Name

Symbol Symbol Read as Explanation Examples

in HTML in TEX
Category
equality
x = y means x and y do represent the same thing or 2=2
= is equal to; equals
value. 1+1=2
everywhere
inequality x ≠ y means that x and y do not represent the same
thing or value.

≠ is not equal to; does not

equal (The forms !=, /= or <> are generally used in
2+2≠5
programming languages where ease of typing and
everywhere use of ASCII text is preferred.)
strict inequality
x < y means x is less than y.
3<4
is less than, is greater than
5>4
< x > y means x is greater than y.
order theory
proper subgroup
> is a proper subgroup of H < G means H is a proper subgroup of G.
5Z < Z
A3 < S3
group theory

≪
(very) strict inequality
x ≪ y means x is much less than y.
is much less than, is much
0.003 ≪ 1000000
greater than
x ≫ y means x is much greater than y.
≫ order theory
 asymptotic comparison f ≪ g means the growth of f is asymptotically
bounded by g.
of smaller (greater) order
x ≪ ex
than (This is I. M. Vinogradov's notation. Another
notation is the Big O notation, which looks like f =
analytic number theory O(g).)

inequality x ≤ y means x is less than or equal to y.

x ≥ y means x is greater than or equal to y.

is less than or equal to, is 3 ≤ 4 and 5 ≤ 5
greater than or equal to 5 ≥ 4 and 5 ≥ 5
(The forms <= and >= are generally used in
programming languages where ease of typing and
order theory use of ASCII text is preferred.)

≤ subgroup
Z≤Z
is a subgroup of H ≤ G means H is a subgroup of G.
A3 ≤ S3

≥ group theory

reduction If

A ≤ B means the problem A can be reduced to the

is reducible to
problem B. Subscripts can be added to the ≤ to
indicate what kind of reduction. then
computational complexity
theory

Karp reduction

is Karp reducible to; is

≺ polynomial-time many-one 1
reducible to
L ≺ L2 means that the problem L1 is Karp reducible
to L2.[1]
If L1 ≺ L2 and L2 ∈ P, then L1 ∈ P.

computational complexity
 theory
proportionality

is proportional to; varies as y ∝ x means that y = kx for some constant k. if y = 2x, then y ∝ x.

everywhere
Karp reduction[2]
∝
is Karp reducible to; is
polynomial-time many-one A ∝ B means the problem A can be polynomially
If L1 ∝ L2 and L2 ∈ P, then L1 ∈ P.
reducible to reduced to the problem B.

computational complexity
theory
addition

plus; add 4 + 6 means the sum of 4 and 6. 2+7=9

arithmetic
+ disjoint union
A1 = {3, 4, 5, 6} ∧ A2 = {7, 8, 9, 10} ⇒
the disjoint union of ... and
A1 + A2 means the disjoint union of sets A1 and A2. A1 + A2 = {(3,1), (4,1), (5,1), (6,1), (7,2),
...
(8,2), (9,2), (10,2)}
set theory
subtraction

− minus; take; subtract 9 − 4 means the subtraction of 4 from 9. 8−3=5

arithmetic
 negative sign

negative; minus; the

−3 means the negative of the number 3. −(−5) = 5
opposite of

arithmetic
set-theoretic complement A − B means the set that contains all the elements
of A that are not in B.
minus; without {1,2,4} − {1,3,4} = {2}
(∖ can also be used for set-theoretic complement as
set theory described below.)
multiplication

times; multiplied by 3 × 4 means the multiplication of 3 by 4. 7 × 8 = 56

arithmetic
Cartesian product

the Cartesian product of ... X×Y means the set of all ordered pairs with the first
and ...; the direct product of element of each pair selected from X and the second {1,2} × {3,4} = {(1,3),(1,4),(2,3),(2,4)}
... and ... element selected from Y.
×
set theory
cross product
(1,2,5) × (3,4,−1) =
cross u × v means the cross product of vectors u and v
(−22, 16, − 2)
linear algebra
R× consists of the set of units of the ring R, along
group of units
with the operation of multiplication.
 the group of units of This may also be written R* as described below,
or U(R).
ring theory
multiplication

times; multiplied by 3 · 4 means the multiplication of 3 by 4. 7 · 8 = 56

arithmetic
· dot product

dot u · v means the dot product of vectors u and v (1,2,5) · (3,4,−1) = 6

linear algebra
division (Obelus)
2 ÷ 4 = .5
divided by; over 6 ÷ 3 or 6 ⁄ 3 means the division of 6 by 3.
12 ⁄ 4 = 3
arithmetic

÷ quotient group
G / H means the quotient of group G modulo its {0, a, 2a, b, b+a, b+2a} / {0, b} = {{0, b}, {a, b+a},
mod
subgroup H. {2a,b+2a}}

⁄ group theory
quotient set
If we define ~ by x ~ y ⇔ x − y ∈ ℤ, then
mod A/~ means the set of all ~ equivalence classes in A.
ℝ/~ = {x + n : n ∈ ℤ : x ∈ (0,1]}
set theory
plus-minus The equation x = 5 ± √4, has two solutions, x = 7
± 6 ± 3 means both 6 + 3 and 6 − 3.
and x = 3.
 plus or minus

arithmetic
plus-minus
10 ± 2 or equivalently 10 ± 20% means the range
plus or minus If a = 100 ± 1 mm, then a ≥ 99 mm and a ≤ 101 mm.
from 10 − 2 to 10 + 2.
measurement
minus-plus

∓ minus or plus 6 ± (3 ∓ 5) means both 6 + (3 − 5) and 6 − (3 + 5). cos(x ± y) = cos(x) cos(y) ∓ sin(x) sin(y).

arithmetic
square root

the (principal) square root

of means the positive number whose square is x.

√
real numbers
complex square root
if is represented in polar
the (complex) square root
of coordinates with ,
then .
complex numbers

absolute value or modulus |3| = 3

|–5| = |5| = 5
absolute value of; modulus |x| means the distance along the real line (or across
|…| of the complex plane) between x and zero.
|i|=1
numbers | 3 + 4i | = 5
 Euclidean distance

Euclidean distance For x = (1,1), and y = (4,5),

|x – y| means the Euclidean distance
between; Euclidean norm
between x and y.
of

geometry
determinant

determinant of |A| means the determinant of the matrix A

matrix theory
cardinality
|X| means the cardinality of the set X.
cardinality of; size of; order
|{3, 5, 7, 9}| = 4.
of
(# may be used instead as described below.)
set theory
norm
|| x || means the norm of the element x of a normed
norm of; length of || x + y || ≤ || x || + || y ||
vector space.[3]
linear algebra
||…|| nearest integer function
||x|| means the nearest integer to x.
nearest integer to ||1|| = 1, ||1.6|| = 2, ||−2.4|| = −2, ||3.49|| = 3
(This may also be written [x], ⌊x⌉,
nint(x) or Round(x).)
numbers
a|b means a divides b.
∣
divisor, divides
a∤b means a does not divide b. Since 15 = 3×5, it is true that 3|15 and 5|15.
 divides (This symbol can be difficult to type, and its
negation is rare, so a regular but slightly shorter

∤ number theory
conditional probability
vertical bar | character can be used.)

P(A|B) means the probability of the if X is a uniformly random day of the year P(X is May
given
event a occurring given that b occurs. 25 | X is in May) = 1/31
probability
restriction
f|A means the function f restricted to the set A, that is,
restriction of … to …; The function f : R → R defined by f(x) = x2 is not
it is the function with domainA ∩ dom(f) that agrees
restricted to injective, but f|R+ is injective.
with f.
set theory
parallel

is parallel to x || y means x is parallel to y. If l || m and m ⊥ n then l ⊥ n.

geometry
incomparability

|| is incomparable to x || y means x is incomparable to y. {1,2} || {2,3} under set containment.

order theory
exact divisibility
pa || n means pa exactly
exactly divides 23 || 360.
divides n (i.e. pa divides n but pa+1 does not).
number theory
cardinality #X means the cardinality of the set X.
# #{4, 6, 8} = 3
 cardinality of; size of; order (|…| may be used instead as described above.)
of

set theory
connected sum
A#B is the connected sum of the manifolds A and B.
connected sum of; knot sum A#Sm is homeomorphic to A, for any manifold A, and
If A and B are knots, then this denotes the knot sum,
of; knot composition of the sphere Sm.
which has a slightly stronger condition.
topology, knot theory
aleph number

ℵ aleph
ℵα represents an infinite cardinality (specifically,
the α-th one, where α is an ordinal).
|ℕ| = ℵ0, which is called aleph-null.

set theory
beth number
ℶα represents an infinite cardinality (similar to ℵ, but
ℶ beth ℶ does not necessarily index all of the numbers
indexed by ℵ. ).
set theory
cardinality of the
continuum

𝔠𝔠 cardinality of the
continuum; cardinality of
The cardinality of is denoted by or by the
symbol (a lowercase Fraktur letter C).
the real numbers; c;

set theory
such that : means “such that”, and is used in proofs and
: the set-builder notation (described below).
∃ n ∈ ℕ: n is even.
 such that; so that

everywhere
field extension
K : F means the field K extends the field F.
extends; over ℝ:ℚ
This may also be written as K ≥ F.
field theory
A : B means the Frobenius inner product of the
inner product of matrices matrices A and B.

inner product of The general inner product is denoted by ⟨u, v⟩,

⟨u | v⟩ or (u | v), as described below. For spatial
linear algebra vectors, the dot product notation, x·y is
common. See also Bra-ket notation.
factorial

factorial n! means the product 1 × 2 × ... × n. 4! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 = 24

combinatorics
The statement !A is true if and only if A is false.
! logical negation
A slash placed through another operator is the same
as "!" placed in front. !(!A) ⇔ A
not
x ≠ y ⇔ !(x = y)
(The symbol ! is primarily from computer science. It
propositional logic is avoided in mathematical texts, where the
notation ¬A is preferred.)
probability distribution
X ~ D, means the random variable X has the
~ has distribution probability distribution D.
X ~ N(0,1), the standard normal distribution
 statistics
row equivalence
A~B means that B can be generated by using a series
is row equivalent to
of elementary row operationson A
matrix theory
same order of magnitude
m ~ n means the quantities m and n have the 2~5
same order of magnitude, or general size.
roughly similar; poorly
8 × 9 ~ 100
approximates
(Note that ~ is used for an approximation that is
poor, otherwise use ≈ .) but π2 ≈ 10
approximation theory
asymptotically equivalent

is asymptotically equivalent x ~ x+1

to
f ~ g means .
asymptotic analysis
equivalence relation

are in the same equivalence 1 ~ 5 mod 4

class a ~ b means (and equivalently ).

everywhere
approximately equal

is approximately equal to x ≈ y means x is approximately equal to y. π ≈ 3.14159

≈ everywhere
isomorphism G ≈ H means that group G is isomorphic Q / {1, −1} ≈ V,
(structurally identical) to group H. where Q is the quaternion group and V is the Klein
 is isomorphic to four-group.
(≅ can also be used for isomorphic, as described
group theory below.)
wreath product
A ≀ H means the wreath product of the group A by

≀ wreath product of … by …
the group H. is isomorphic to the automorphism group of
thecomplete bipartite graph on (n,n) vertices.
This may also be written A wr H.
group theory
normal subgroup
N ◅ G means that N is a normal subgroup of
is a normal subgroup of Z(G) ◅ G
group G.
group theory
◅ ideal

is an ideal of I ◅ R means that I is an ideal of ring R. (2) ◅ Z

▻ ring theory
antijoin
R ▻ S means the antijoin of the relations R and S, the
the antijoin of tuples in R for which there is not a tuple in S that is R S=R-R S
equal on their common attribute names.
relational algebra

semidirect product N ⋊φ H is the semidirect product of N (a normal

subgroup) and H (a subgroup), with respect to φ.
⋉ the semidirect product of
Also, if G = N ⋊φ H, then G is said to split over N.

(⋊ may also be written the other way round,

group theory as ⋉, or as ×.)
⋊ semijoin R ⋉ S is the semijoin of the relations R and S, the set
R S = Πa1,..,an(R S)
of all tuples in R for which there is a tuple in S that
 the semijoin of is equal on their common attribute names.

relational algebra
natural join
R ⋈ S is the natural join of the relations R and S, the
⋈ the natural join of set of all combinations of tuples in R and S that are
equal on their common attribute names.
relational algebra
therefore

∴ therefore; so; hence

Sometimes used in proofs before logical
consequences.
All humans are mortal. Socrates is a human. ∴
Socrates is mortal.
everywhere
because

∵ because; since Sometimes used in proofs before reasoning.

3331 is prime ∵ it has no positive integer factors other
than itself and one.
everywhere

□ end of proof
Used to mark the end of a proof.
QED; tombstone; Halmos
symbol
(May also be written Q.E.D.)
∎ Everywhere

▮
‣
⇒ A ⇒ B means if A is true then B is also true; if A is
material implication false then nothing is said about B.

→ implies; if … then (→ may mean the same as ⇒, or it may have the

meaning for functions given below.)
x = 2 ⇒ x2 = 4 is true, but x2 = 4 ⇒ x = 2 is in
general false (since x could be −2).
propositional logic, Heyting
algebra (⊃ may mean the same as ⇒,[4] or it may have the

⊃ meaning for superset given below.)

⇔ material equivalence
A ⇔ B means A is true if B is true and A is false
if and only if; iff x + 5 = y +2 ⇔ x + 3 = y
if B is false.

↔ propositional logic

The statement ¬A is true if and only if A is false.

¬ logical negation
A slash placed through another operator is the same
as "¬" placed in front. ¬(¬A) ⇔ A
not
x ≠ y ⇔ ¬(x = y)
(The symbol ~ has many other uses, so ¬ or the
˜ propositional logic slash notation is preferred. Computer scientists will
often use ! but this is avoided in mathematical texts.)
The statement A ∧ B is true if A and B are both true;
logical
else it is false.
∧
conjunction or meetin
n < 4 ∧ n >2 ⇔ n = 3 when n is a natural number.
a lattice
For functions A(x) and B(x), A(x) ∧ B(x) is used to
mean min(A(x), B(x)).
 and; min; meet

propositional logic, lattice

theory
wedge product
u ∧ v means the wedge product of vectors u and v.
This generalizes the cross product to higher
wedge product; exterior
dimensions.
product
(For vectors in R3, × can also be used.)
linear algebra
exponentiation a ^ b means a raised to the power of b

… (raised) to the power of (a ^ b is more commonly written ab. The symbol ^ is

2^3 = 23 = 8
… generally used in programming languages where
ease of typing and use of plain ASCII text is
everywhere preferred.)
logical
disjunction or join in
a lattice The statement A ∨ B is true if A or B (or both) are
true; if both are false, the statement is false.
∨ or; max; join
For functions A(x) and B(x), A(x) ∨ B(x) is used to
n ≥ 4 ∨ n ≤ 2 ⇔ n ≠ 3 when n is a natural number.

mean max(A(x), B(x)).

propositional logic, lattice
theory

⊕
exclusive or

xor The statement A ⊕ B is true when either A or B, but

(¬A) ⊕ A is always true, A ⊕ A is always false.
not both, are true. A ⊻ B means the same.

⊻ propositional
logic, Boolean algebra
 direct sum The direct sum is a special way of combining
several objects into one general object. Most commonly, for vector spaces U, V, and W, the
direct sum of following consequence is used:
(The bun symbol ⊕, or the coproduct symbol ∐, is U = V ⊕ W ⇔ (U = V + W) ∧ (V ∩ W = {0})
abstract algebra used; ⊻ is only for logic.)
universal quantification

∀ for all; for any; for each ∀ x: P(x) means P(x) is true for all x. ∀ n ∈ ℕ: n2 ≥ n.

predicate logic
existential quantification

∃ there exists; there is; there ∃ x: P(x) means there is at least one x such that P(x)
are is true.
∃ n ∈ ℕ: n is even.

predicate logic
uniqueness quantification

∃! there exists exactly one

∃! x: P(x) means there is exactly one x such
that P(x) is true.
∃! n ∈ ℕ: n + 5 = 2n.

predicate logic

=: x := y, x =: y or x ≡ y means x is defined to be
definition another name for y, under certain assumptions taken
in context.
is defined as; equal by
:= definition (Some writers use ≡ to mean congruence).

everywhere P :⇔ Q means P is defined to be logically

≡ equivalent to Q.
:⇔

≐
congruence
△ABC ≅ △DEF means triangle ABC is congruent
is congruent to
to (has the same measurements as) triangle DEF.

≅
geometry
isomorphic G ≅ H means that group G is isomorphic
(structurally identical) to group H.
is isomorphic to .
(≈ can also be used for isomorphic, as described
abstract algebra above.)
congruence relation

≡ ... is congruent to ... modulo

...
a ≡ b (mod n) means a − b is divisible by n 5 ≡ 2 (mod 3)

modular arithmetic
 set brackets

{,} the set of … {a,b,c} means the set consisting of a, b, and c.[5] ℕ = { 1, 2, 3, …}

set theory

{:} set builder notation

{x : P(x)} means the set of all x for which P(x) is
the set of … such that {n ∈ ℕ : n2 < 20} = { 1, 2, 3, 4}
true.[5] {x | P(x)} is the same as {x :P(x)}.

{|} set theory

∅ empty set
∅ means the set with no elements.[5] { } means the
the empty set {n ∈ ℕ : 1 < n2 < 4} = ∅
same.

{} set theory

∈
set membership
(1/2)−1 ∈ ℕ
is an element of; is not an a ∈ S means a is an element of the
element of set S;[5] a ∉ S means a is not an element of S.[5]
2−1 ∉ ℕ
∉ everywhere, set theory
(subset) A ⊆ B means every element of A is also an
⊆ subset element of B.[6] (A ∩ B) ⊆ A

is a subset of (proper subset) A ⊂ B means A ⊆ B but A ≠ B. ℕ⊂ℚ

⊂ set theory (Some writers use the symbol ⊂ as if it were the

same as ⊆.)
ℚ⊂ℝ

⊇ A ⊇ B means every element of B is also an element (A ∪ B) ⊇ B

superset
of A.
 is a superset of ℝ⊃ℚ
A ⊃ B means A ⊇ B but A ≠ B.

⊃ set theory
(Some writers use the symbol ⊃ as if it were the
same as ⊇.)
set-theoretic union

∪ the union of … or …; union

A ∪ B means the set of those elements which are
either in A, or in B, or in both.[6]
A ⊆ B ⇔ (A ∪ B) = B

set theory
set-theoretic intersection

∩ intersected with; intersect

A ∩ B means the set that contains all those elements
that A and B have in common.[6]
{x ∈ ℝ : x2 = 1} ∩ ℕ = {1}

set theory
symmetric difference
A ∆ B means the set of elements in exactly one

∆ symmetric difference
set theory
set-theoretic complement
∖ minus; without
of A or B.
{1,5,6,8} ∆ {2,5,8} = {1,2,6}
(Not to be confused with delta, Δ, described below.)
A ∖ B means the set that contains all those elements
of A that are not in B.[6]
(− can also be used for set-theoretic complement as
{1,2,3,4} ∖ {3,4,5,6} = {1,2}

set theory described above.)

function arrow

→ from … to
f: X → Y means the function f maps the set X into
the set Y.
Let f: ℤ → ℕ∪{0} be defined by f(x) := x2.

set theory, type theory

 function arrow

↦ maps to
f: a ↦ b means the function f maps the element a to
the element b.
Let f: x ↦ x+1 (the successor function).

set theory
function composition

∘ composed with f∘g is the function, such that (f∘g)(x) = f(g(x)).[7] if f(x) := 2x, and g(x) := x + 3, then (f∘g)(x) = 2(x + 3).

set theory
N means either { 0, 1, 2, 3, ...} or { 1, 2, 3, ...}.

The choice depends on the area of mathematics

ℕ
natural numbers being studied; e.g. number theoristsprefer the
latter; analysts, set theorists and computer
N; the (set of) natural scientists prefer the former. To avoid confusion,
ℕ = {|a| : a ∈ ℤ} or ℕ = {|a| > 0: a ∈ ℤ}
numbers always check an author's definition of N.

N numbers Set theorists often use the notation ω (for least

infinite ordinal) to denote the set of natural numbers
(including zero), along with the standard ordering
relation ≤.

ℤ integers ℤ means {..., −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}.

Z; the (set of) integers ℤ+ or ℤ> means {1, 2, 3, ...} . ℤ≥ means {0, 1, 2, 3, ℤ = {p, −p : p ∈ ℕ ∪ {0}}

Z numbers ...} .

ℤn means {[0], [1], [2], ...[n−1]} with addition and

integers mod n
ℤn Zn; the (set of) integers
multiplication modulo n.
ℤ3 = {[0], [1], [2]}
Note that any letter may be used instead of n, such
 modulo n as p. To avoid confusion with p-adic numbers,
use ℤ/pℤ or ℤ/(p) instead.

ℤp numbers

p-adic integers
Zn the (set of) p-adic integers
Note that any letter may be used instead of p, such
as n or l.
numbers
Zp
projective space

P; the projective space, the

projective line, the ℙ means a space with a point at infinity.
ℙ
,
projective plane

topology
probability
P ℙ(X) means the probability of the event X occurring.
the probability of If a fair coin is flipped, ℙ(Heads) = ℙ(Tails) = 0.5.
This may also be written as P(X), Pr(X), P[X] or
Pr[X].
probability theory

ℚ
rational numbers
3.14000... ∈ ℚ
Q; the (set of) rational
ℚ means {p/q : p ∈ ℤ, q ∈ ℕ}.
numbers; the rationals
π∉ℚ
Q numbers
π∈ℝ
ℝ
real numbers
ℝ means the set of real numbers.
 R; the (set of) real numbers; √(−1) ∉ ℝ
the reals

R numbers

ℂ
complex numbers

C; the (set of) complex

ℂ means {a + b i : a,b ∈ ℝ}. i = √(−1) ∈ ℂ
numbers

C numbers

ℍ
quaternions or Hamiltonian
quaternions
ℍ means {a + b i + c j + d k : a,b,c,d ∈ ℝ}.
H; the (set of) quaternions

H numbers
Big O notation

big-oh of
The Big O notation describes the limiting If f(x) = 6x4 − 2x3 + 5 and g(x) = x4 ,
O O behavior of a function, when the argument tends
towards a particular value or infinity. then
Computational complexity
theory
infinity
∞ is an element of the extended number line that is
∞ infinity greater than all real numbers; it often occurs
in limits.
numbers
⌊x⌋ means the floor of x, i.e. the largest integer less
floor
⌊…⌋ floor; greatest integer;
than or equal to x.
⌊4⌋ = 4, ⌊2.1⌋ = 2, ⌊2.9⌋ = 2, ⌊−2.6⌋ = −3
(This may also be written [x], floor(x) or int(x).)
 entier

numbers
ceiling
⌈x⌉ means the ceiling of x, i.e. the smallest integer

⌈…⌉ ceiling
greater than or equal to x.
⌈4⌉ = 4, ⌈2.1⌉ = 3, ⌈2.9⌉ = 3, ⌈−2.6⌉ = −2
(This may also be written ceil(x) or ceiling(x).)
numbers
nearest integer function
⌊x⌉ means the nearest integer to x.

⌊…⌉ nearest integer to

(This may also be written [x], ||x||,
⌊2⌉ = 2, ⌊2.6⌉ = 3, ⌊-3.4⌉ = -3, ⌊4.49⌉ = 4
nint(x) or Round(x).)
numbers
degree of a field extension [ℚ(√2) : ℚ] = 2

[:] the degree of [K : F] means the degree of the extension K : F. [ℂ : ℝ] = 2

field theory [ℝ : ℚ] = ∞
equivalence class [a] means the equivalence class of a, i.e. {x : x ~ a},
Let a ~ b be true iff a ≡ b (mod 5).
where ~ is an equivalence relation.
the equivalence class of
[] [a]R means the same, but with R as the equivalence Then [2] = {…, −8, −3, 2, 7, …}.
abstract algebra relation.
floor [x] means the floor of x, i.e. the largest integer less
[,] floor; greatest integer;
than or equal to x.
[3] = 3, [3.5] = 3, [3.99] = 3, [−3.7] = −4
entier (This may also be written ⌊x⌋, floor(x) or int(x). Not
to be confused with the nearest integer function, as
[,,] numbers described below.)
nearest integer function [x] means the nearest integer to x.
[2] = 2, [2.6] = 3, [-3.4] = -3, [4.49] = 4
 nearest integer to (This may also be written ⌊x⌉, ||x||,
nint(x) or Round(x). Not to be confused with the
numbers floor function, as described above.)
Iverson bracket
[S] maps a true statement S to 1 and a false
1 if true, 0 otherwise [0=5]=0, [7>0]=1, [2 ∈ {2,3,4}]=0, [5 ∈ {2,3,4}]=0
statement S to 0.
propositional logic
f[X] means { f(x) : x ∈ X }, the image of the
image function f under the set X ⊆ dom(f).

image of … under … (This may also be written as f(X) if there is no risk

of confusing the image of f under Xwith the function
everywhere application f of X. Another notation is Im f, the
image of f under its domain.)
closed interval

closed interval . 0 and 1/2 are in the interval [0,1].

order theory
commutator
[g, h] = g−1h−1gh (or ghg−1h−1), if g, h ∈ G (a group).
xy = x[x, y] (group theory).
the commutator of
[a, b] = ab − ba, if a, b ∈ R (a ring or commutative
[AB, C] = A[B, C] + [A, C]B (ring theory).
algebra).
group theory, ring theory
triple scalar product
[a, b, c] = a × b · c, the scalar
the triple scalar product of [a, b, c] = [b, c, a] = [c, a, b].
product of a × b with c.
vector calculus
 function application
f(x) means the value of the function f at the
of If f(x) := x2, then f(3) = 32 = 9.
element x.
set theory
f(X) means { f(x) : x ∈ X }, the image of the
image function f under the set X ⊆ dom(f).

image of … under … (This may also be written as f[X] if there is a risk of

confusing the image of f under Xwith the function
everywhere application f of X. Another notation is Im f, the
image of f under its domain.)
precedence grouping

() parentheses Perform the operations inside the parentheses first. (8/4)/2 = 2/2 = 1, but 8/(4/2) = 8/2 = 4.

everywhere

(,) tuple
An ordered list (or sequence, or horizontal vector, or
row vector) of values.
(a, b) is an ordered pair (or 2-tuple).
tuple; n-tuple; ordered (Note that the notation (a,b) is ambiguous: it could
pair/triple/etc; row vector; (a, b, c) is an ordered triple (or 3-tuple).
sequence be an ordered pair or an open interval. Set theorists
and computer scientists often use angle ( ) is the empty tuple (or 0-tuple).
everywhere
brackets ⟨ ⟩ instead of parentheses.)

highest common factor

(a, b) means the highest common factor of a and b.
highest common factor;
(3, 7) = 1 (they are coprime); (15, 25) = 5.
greatest common divisor;
(This may also be written hcf(a, b) or gcd(a, b).)
hcf; gcd
 number theory

.
(,) open interval
4 is not in the interval (4, 18).
open interval (Note that the notation (a,b) is ambiguous: it could
be an ordered pair or an open interval. The (0, +∞) equals the set of positive real numbers.
],[ order theory
notation ]a,b[ can be used instead.)

left-open interval
(,]
half-open interval; left-open
. (−1, 7] and (−∞, −1]
interval

],] order theory

right-open interval
[,)
half-open interval; right-
. [4, 18) and [1, +∞)
open interval

[,[ order theory

⟨u,v⟩ means the inner product of u and v,
where u and v are members of an inner product
space.

⟨⟩ inner product
Note that the notation ⟨u, v⟩ may be ambiguous: it
The standard inner product between two
could mean the inner product or the linear span.
inner product of vectors x = (2, 3) and y = (−1, 5) is:
⟨x, y⟩ = 2 × −1 + 3 × 5 = 13
⟨,⟩ linear algebra
There are many variants of the notation, such
as ⟨u | v⟩ and (u | v), which are described below. For
spatial vectors, the dot product notation, x·y is
common. For matrices, the colon notation A : B may
be used. As ⟨ and ⟩ can be hard to type, the more
 “keyboard friendly” forms < and > are sometimes
seen. These are avoided in mathematical texts.
⟨S⟩ means the span of S ⊆ V. That is, it is the
intersection of all subspaces of Vwhich contain S.
linear span ⟨u1, u2, …⟩is shorthand for ⟨{u1, u2, …}⟩.

(linear) span of; Note that the notation ⟨u, v⟩ may be ambiguous: it
linear hull of .
could mean the inner product or the linear span.
linear algebra
The span of S may also be written as Sp(S).

subgroup generated by a set

means the smallest subgroup
of G (where S ⊆ G, a group) containing every In S3,
the subgroup generated by
element of S.
and .
group theory is shorthand for .
tuple
An ordered list (or sequence, or horizontal vector, or is an ordered pair (or 2-tuple).
tuple; n-tuple; ordered row vector) of values.
pair/triple/etc; row vector; is an ordered triple (or 3-tuple).
sequence
(The notation (a,b) is often used as well.)
is the empty tuple (or 0-tuple).
everywhere
⟨u | v⟩ means the inner product of u and v,

⟨|⟩ inner product where u and v are members of an inner product

space.[8] (u | v) means the same.
inner product of
Another variant of the notation is ⟨u, v⟩ which is
described above. For spatial vectors, the dot
(|) linear algebra product notation, x·y is common. For matrices, the
colon notationA : B may be used. As ⟨ and ⟩ can be
 hard to type, the more “keyboard friendly”
forms < and > are sometimes seen. These are
avoided in mathematical texts.
ket vector
|φ⟩ means the vector with label φ, which is in A qubit's state can be represented as α|0⟩+ β|1⟩,
|⟩ the ket …; the vector …
a Hilbert space. where αand β are complex numbers s.t. |α|2 + |β|2 = 1.
Dirac notation
bra vector
⟨φ| means the dual of the vector |φ⟩, a linear
⟨| the bra …; the dual of … functional which maps a ket |ψ⟩ onto the inner
product ⟨φ|ψ⟩.
Dirac notation
summation

∑ sum over … from … to …

of
means a1 + a2 + … + an.
= 12 + 22 + 32 + 42

= 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 = 30
arithmetic
product

product over … from … to

… of = (1+2)(2+2)(3+2)(4+2)
means a1a2···an.
= 3 × 4 × 5 × 6 = 360
∏
arithmetic
Cartesian product

the Cartesian product of;

the direct product of means the set of all (n+1)-tuples

(y0, …, yn).
set theory
 coproduct A general construction which subsumes the disjoint
union of sets and of topological spaces, the free

∐ coproduct over … from … product of groups, and the direct sum of modules
to … of and vector spaces. The coproduct of a family of
objects is essentially the "least specific" object to
category theory which each object in the family admits a morphism.
derivative
f ′(x) means the derivative of the function f at the
point x, i.e., the slope of the tangentto f at x.
′ … prime;
derivative of
(The single-quote character ' is sometimes used
If f(x) := x2, then f ′(x) = 2x

instead, especially in ASCII text.)

calculus
derivative
means the derivative of x with respect to time.
• … dot;
time derivative of If x(t) := t2, then .
That is .
calculus
indefinite
integral orantiderivative

indefinite integral of
∫ f(x) dx means a function whose derivative is f. ∫x2 dx = x3/3 + C
the antiderivative of

∫ calculus
definite integral
∫ab f(x) dx means the signed area between the x-axis
integral from … to … of …
and the graph of ∫ab x2 dx = b3/3 − a3/3;
with respect to
the function fbetween x = a and x = b.
calculus
 line integral ∫C f ds means the integral of f along the

curve C, , where r is a
line/path/curve integral of parametrization of C.
… along …
(If the curve is closed, the symbol ∮ may be used
calculus instead, as described below.)
Similar to the integral, but used to denote a single
integration over a closed curve or loop. It is
sometimes used in physics texts involving equations
regarding Gauss's Law, and while these formulas
involve a closed surface integral, the representations
describe only the first integration of the volume over
the enclosing surface. Instances where the latter
requires simultaneous double integration, the
Contour integral or symbol ∯ would be more appropriate. A third
closedline integral related symbol is the closed volume integral, If C is a Jordan curve about 0,
denoted by the symbol ∰.
∮ contour integral of
The contour integral can also frequently be found then .
calculus
with a subscript capital letter C, ∮C, denoting that a
closed loop integral is, in fact, around a contour C,
or sometimes dually appropriately, a circle C. In
representations of Gauss's Law, a subscript capitalS,
∮S, is used to denote that the integration is over a
closed surface.

gradient

∇ del, nabla, gradient of

∇f (x1, …, xn) is the vector of partial derivatives
(∂f / ∂x1, …, ∂f / ∂xn).
If f (x,y,z) := 3xy + z², then ∇f = (3y, 3x, 2z)
 vector calculus
divergence
If ,
del dot, divergence of
then .
vector calculus
curl
If ,
curl of
then .
vector calculus
partial derivative
∂f/∂xi means the partial derivative of f with respect
partial, d If f(x,y) := x2y, then ∂f/∂x = 2xy
to xi, where f is a function on (x1, …,xn).
calculus
boundary

∂ boundary of ∂M means the boundary of M ∂{x : ||x|| ≤ 2} = {x : ||x|| = 2}

topology
degree of a polynomial
∂f means the degree of the polynomial f.
degree of ∂(x2 − 1) = 2
(This may also be written deg f.)
algebra

delta Δx means a (non-infinitesimal) change in x.

Δ delta; change in
(If the change becomes infinitesimal, δ and
even d are used instead. Not to be confused with the
is the gradient of a straight line
symmetric difference, written ∆, above.)
 calculus
Dirac delta function

Dirac delta of δ(x)

δ
hyperfunction
Kronecker delta

Kronecker delta of δij

hyperfunction
projection

π Projection of restricts R to
the {a1,...,an} attribute set.
πAge,Weight(Person)
Relational algebra
The selection σaθb(R) selects all
selection those tuples in R for which θ holds between

σ Selection of
the aand the b attribute. The
selection σaθv(R) selects all those tuples in R for σAge = Weight(Person)
Relational algebra which θholds between the a attribute and the
value v.
cover
<: is covered by x <• y means that x is covered by y.
{1, 8} <• {1, 3, 8} among the subsets of {1, 2, …, 10}
ordered by containment.
order theory
<· subtype
T1 <: T2 means that T1 is a subtype of T2. If S <: T and T <: U then S <: U (transitivity).
 is a subtype of

type theory
conjugate transpose

conjugate transpose; A† means the transpose of the complex conjugate

† Hermitian of A.[9]
If A = (aij) then A† = (aji).
adjoint/conjugate/transpose;
adjoint This may also be written A*T, AT*, A*, AT or AT.

matrix operations
transpose
AT means A, but with its rows swapped for columns.
T transpose If A = (aij) then AT = (aji).
t tr
This may also be written A or A .
matrix operations
top element

the top element ⊤ means the largest element of a lattice. ∀x : x ∨ ⊤ = ⊤

⊤
lattice theory
top type
⊤ means the top or universal type; every type in
the top type; top ∀ types T, T <: ⊤
the type system of interest is a subtype of top.
type theory
perpendicular

⊥ is perpendicular to
x ⊥ y means x is perpendicular to y; or more
generally x is orthogonal to y.
If l ⊥ m and m ⊥ n in the plane then l || n.

geometry
 orthogonal complement
W⊥ means the orthogonal complement
orthogonal/perpendicular of W (where W is a subspace of the inner product
complement of; perp space V), the set of all vectors in V orthogonal to Within , .
every vector in W.
linear algebra
coprime

is coprime to x ⊥ y means x has no factor in common with y. 34 ⊥ 55.

number theory
bottom element

the bottom element ⊥ means the smallest element of a lattice. ∀x : x ∧ ⊥ = ⊥

lattice theory
bottom type
⊥ means the bottom type (a.k.a. the zero type or
the bottom type; bot empty type); bottom is the subtype of every type in ∀ types T, ⊥ <: T
the type system.
type theory
comparability

is comparable to x ⊥ y means that x is comparable to y. {e, π} ⊥ {1, 2, e, 3, π} under set containment.

order theory
entailment
A ⊧ B means the sentence A entails the sentence B,
⊧ entails that is in every model in which Ais true, B is also
true.
A ⊧ A ∨ ¬A

model theory
 inference

⊢ infers; is derived from

x ⊢ y means y is derivable from x. A → B ⊢ ¬B → ¬A.
propositional
logic,predicate logic
tensor product, tensor
product of modules
means the tensor product
⊗ tensor product of of V and U.[10]
means the tensor product
of modules V and U over the ring R.
{1, 2, 3, 4} ⊗ {1, 1, 2} =
{{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3, 4}, {2, 4, 6, 8}}

linear algebra
convolution

convolution, convolved
f * g means the convolution of f and g.
with .

functional analysis
complex conjugate
z* means the complex conjugate of z.
conjugate .
* ( can also be used for the conjugate of z, as
described below.)
complex numbers
group of units R* consists of the set of units of the ring R, along
with the operation of multiplication.
the group of units of
This may also be written R× as described above,
ring theory or U(R).
hyperreal numbers *R means the set of hyperreal numbers. Other sets
*N is the hypernatural numbers.
can be used in place of R.
 the (set of) hyperreals

non-standard analysis
Hodge dual
*v means the Hodge dual of a vector v. If v is a k- If {ei} are the standard basis vectors of
Hodge dual, Hodge star vector within an n-dimensionaloriented inner
product space, then *v is an (n−k)-vector. ,
linear algebra
mean
(often read as “x bar”) is the mean (average value
overbar, … bar .
of xi).
statistics
complex conjugate
means the complex conjugate of z.
conjugate .
(z* can also be used for the conjugate of z, as
described above.)
complex numbers
x algebraic closure
The field of algebraic numbers is sometimes denoted
algebraic closure of is the algebraic closure of the field F. as because it is the algebraic closure of the rational
numbers .
field theory
topological closure
is the topological closure of the set S.
(topological) closure of In the space of the real numbers, (the
rational numbers are dense in the real numbers).
This may also be denoted as cl(S) or Cl(S).
topology