Organizational Behavior Theoretical Frameworks Cognitive approach emphasizes the positive and freewill aspects of human behavior and

d uses concepts such as expectancy, demand, and intention. Behaviorist approach is environmentally based. Social cognitive theory recognizes the importance of behaviorisms contingent environmental consequences, but also includes cognitive processes of self regulation. Theoretical Frameworks or Perspectives in Psychology Initially psychology was developed using the mental thinking expressed by persons interested in developing the subject of psychology. But John B. Watson differed from that approach and he pioneered the approach in which visible behavior and visible environmental stimulus became the subject of study. B.F. Skinner developed this behavioristic framework further by bringing in the contingent environmental consequences. Behavior is not the outcome of stimulus alone, but it is an outcome determined by the stimulus as well as the contingent environmental consequences of a behavior. This means, there are alternative behaviors for the same stimulus and which behavior is exhibited by a person depends on expected environmental consequences. Cognitive perspective on psychology have developed by arguing that human beings are capable of thinking and concepts related to thinking must be brought into the subject of psychology whose objective is to explain behavior. Even though, one cannot see or observe thinking, still developing concepts related to thinking and using the concepts to explain behavior is required in psychology. Even though one cannot see or observe gravitation, the concept of gravitation is a useful concept in physics. Similarly, concepts related to thinking or cognition are to be developed and used in psychology was the argument of proponents of cognitive approach to psychology. The perspectives in psychology have influenced the development of organizational behavior. Cognitive Framework Cognitive approach emphasizes the positive and freewill aspects of human behavior and uses concepts such as expectancy, demand, and intention. Cognition can be simply defined as the act of knowing an item of information. In cognitive framework, cognitions precede behavior and constitute input into the persons thinking, perception, problem solving, and information processing. The work of Edward Tolman can be used to represent the cognitive theoretical approach. According to Tolman, learning consists of the expectancy that a particular event will lead to a particular consequence. This cognitive concept of expectancy implies that organism is thinking about, or is conscious or aware of the goal and result of a behavior exhibited by it. It means that a person desires a goal and also knows the behavior that will lead to achievement of the goals. In the subject of organizational behavior, cognitive approach dominates the units of analysis such as perception, personality and attitudes, motivation, behavioral decision making and goal setting. Behavioristic Framework Pioneer behaviorists Ivan Pavlov and Jon B. Watson stressed the importance of studying observable behaviors instead of the elusive mind. They advocated that behavior could be best understood in terms of stimulus and response (S-R). They examined the impact of stimulus and felt that learning occurred when the S-R connection was made. Modern behaviorism, that marks its beginning with B.F. Skinner, advocates that behavior in response to a stimulus is contingent on environmental consequences. Thus, it is important to note that behaviortistic approach is based on observable behavior and environmental variables (which are also observable).

Social Cognitive Framework Social learning theory takes the position that behavior can best be explained in terms of a continuous reciprocal interaction among cognitive, behavioral, and environmental determinants. The person and the environmental situation do not function as independent units but, in conjunction with behavior itself, reciprocally interact to determine behavior. It means that cognitive variables and environmental variables are relevant, but the experiences generated by previous behavior also partly determine what a person becomes and can do, which, in turn, affects subsequently behavior. A persons cognition or understanding changes according to the experience of consequences of past behavior. Bandura developed social learning theory into the more comprehensive social cognitive theory (SCT). Stajkovic and Luthans have translated this SCT into the theoretical framework for organizational behavior. Social cognitive theory recognizes the importance of behaviorisms contingent environmental consequences, but also includes cognitive processes of self regulation. The social part acknowledges the social origins of much of human thought and action (what individual learns from society), whereas the cognitive portion recognizes the influential contribution of thought processes to human motivation, attitudes, and action. In social cognitive theoretical framework, organizational participants are at the same time both products and producers of their personality, respective environments, and behaviors. The participants as a group of produce the environment, every individual is a product of the enironment and through his behavior changes the environment for others as well as for himself, every individual is a product of his personality, but also influences his personality as consequence of results of his behavior. Bandura identified five basic human capabilities as a part of SCT. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Symbolizing: People process visual experiences into cognitive models. They help in future action. Forethought: Employees plan their actions. Observational: Employees learn by observing the performance of the referent group (peers, supervisors and high performers) and the consequences of their actions. Self-regulatory: Employees self regulate their actions by setting internal standards (aspired level of performance). Self-reflective: Employees reflect back on their actions (how did I do?) and perceptually determine how they believe then can successfully accomplish the task in the future given the context (probability of success between 0 to 100% is estimated)

The cognitive approach to human behavior has many sources of input. However, than the other said simply that the cognitive approach gives people more credit than the other approaches. The cognitive approach emphasizes the positive and freewill aspect of human behavior and uses concepts such as expectancy, demand, and intention. Cognitive, which is the basic unit of the cognitive framework, can be defined as the act of knowing an item of information. Under this framework, cognitions precede behavior and constitute input into the person's thinking, perception, problem solving, and information processing. Concepts such as cognitive maps can be used as pictures or visual aids in comprehending a person understands of particular, and selective, elements of the thoughts of an individual, group or organization. Although dolman believed behavior to be the appropriate unit of analysis, he felt that behavior is purposive, that it is directed toward a goal. In his laboratory experiments, he found that animals learned to expect that certain events follow one another.

For example, animals learned to behave as if they expect food when a certain cue appeared. Thus, dolman believed that learning consists of the expectancy that a particular event will lead to a particular consequence. This cognitive concept of expectancy implies that the organism is thinking about, or is conscious or aware of, the goal ts roots are able to be traced to the service of Ivan and John. These original behaviorists worried the value of trade with obvious behaviors instead of the elusive mind that had preoccupied earlier psychologists. They used classical condition experiments to position the enticement answer explanation of person behavior. Both Ivan and John feel that behavior could be best appreciate in expression of enticement response. They concentrated mainly on the impact of the incentive and felt that knowledge occur when the inducement answer relationship was made. Present behaviorism marks it's near the start on stages with the work of Skinner. Dead for a number of years, Skinner is widely known for his help to psychology. He feel that early behaviorists helped make clear respondent behaviors those behaviors elicited by stimuli but not the more solid operant behaviors. In other words, the enticement answer come up to helped explain bodily reflexes, for example when goal by a pin stimulus, the person will start answer, or when taped under the kneecap enticement, the person will expand the lower leg answer. On top of the other tender, Skinner originate through his operant teaching experiments that the penalty of a answer could better make clear the bulk behaviors than copy out stimuli could. He emphasized the value of answer incentive association Undergoing a Paradigm Shift A paradigm simply establishes the rules (written or unwritten), defines the boundaries, defines a way to understand reality, ways of thinking/framework, and tells one how to behave within the boundaries to be successful. For todays and tomorrows organizations and management, there are new rules with different boundaries requiring new and different behaviors. E.g., Theory X wont cut it in most U.S. economic cycles There is considerable resistance to change and why it is very difficult to move from the old management paradigm to the new. A New Perspective for Management One-eighth situationabout one-eighth of todays organizations believe it, do it, stick with it. The Knowing-Doing Gapmost managers know the value of the human factor and how to implement the approach to improve organizational performance, but still are not doing it.

Perception
Introduction

Perception is a cognitive process. People's individual differences and uniqueness are largely the result of the cognitive processes they use in processing the information they receive and conclusions they make.

Perception is interpretation of the situation by a person and it is not an exact recording of it. Perception is a very complex process and it yields a unique picture to each and every individual (unique to a person implies the picture is different for different persons) and this unique picture in case of some persons may be quite different from reality. Perception and Sensation Behavioral scientists generally agree that peoples reality (the world around them) depends on their senses. However, raw sensory input must be processed to make sense out of them in order for a person to understand the world. Physical senses of person are vision, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. Some people do propose many others as sixth sense; psychologists have not yet accepted any sixth sense. The senses are constantly bombarded by stimuli both from inside as well as from outside. These senses transmit signals and the transmitted signals are then processed by the central nervous system. Perception is a more complex process than sensation. The perceptual process can be defined as a complicated interaction of selection, organization, and interpretation of signals sent by senses. Perception depends on the senses for raw data. But the cognitive process of perception filters, modifies, or completely changes these data. Sub-processes of Perception The sub-processes of perception are: Situation-person interaction through senses (Confrontation): Perception starts with the event of interaction between a stimulus and a person or between a situation and person. Stimulus is a focused external event to which an individual is subjected. Situation is more broader environment with which a person comes in contact and has to respond. Registration: The senses receive the stimuli and the physiological mechanism carries the sensory message to brain. Interpretation: The stimuli are interpreted by the brain. Feedback: An example of the feedback would be kinesthetic feedback (sensory impressions from muscles) which is different from the stimuli captured from the sensory organ.

Subsequent processes -------------Behavior: The perception process is terminated by behavior of the person. Perception is considered as a behavioral event and hence it terminates with behavior which is observable. Consequence: Consequence is an environmental response to the behavior of a person.

During the registration phenomenon the physiological mechanisms act. Interpretation is the most significant subprocess of perception. Other psychological process like learning, motivation and personality play a role in interpretation. The sub-processes of registration, interpretation and feedback are internal processes that are unobservable. But situation, behavior and consequences are observable and indicate that perception is related to behavior. Principles of Perceptual Selectivity

Principles related to external factors:

y y y y y y

Intensity: The more intense the external stimuli, the more likely it will be perceived. Size: larger the object, the more likely it will be perceived. Contrast: External stimuli that stand out against the background or that are not what people are expecting will receive their attention. Repetition: A repeated external stimulus is more attention getting than a single one. Motion: People pay more attention to moving objects in their field of vision than they will hold to stationary objects. Novelty and Familiarity: Either a novel or a familiar situation can serve as an attention getter.

Internal Selection Factors: Internal perceptual selectivity is more complex. It is based on an individuals complex psychological makeup. People will select out stimuli or situations from the environment that appeal to, are and compatible with, their learning, motivation, and personality. Perceptual Organization Perceptual organization explains what takes place in the perceptual process once the information from the situation is received. The persons perceptual process organizes the incoming information into a meaningful whole. Principles of perceptual organization: 1. Figure ground: Perceived objects stand out as separable form their general background. The reader or visitor perceptually organizes incoming stimuli into recognizable objects (visual, auditory, olfactory, and relating to taste or touch). This principle says that background and the perceived object are identified separately. Perceptual grouping: There is a tendency to group several stimuli together into a recognizable pattern. This grouping is done by closure, proximity or similarity. The principles used in grouping are: y y Closure: The persons perceptual process will close the gaps that are unfilled in sensory input. Continuity: Closure principle says perceptual process supplies missing stimuli, where as the continuity principle says a person will tend to perceive continuous lines or patterns.

2.

y y

Proximity: A group of stimuli that are close together will be perceived as a whole pattern of parts belonging together. Similarity: The greater the similarity of the stimuli, the greater the tendency to perceive them as a common group.

3.

Perceptual constancy: The principle says that individuals have a sense of constancy in a tremendously variable and complex world. The size, shape, color, brightness, and location of an object are fairly constant regardless of the information received by the senses. Perceptual constancy results from patterns of cues. Learning plays a big role in the constancy phenomenon compared to figure-ground or grouping phenomena. Perceptual context: Context gives meaning and value to stimuli, objectives events, and others persons in the environment. The perception process takes into account the context in interpreting stimuli that emanate from a situation.

4.

Social perception

Social person is a subtopic of perception and it is concern with how one individual perceives other individuals: How does one get to know others. How people perceive others in their day to day to life? Some of the research findings related to social perception are: 1. 2. One's own characteristics affect the characteristics one is likely to see in others. Person who evaluate themselves favorably are more likely to be able to see favorable aspects of other people.

The above two are person characteristics of person who is trying to know the other person. The characteristics of that other person also influence social perception. 1. The person being perceived is usually placed into categories to simplify the perception activity. The two common categories used are status and role. Status is the position of a person in the hierarchy under consideration and role is the activity he is expected to perform befitting that status in a context. The status wll greatly influence other's perception of the person. The visible traits of the person perceived will greatly influence others' perception of the person.

2. 3.

Problem areas related to social perception

Stereotyping

Stereotyping perceives a person based on the group in which he is a member. Such groups can be supervisors, knowledge workers, old persons, women, different religions etc. The real individual traits and characteristics of a person are ignored and a set of traits thought to be exhibited by a group are perceived instead.

Halo Effect

In halo effect, the person is perceived based on the basis of one trait exhibited by him.

Applications of the Concept of Perception in Organizational Behavior Perception is a concept of Psychology. The subject of organizational behavior applies the concept to explain various events and behavior that occur in formal organizations. What are those applications? I personally feel, Luthans treatment of this topic does not cover the application aspect adequately. Attribution refers to how people explain the cause of their behavior or others behavior. It is a cognitive process by which people draw conclusion about the factors that influence their behavior and others behavior.

ATTRIBUTION THEORIES
There are two general types of attributions that people make: dispositional attributions and situational attributions. In dispositional attribution a person attributes his behavior to internal factors such ability and effort etc. In situational attributions, a person attributes his behavior to external factors such as quality of materials or machines used or social influence. Attribution theory is concerned with the relationship between personal perception, social perception and interpersonal behavior. Attribution theories are many but they share the following assumptions. 1. People seek to make sense of the world. 2. People attribute actions to either internal (dispositional attributions) or external causes (situational attributions). 3. Attribution is done in fairly logical ways. The credit for initiating the theory is given to Fritz Heider. Heider's conjecture is that both internal forces (personal attributes such as ability, effort, and fatigue) and external forces (environmental attributes like rules and atmospheric conditions) combine additively to determine behavior. Behavior differes from person to person based on his beliefs about the forces that dominate in a particular situation. Locus of Control of a Person Locus of control is a concept related to attribution. Based on the series of attributions made by persons we can classify them as having internal locus of control or external locus of control. Internal locus of control persons will feel, for majority of the outcomes, their behavior, efforts, skills and ability are responsible. External locus of control persons will feel for majority of the outcomes, luck, task difficulty, behavior of other persons etc. are responsible. There are some studies which found that internally controlled employees are generally more satisfied with their jobs, are more likely to be in managerial positions, and are more satisfied with a participatory management style. Some studies have found that internal locus managers are better performers. Other Dimensions in Attribution Theory Bernard Weiner suggested that a stability dimension is also there in attribution. The stability dimension has fixed and variable categories. Experienced employees have probably a stable internal attribution about their abilities. Ability is a stable variable. But effort is a variable internal factor. It varies from task to task

Kelley suggested that consensus is also an important dimension. Consensus is the perception about the question - do others act this way in this situation? Some Finding and Conclusions from Attribution Studies 1. Bad luck attributions when made by the person himself or others take the sting out of a negative outcome. 2. Good luck attributions especially by others reduce the joy associated with success. 3. When individuals attribute their success to internal rather than external factors, they have higher expectations for future success, report a greater desire for achievement and set higher performance goals. 4. People tend to ignore powerful situational forces when explaining others behavior. 5. People attribute others behavior to personal factors such as intelligence, ability, attitude etc. 6. There is a self serving bias in attribution. People readily accept credit when told their success is due to their ability and effort. But will not accept if they were told that failure was due to their lack of effort. 7. Bosses blame the problems on the inability or poor attitude of the subordinates. But they blame the situation as far as they are concerned.