended for the lifetime of ships and therefore ship owners should: 118
make every effort to minimize the amount of potentially hazardous materials on board the ship, including those carried as stores, during routine or major maintenance operations or major conversions; and continuously seek to minimize hazardous waste generation and retention during the operating life of a ship and at the end of a ship's life. Ships may contain environmently hazardous substances Du
Asbestos:
Green Passport
naturally occuring silicate fibers -heat resistant

8Asbestos lagging ca pipin and aibes o ga:.ken at -2.> hatche-_
g
r ,
may lead to asbestosis cancer of the lung for bidden in Norwayfrom

1986 -still legal to use in e.g.some
Countries in Asia
,
I
.~t,be-,to-. in ceiling/wall ling/wall
AA~r~to imulatiou ii; floor, underneath e g. concrete
%I
Ottu = 7 2
Figure 14.7: Preparation of a Ship for Recycling
3.8 The Guidelines also provide a number of recommendations with regard to the preparation of a ship for recycling, which should begin before the ship arrives at the recycling facility. These preparations include amongst others: the selection by the ship owner of a recycling facility which has the capability to recycle the ships it purchases in a manner consistent with national legislation and relevant international conventions;the devolpment of a recycling plan by the recycling facility in consultation recycling with the ship owner, ensuring that a ship has been prepared to the maximum extent prior to its recycling and that the safety of the ship, prior to delivery has been taken into account;mis parations to protect occupational health and safety, such as issue of , a54rce/hot work certificates, marking of any oxygen-deficient Z~ (_oinpartments onboard and identification of any area of the ship where there may be structural integrity problems or critical support structures; and preparations to prevent pollution, such as minimization of the quantities of fuel, diesel, lubricating, hydraulic and other oils and chemicals on board at delivery to the facility, removal of wastes at appropriate port reception facilities, and controlled drainage, by the recycling facility, of potentially harmful liquids from the ship. 3.9 The Guidelines provide guidance to all stakeholders in the ship recycling process. This includes flag, port and recycling States, authorities of shipbuilding and maritime equipment supplying countries, as well as relevant intergovernmental organizations and commercial bodies such as ship owners, ship builders, marine equipment manufacturers, repairers and recycling facilities. Additional stakeholders include workers, local communities, and environmental and labor bodies.
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Future Issues
Slugs May contain environmentally hazardous substances such as: Radioactive isotopes: used for different purposes radioactive radiation may among other give cancer. genetically injuries and mutation
Radioact ve in smoke e
i
-as an example radioactive smoke detectors may be used in Norway but are forbidden to use in Germany
I s %4ANAGING KISK
Figure 14.8: Role of Stakeholders and other Bodies
3.10 In accordance with the Guidelines: flag state administrations should promote the application of the g Guidelines, establish criteria to declare a ship "ready for recyclin2n promote ", the use of ship recycling sales and purchase contract and co-operate with recycling States to facilitate the implementation of the Guidelines; port states should promote the widespread use of the Guidelines within the industry and co-operate with flag States and recycling States to facilitate their implementation. It is also stressed that ships destined for recycling are subject to current port State control procedures, as any other ship, in accordance with applicable international regulations; recycling states should introduce, implement and enforce sound legislation and other requirements concerning the recycling of ships, including measures to authorize or license recycling facilities and regulations in relation to the condition of ships purchased for recycling both at the time of purchase and at the tithe of delivery. They should check that any potentially hazardous wastes, which might be generated during the recycling operation, can be safely handled prior to the delivery of the ship for recycling, and monitor the safe handling of any hazardous materials generated during the recycling process. Recycling States should also assess the capabilities of their recycling facilities and make available the results of those assessments and ensure that, in authorizing a recycling activity, adequate reception facilities are in place; 0 the shipping industry should continue its co-operation with the other stakeholders towards improving plans to decommission ships in a safe and environmental sound manner and is encouraged to continue the further development of the "Industry Code of Practice on Ship Recycling"; and the ship recycling industry should take due note of available technical guidance on ship recycling, develop a code of practice appropriate to that industry and improve the quality management system of the recycling
120
facilities. It should also encourage recycling g facilities to make available details regarding procedures for the chosen method for the safe handling of hazardous materials and working practices and establish adequate waste management systems. Ships may contain environmently Hazardous substances, such as:
Green Passport
Hydrocarbons:
-in several different systems on vessel in gas phase =y result in explosions may
E &ocaxbons in h (h-auht systems.
y y
have long- and short time effects to the

environment
Figure 14.9: Technical Co-Operation
3.11 Finally, the Guidelines suggest that national or regional organizations should cooperate with Governments in ship recycling States and other interested parties on projects involving the transfer of technology or aid funding to improve facilities and working practices in the recycling facilities.
14.4 REPORTING SYSTEM FOR SHIPS DESTINED FOR RECYCLING

4.1 Regarding the reporting system for ships destined for recycling, the Group agreed recycling this system should be developed in accordance with the following basic principles: the system should be transparent, effective, ensure uniform application and respect commercially sensitive information; the system should be developed in such a way as to facilitate the control and enforcement of any mandatory provisions on ship recycling that may be developed by IMO; the system should be implemented by the ship owner, the recycling facility, the flag State and the recycling States with the latter two stakeholders having the primary tole for ensuring its proper application; the system should be a stand-alone reporting mechanism; and although existing notification and reporting procedures under other existing legal instruments could be taken into account, the system should be a workable and effective one, with the minimum required administrative burden and catering for the particular characteristics of world maritime transport. MEPC 52 developed, as a starting point, a draft outline of the reporting system for ships destined for recycling in order to identify in a schematic way what should be reported, to where and by whom. In this respect, it was Noted that additional work was needed for the further development of this system with the aim of considering, amongst other issues, the appropriate time-frame for the reporting, a harmonized
121
Future Issues
reporting format and the possible need for additional flow of information between the involved stakeholders. 4.2 "Single list" of the on board potentially hazardous materials: MEPC 52 agreed that a "single list" of the on board potentially hazardous materials should be developed. The "single list" would provide guidance on the identification of potentially hazardous materials on board ships and the preparation of the relevant inventories. The Committee noted that the Group, having agreed that a standard format should be developed in order to provide for a uniform and consistent application, developed an initial layout of the "single list" for further consideration in the intercessional period. The Committee further noted that the Group agreed that: the "single list" should be user friendly, workable and practicable, specific for shipboard applications, exclude any generic terms and provide information on all hazards associated with the entries in the list; once the "single list" has been developed it might be appropriate, prior to its finalization, to seek input and comments from the Joint ILO/IMO/BC Working Group on Ship Scrapping.
4.3 Mechanisms to promote the implementation of the Guidelines and Criteria for ships to be declared "Ready for Recycling":
4:1
A set of possible and suitable mechanisms for the promotion of the implementation of the Guidelines and an initial draft set of the criteria for ships to be declared "ready for recycling" were prepared by the intercessional Correspondence Group on Ship Recycling established by MEPC 51 and submitted for consideration and further development to MEPC 52. At MEPC 52, it was recognized that the outcome of the work outlined in the above paragraphs 4.2 to 4.9 would have a significant effect on the further consideration of the possible mechanisms for the promotion of the implementation of the Guidelines and on the further development of the criteria for ships to be declared "Ready for Recycling" and, therefore, it was agreed that these issues should be considered at a future session. Regarding the promotion of the implementation of the Guidelines, the Committee agreed that a preliminary plan should be developed identifying priorities, achievable deadlines, and input required from other IMO Committees and Sub-Committees. 4.4 Proposed amendments to the Guidelines: The Committee, at its fifty-second session, considered a number of proposals for amendments to the Guidelines submitted by the Industry Working Party on Ship Recycling, which was invited to prepare a revised text of the proposed amendments to the Guidelines for further consideration in the intercessional period.
14.5 SHIP RECYCLING FUND

MEPC 52, having considered a proposal by Bangladesh, agreed, in principle, to the need for the establishment of an International Ship Recycling Fund to promote the safe and environmentally-sound management of ship recycling through the IMO'S technical cooperation activities. However, it was agreed that the working arrangements and funding mechanism of such a Fund would require further consideration and clarification 122
and the IMO'S Technical Co-operation Committee was invited to consider further the arrangements to establish such a dedicated fund.
Green Passport
14.6 FUTURE WORKING ARRANGEMENTS

MEPC 52, taking into account the need to progress the work on ship recycling issues in taking an expeditious manner: agreed to the establishment of a correspondence group to further progress the work in the intercessional period; approved a three-day intercessional meeting of the Working Group on Ship Recycling during the week before MEPC 53 (to be held from 18 to 22 July 2005) to consider the issues related to the terms of reference of the Correspondence Group; and agreed to re-establish the Working Group on Ship Recycling at the next session of the Committee.
14.7 GUIDELINES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SHIP RECYCLING PLAN

In accordance with section 8.3.2 of the IMO Guidelines on Ship Recycling, the development and implementation of a recycling plan can help ensure that a ship has been prepared to the maximum extent possible prior to its recycling and that the safety of the ship, prior to delivery, has been taken into account. The ship recycling plan should be developed by the recycling facility in consultation with the ship owner, taking into account the potential hazards which may arise during the recycling operation, the relevant national and international requirements and the facilities available at the recycling facility in terms of materials, handling and the disposal of any wastes generated during the recycling process. MEPC 52 approved the Guidelines for the development of the ship recycling plan, aimed at providing technical information and guidance for its preparation. These Guidelines have been circulated by means of MEPC/Circ.419.
14.8 CONCLUSIONS
Recycling is one of the basic principles of sustainable development and ship recycling is, .generally, the best option for all time-expired tonnage. IMO, therefore, encourages and promotes ship recycling in compliance with the international standards on safety, health and environment. MO's work on ship recycling aims at the development of a realistic, pragmatic, wellbalanced. workable and effective solution to the problem of ship recycling, which should take into account the particular characteristics of world maritime transport and the need for securing the smooth withdrawal of ships from trade at the end of their operating lives.
C7
Areas where IMO has focused its attention include, but are not limited to: the minimization of the use of hazardous materials in the design, construction and maintenance of ships, without compromising their safety and operational efficiency; the identification of potentially hazardous materials on board ships and the preparation of the relevant inventories (e.g. Green Passport); and the preparation of ships for recycling in such a manner as to reduce environmental and safety risks and health and welfare concerns as far as practicable. 123
Future Issues
The issue of ship recycling has been given high priority at the MEPC in order that the promotion of the implementation of the IMO Guidelines on Ship Recycling and the consideration of a possible new legally binding IMO instrument on ship recycling are progressed as efficiently and expeditiously as possible. IMO maintains close co-operation with ILO and the appropriate bodies of the Basel Convention, with the aim of avoiding duplication of work and overlapping of responsibilities and competencies between the three Organizations.
SAQ 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) What is a place of refuge? What is the objective of a v/1 seeking a place of refuge? What do you understand by MAS? What factors must be taken into account by the Master seeking a place of refuge? What do the IMO Guidelines expect of Coastal States in cases dealing with v/ls seeking a place of refuge? What is the concept of the "Green Passport"? What are the objectives sought in the formation of the Green Passport document? How do the following entities contribute to the success of the Green Passport concept? (i) Ship Recycling Agencies (ii) (iii) (i) Ship owners Ship recycling States
What do the IMO Guidelines state w.r.t vessels reporting prior proceeding to the recycling yard? How must a ship owner plan for the recycling of his vessel? What factors must be taken into account while preparing such a plan?
14.9 SUMMARY
In this unit we have learnt about the guidelines which have been developed to provide guidance to ship-owners, shipbuilders, Ship recycling facilities and all other stake holders in respect of the preparation of Ship for recycling and minimizing the use of potentially hazardous materials and waste generation during the Ship's Operating life. "Green Passport" is a document which provides information about the hazardous material is required to accompany the ship throughout its operating life and delivered with the Ship to the recycling facility. We have learnt that the guidelines also provide a number of recommendations with regard to the preparation of a Ship for recycling.
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BNA - 051 SHIP MANOEUVRING AND FUTURE ISSUES

UNIT 7 BALLAST WATER AND SEDIMENT MANAGEMENT

7.4 GUIDELINE OBJECTIVES AND BACKGROUND

Ballast Water and Sediment Management

7.5 DISSEMINATION OF INFORMATION

7.6 TRAINING AND EDUCATION

7.7 PROCEDURES FOR SHIPS AND PORT STATES

7.7.2 Procedures for Port States

7.8 RECORDING AND REPORTING PROCEDURES

7.8.2 Procedures for port States

Ballast Water and Sediment Management

7.9 SHIPS' OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES

7.9.2 Ballast Water Management Options

7.10 PORT STATE CONSIDERATIONS

7.10.1 Highly Disparate Conditions between Uptake and Discharge Ports

Ballast Water and Sediment Management

7.10.2 Ballast Water Age

7.10.3 Presence of Target Organisms

7.11 ENFORCEMENT AND MONITORING BY PORT STATES

7.11.9 Where ballast water or sediment sampling for compliance or effectiveness

7.12 FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS IN RELATION TO BALLAST WATER EXCHANGE

7.12.2 Long-Term Evaluation of Safety Aspects in Relation to Ballast Water Exchange

Ballast Water and Sediment Management

7.13 BALLAST SYSTEM DESIGN

7.14 BALLAST WATER REPORT FORM (Appendix I)

7.15.2 Safety Precautions

Ballast Water and Sediment Management

7.15.3 Crew Training and Familiarization

7.16 IMPACTS OF SOME OF THE WORST INVASIVE AQUATIC SPECIES

Ballast Water and Sediment Management

Figure 7.2: Photo courtesy of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Figure 7.3: Photo Courtesy of Minnesota Sea Grant

Figure 7.5: Photos courtesy of the Virginia Institute of Marine Science

Ballast Water and Sediment Management

Spiny Water Flea

Ballast Water and Sediment Management

(d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i)

UNIT 8 MARPOL ANNEXURE IV

Figure 8.5: Sewage dumping poses widespread threat to coastal waters

1.17 "I - *' ~ ' : 1 . 'F . - - I ^ . *. *Ylt* ,Y.V

;Trudge disposal Land Application 1ncmerj1wn

8.4 FORM OF CERTIFICATE

INTERNATIONAL SEWAGE POLLUTION PREVENTION CERTIFICATE (1973)

(Full designation of the country) by ........................................................................................................................................

Distinctive number or lettes

Number of persons which the ship is certified to carry

Signature of official issuing the certificate

Delete as appropriate. Parameters should be incorporated.

Figure 8.10 sewage dumping Pipe in Ohio

Marpol Annexure IN'

Figure 8.11: Sewage dump area near a coast

8.5 CALCULATIONS ON SEWAGE GENERATION

8.6 THE FACTORS ON WHICH THE QUALITY OF EFFLUENT IS BASED

8.8 TYPICAL SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANTS

Figure 8.12: Schematic Diagram of Super Trident Sewage Treatment Unit

Figure 8.13: Example of Extended Aeration Sewage Plant

SALT WATELR--- ~. 1 STORAGE TANK

COMPRESSED AIR SUPPLY PRESSURE

SEA- SUCTION i . 1 L~ FILTER

Figure 8.14: Example of Chemical Sewage Plant

(g) (h) (i)

UNIT 9 MARPOL ANNEXURE VI - PART A: PREVENTION OF AIR POLLUTION

History of Air Pollution Legislations

1.17 "I - ' ~ ' : 1 . 'F . - - I ^ . . Ylt ,Y.V

Annual/ Intermediate survey:

Annual/ Intermediate survey: