Chapter 2 Capacitor

2.1 Introduction
1. A capacitor is an electrical/electronic device which consists of two electrical conductors placed closed to each other. 2. These conductors are separated from each other by a non-conducting material like air, plastic sheets, etc. 3. The conductors can be of any size and shape. 4. Each conductor is referred to as a plate. 5. A fixed capacitor is represented by a pair of short parallel lines.

2.2 Charging and Discharging Capacitor

2.2.1 Charging a Capacitor 1. Charging current: (a) Suppose we have a capacitor which is composed of two plates, A and B. Then we connect a dc battery of emf E to the capacitor. The positive terminal is connected to plate A while negative terminal is connected to plate B. (b) Free negatively charged electrons in A are sucked out of the plate A due to the positive potential at the positive terminal of the battery at the moment when the battery is connected to the capacitor. (c) Electrons are pumped into plate B due to the negative potential of the negative terminal of the battery. (d) In other words, electrons start to move in the external circuit. Electrons move out of A, travel through the battery and move into B. This movement of electrons produces an electric current in the external circuit. However, there is no physical movement of free electrons from B to A since the region between A and B is filled with insulator. (e) As time passes, the magnitude of the current begins to decrease. Eventually, the current becomes zero. In other words, when a dc battery is connected to a capacitor, the battery will produce a current in the capacitor circuit, but this current only flows momentarily. Notice that the current start to flow with a maximum value, . (f) When the current stops flowing, plate A will have lost certain amount of negative charge and, as a result, it becomes positively charged. In the end it has acquired a positive charge, +Q. Plate B will have acquired the same amount of charge, -Q, but of the negative type. (g) When current is still flowing, the capacitor is said to be charging. While the current has stopped flowing, the capacitor is said to have become fully charged and store charge of amount Q coulomb. (h) Current decreases exponentially with time. 2. P.d. across capacitor: (a) Initially the capacitor is uncharged, i.e., both A and B are neutral, so the p.d. across A and B is zero. (b) When a dc battery is connected to the capacitor, A starts to lose electrons while B starts to gain electrons. Because of this, A becomes positively charged while B becomes negatively charged. (c) As time passes, A loses more electrons and becomes more positively charged. B gains more electrons and becomes more negatively charged. (d) Hence, the p.d. across A and B will increase with time.

(e) Notice that at time , when the current stops flowing, the p.d. reaches a maximum value, which is equal to the emf E of the battery. (f) When the p.d. across the capacitor becomes equal in magnitude to the emf of the battery, the p.d. and emf cancel each other. Hence, the effective net voltage across the capacitor is zero. This is the reason why the current has stop flowing. (g) The p.d. increase exponentially with time. 3. Charge stored in capacitor: (a) As time pases, the amount of charge stored in each plate increases. (b) When the capacitor becomes fully charged, it stores maximum charge, Q. (c) Charge, q increases exponentially with time, t. 2.2.2 Discharging a Capacitor 1. Discharging current: (a) Suppose that dc battery is removed from the fully charged capacitor. Since the capacitor is charged, a p.d. exists across A and B. A is positively charged while B is negatively charged. (b) A wire is used to connect A to B. Free electrons will immediately begin to flow out of B and electrons begin to flow into A. Notice that the electrons now flow in the direction opposite to that of charging current. (c) The movement of electrons in the external circuit produces a current. The current decrease with time. The current starts to flow with a maximum value, and then decreases to zero. The negative value of I indicates that the current flows in the opposite direction of the charging current. (d) Current decreases exponentially with time. (e) When the current has stopped flowing, it means that A and B have finally become electrically neutral. The capacitor is said to have discharged completely. It no longer stores any more of the charge that it has acquired before. 2. P.d. across capacitor: (a) As electrons flow out of B and into A, the amount of charge stored in each conductor begins to decrease with time. (b) A time passes, A and B finally become electrically neutral and uncharged. The p.d. across them becomes zero. (c) Notice that at the moment when the p.d. becomes zero, the current stops flowing. (d) The p.d. decreases exponentially with time.

2.3 Capacitance
1. Suppose that a battery is being charged by a dc battery. The capacitor will acquire both charge q and p.d. V across the capacitor vary together with time. If we plot the graph is q against V for several times, a straight line graph will be obtained. Thats mean charge stored in capacitor q is directly proportional to the p.d. across the capacitor V. (2.1) 2. From the relation above, we have (2.2) where C is a constant. 3. Suppose that a steady p.d. V is applied across the capacitor and the charge acquired by the capacitor when it becomes fully charged is Q. In this case we have

(2.3) (2.4) 4. The constant C is known as the capacitance of the capacitor. Its defined as the ration of the charge stored by a capacitor to the potential difference applied across the capacitor. 5. The unit of capacitance is farad (F). It is equivalent to C/V. 6. In practical, 1 F is a very large capacitance. In most cases, we encounter capacitance of the order of magnitude of F or nF. Example Refer to the circuit shown. Determine the maximum charge stored by the 20 F capacitor when one of its terminals is connected to (a) X, (b), Y, (c) Z.

Example Figure shows how the p.d. V across 50 F capacitor varies with time. (a) Sketch a graph to show how the charge q stored by the capacitor, initially uncharged, varies with time. Write down on the graph the value of q at time T. (b) The 50 F capacitor is replaced by another one of 100 F. The same time-varying p.d. in (a) is applied to the new capacitor. Add another line or curve to the graph drawn in (a) to show how q varies with time for the new capacitor.

Example A capacitor is composed of two conductors. A p.d. of 12 V is applied to the capacitor. It is found that when the capacitor has become fully changed electrons have moved out of one conductor and the same number of electrons have moved into the other conductor. Determine the capacitance of the capacitor.

2.4 Parallel Plate Conductor

1. Parallel plate capacitor consists of two flat metal plates of identical shape placed parallel and facing each other. The space in between the two plates may be air or filled up with a type of non-conducting material. 2. Suppose that a constant p.d. of V volt is applied across the parallel plate capacitor. When fully charged, the chage stored in positively charged plate be +Q will the other plate Q. A uniform electric field of strength E will exist in the space between the two parallel plates. (2.5) Using Gauss law, we obtain the expression (2.6) Hence, we have (2.7) But (2.8) Then (2.9) Since the capacitance of the capacitor C is given by (2.10) (2.11) Permittivity of material is different for different material. Hence (2.12) where separation between two parallel plates

the surface charge density of the charges residing on the surface of each plate permittivity of the material placed in between the two plates. the area of the flat surface of each plate. relative permittivity permittivity of free space 3. That mean the capacitance is dependent on the following quantities: (a) Size of the plates (b) The separation of the plates (c) Permittivity, the kind of material in between the free space. Example A parallel plate capacitor consists of two metal plates separated by a distance of 5.0 mm. Each plate is a rectangle of size 5.0 cm 10 cm. The space in between the plates is completely filled with a kind of material. A constant voltage of 12 V is applied across the capacitor. Determine (a) the capacitance of the capacitor (b) the charge stored by the fully charged capacitor. (Relative permittivity of the material = 10)

Example Refer to the previous example. The material in between the parallel plates is removes so that the space is now filled with air. What is the charge stored by the capacitor?

2.5 Capacitors in Series and in Parallel

2.5.1 Capacitors Connected in Series

1. A battery of emf V volt is connected to three capacitors of capacitances , and connected in series. We wish to replace these three capacitors with a single capacitor of capacitance so that this circuit with the single capacitor is equivalent to the circuit with three capacitors in series. 2. After steady state is obtained, the charge stored in each capacitor will be the same. It is given by a value of Q. Explanation: (a) Free electrons in J begin to move out of the plate and head towards the positive terminal of the battery. The plate becomes positively charged. The electrons will flow out until the capacitor has become fully charged. The plate acquired a positive charge +Q. (b) Plate K is near to J. Since J is positively charged, free electrons from L are drawn into K by means of electrostatics induction. The electron flow will stop when the charge acquired by K is Q. (c) Since free electrons flow out of L, the plate becomes positively charged. When K has acquired charge Q from L, it means that finally L will hold a charge of amount +Q. (d) This process is repeated by plates M and N. (e) Plate P is connected to the negative terminal of the battery. When N becomes positively charged, electrons will be forced to move out of the negative terminal and into plate P. (f) When all capacitors are fully charged, they will store charge of the same magnitude, Q. 3. The p.d. across each capacitor may not be the same. If the p.d. across , and are , and respectively, then we have (2.13) where V = emf of the battery 4. For a single capacitor equivalent circuit, when the single capacitor becomes fully charged, (a) it has store charge of Q coulomb (b) The p.d. across the capacitor has to be equal to V, the emf of the battery. 5. Therefore, to determine the total capacitance, , But (2.14) Hence

(2.15)

2.5.2 Capacitors Connected in Parallel

1. A battery of emf V volt is connected to three capacitors of capacitances , and connected in parallel. We wish to replace these three capacitors with a single capacitor of capacitance so that this circuit with the single capacitor is equivalent to the circuit with three capacitors in parallel. 2. The p.d. across each capacitor is the same and is equal to the applied voltage V. (2.16) 3. The charges stored may be different. 4. After all the capacitors have become fully charged, the total amount of charge Q that has flowed in the external circuit and through the battery is given by (2.17) where , and are charges stored in 5. For a single capacitor equivalent circuit, And we have (2.18) Since (2.19) Substitute into Equation (2.20) Example A constant voltage of 20.0 V is applied to two capacitors connected in series, as shown in the figure. Determine (a) the total capacitance in the circuit (b) the charge stored in each capacitor (c) the p.d. across each capacitor. , and respectively.

Example Three capacitors are connected as shown in the figure. A dc battery of 12.0 V is applied across XY. Determine (a) the total capacitance across XY (b) the p.d. across the 4 F capacitor (c) the charge stored in each fully charged capacitor.

Example A capacitor of capacitance 20 F is charged fully by a 6.0 V voltage supply and after that the voltage supply is removed. An uncharged capacitor of capacitance 5.0 F is then connected directly across the 20 F capacitor. Determine (a) the p.d. across each capacitor (b) the charge stored in each capacitor

Example Refer to the circuit shown. Determine the total capacitance across XY.

2.6 Energy Stored in Charged Capacitor

1. Suppose that a p.d. of V volt exists across a capacitor of capacitance C and the charge stored in the capacitor at that voltage is Q coulomb. Then the electric energy U stored in the capacitor is given by (2.21) 2. From Equation (2.3), equation can be rewritten and hence we have (2.22) (2.23) 3. A graph of the p.d. across a capacitor plotted against the charge stored by the capacitor will yield a straight line which passes through the origin. Suppose that the charge stored in the capacitor is Q when p.d. V exists across the capacitor. Then the electric energy U stored in the capacitor is given by

4. Referring to the V-Q graph, we notice that the area below the graph is given by

. Hence the area

below the graph in a V-Q graph for a capacitor represents the electric energy stored by the capacitor. Example Refer to the circuit. Determine (a) The total capacitance of the circuit (b) The electric energy stored in each capacitor.

Example A 10 F capacitor is charged fully by a dc voltage of 6.0 V. A 20 F capacitor is charged fully by a dc voltage of 15 V. The two capacitors are then connected to each other, with the positively charged plates of both capacitors connected together and the negatively charged plated connected together. Determine (a) the final charge store in each capacitor (b) the p.d. across the capacitors (c) the electric energy lost after combining the two capacitors.

2.7 RC Circuit
2.7.1 Charging Current 1. A capacitor and a resistor are connected in series to each other. A dc battery of emf E volt is then connected across the series combination. 2. Before switch S is closed, and with the capacitor uncharged, we have (2.24) 3. At the instant when S is closed, (t = 0) 4. While the capacitor is charging, (2.26) Since (2.25)

(2.27) Differentiate the expression with respect to time t, (2.28) According to definition, (2.29) Substitute (2.29) into (2.28), (2.30) Rearrange,

(2.31) where starting current, is given by (2.32) 5. When the capacitor becomes fully charged, no current flow in the circuit. We have 6. The product RC is known as the time constant for the series RC circuit. 7. Time constant is the time taken by the current to decrease to 0.368 of the initial value when the capacitor in a series RC circuit is charging. At t = RC, (2.33) 8. The unit for time constant is second. 2.7.2 P.d. Across Capacitor for Charing Capacitor 1. The instantaneous p.d. across the capacitor is given by But and

Hence

2. As t = 0, As t infinity,

Example A 20 F capacitor and a 1.0k resistor are connected in series. A battery of emf 12 V is connected across the series combination. Determine (a) (b) (c) (d) the unit of RC in terms of base units the current at the instant when the battery is connected and current starts to flow in the circuit the current at time t = 10 ms the time taken by the current to (i) decrease to 0.368 of the initial starting current (ii) decrease to 13.5% of the initial charging current (iii) become 2.0 mA

2.7.3 Discharging Current 1. A fully charged capacitor of capacitance C is connected in series to a resistor R in a closed circuit. The p.d. across the capacitor is . The p.d. across the resistor is zero. 2. The capacitor starts to discharge once the circuit is connected. 3. The total voltage across C and R is given by Since

Differentiate the expression with respect to time t,

According to definition,

Equation becomes

Rearrange,

Example A 100 F capacitor is charged fully by a dc battery. The capacitor is then discharged through a resistor of resistance 50 k. Determine the time taken by the capacitor to lose (i) 36.8% (ii) 63.2%

of the initial amount of charge stored in the capacitor.

Example The internal resistance of the battery can be neglected. Initially the capacitor is uncharged. (a) Switch S makes contact with X at instant t = 0. i. Determine the initial starting current flowing in the circuit. ii. At t = 50 ms the contact between S and X is broken. Determine the p.d. across the capacitor after 50 ms. (b) Then S makes contact with Y at instant t = 0.

i. ii.

Determine the initial starting current flowing in the circuit. Determine the p.d. across the capacitor at t = 50 ms and t = 100 ms.

2.8 Dielectric 1. 2. 3. 4. A dielectric is an insulating material. Hence no free electrons are available in it. Very often a kind of dielectric is placed between the plates of parallel plate capacitor. Examples of some dielectrics used in a capacitor: air, waxed paper, plastics, mica, ceramic. There are two types of dielectric: a) Non-polar dielectric: According to the classical theory of atoms, electrons revolve round the nucleus of a neutral atom. For an atom of a non-polar dielectric, the centre of the negative charge of the electrons coincides with the centre of the positive charge of the nucleus. It does not become a permanent dipole. b) Polar dielectric: The centre of the negative charge separate permanently slightly away from the centre of the positive charge, thus forming a permanent dipole. At normal temperature and in the absence of electric field, these dipoles are randomly aligned. 5. Electric polarization occurs when an electric field is applied to a non-polar dielectrics. a) Non-polar dielectric: The electric field will cause the centre of the negative charge of the atom to be displaced slightly away from the centre of the positive charge, thus producing temporary dipole. Furthermore, these dipole align themselves along the direction of the electric field. The separation of two opposite charges slightly away from each other due to the application of an electric field is known as electric polarization.

6.

7. 8.

9.

b) Polar dielectric: When an electric field is applied to a polar dielectric, the permanent dipoles in the substance align themselves along the direction of the electric field. Without the field the dipoles do not align themselves toward specific direction. Dielectric breakdown is a phenomena where the field strength applied to a dielectric becomes too high and causing a sudden surge of large current flow through the dielectric. Dielectric breakdown can occur to the dielectric placed between the plates of a capacitor if the p.d. applied across the capacitor gets too high. Most likely the capacitor would be damaged permanently if ever dielectric breakdown occurs. The maximum electric field strength, or electric potential gradient, that a dielectric can withstand without producing dielectric breakdown is known as the dielectric field strength. Effect of Dielectric on Electric Field in Capacitor: a) Suppose the space between two parallel plates of a capacitor, which initially filled with air, is completely filled with a kind of dielectric. Since an electric field is present in the dielectric, electric polarization occurs. Temporary dipoles will be set up if the dielectric is a non-polar one. The dipoles align themselves along the direction of the electric field. b) Due to the alignment of the dipoles, the surface of the plate which connected to positive terminal becomes negatively charged. In contrast, the surface of the plate which connected to negative terminal becomes positively charged. c) The negative surface charge and positive surface charge can set up an electric field, where the direction of this induced field is opposite to the direction of the applied field. d) The opposition of the induced field to the applied field will reduce the strength of the field in the dielectric. Hence, the insertion of a dielectric in the air space between a parallel plate capacitor will reduce the strength of the electric field existing in the space. Effect of Dielectric on P.D. of a Capacitor: a) Suppose a dc voltage is applied across an air-filled parallel plate capacitor of capacitance . The separation of the plates is . The charge stored in the capacitor is . An electric field of strength exists in the air space between the plates and is given by

b) The air space is then filled completely with a dielectric. c) An induced electric field is set up between the plates. As a result, the resultant electric field strength is weaker than the initial field of strength . The two strength can be related by

where is known as the relative permittivity or dielectric constant of the dielectric, and it must be greater than unity. d) But we have

where

is the p.d. across the capacitor after the insertion of the dielectric.

This implies that . Therefore, after the insertion of a dielectric in the space between the plates, the p.d. across the capacitor will decrease.

10. Effect of Dielectric on Capacitance of a Capacitor: a) The capacitance of a charged air-filled parallel plate capacitor is given by

where is the charge stored in the capacitor and Upon rearranging,

is the p.d. across the capacitor.

b) Suppose that the capacitor is not connected to a battery or any other external circuit. Then the charge stored will not change. is a constant. c) Dielectric is then inserted into the space between the plates of the capacitor. After inserting the dielectric, the p.d. across the capacitor will decrease to a new value, . The new capacitance of the capacitor is given by

Upon rearranging, d) Equating Since Then e) The capacitance is greater when there is a dielectric in the space between the plates. The new capacitance is given by

Example The space between the plates of an air-filled parallel plate capacitor is completely filled with mica. Determine the percentage change in capacitance of the capacitor due to the insertion of mica into the space mentioned.

2.9 Lightning 1. A thunderstorm cloud is normally charged negatively. Hence when it hangs high above the ground, an electric field will be produced in the space between the cloud and the ground. 2. The air in the space between the cloud and the ground serves as a dielectric. Because of the presence of the electric field, the whole volume of air is under electric stress. 3. When the amount of charge acquired by the cloud gets too high, the electric field strength will exceed the dielectric strength of the air. Dielectric breakdown begins to occur in the air. 4. The air molecules which are under such large electric stress are forced to ionize practically at the same instant, thus producing a sudden flow of a very large amount of electrons towards the ground. 5. The movement of a very large amount of charge, lasting only a fraction of a second, produces a very high electric current flowing in the air. 6. The resistance of air against the current flow is very large. Hence part of the electric energy carried by the current is converted to other forms, like heat, light and sound.