DESIGN OF IP CONFIGURATION OF ROUTER The report of the Mini project submitted to JNTUH in partial fulfilment of requirements for the

award of the Bachelor of Technology In Electronics and Communication Engineering Submitted by

Y.SRAVYA Y.SACHIN BABU 08L01A0459 G.TIMOTHY MANOHAR 08L01A0422

08L01A0460

Under the guidance of N. MURALI MOHAN (Assistant Professor)

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering TRR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING (Affiliated to JNTUH) Inole (V), Patancheru(M), Medak (Dist), Andhra Pradesh-502319

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING TRR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING (Affiliated to JNTUH) Inole (V), Patancheru, Medak (dist), Andhra Pradesh.

CERTIFICATE This is to certify that this report on the mini-project entitled DESIGN OF IP CONFIGURATION OF ROUTER has been submitted by

Y.SRAVYA Y.SACHIN BABU G.TIMOTHY MANOHAR

08L01A0460 08L01A0459 08L01A0423

in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of Bachelor of Technology in Electronics and Communications Engineering. This is a record of the bonafide work carried out by them from 1st June to 1st July. Internal Guide Mr. K. MURALI MOHAN Head of the Department Prof.L.Rangaiah

Associate Professor ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

With great pleasure we want to take this opportunity to express our heartfelt gratitude to all the people who helped us in making this project a grand success. We are thankful to Mr.N.Murali Mohan our internal guide, for his valuable suggestions and guidance given by him during the execution of this project work. We are thankful to Mrs.M.Sunitha, our project coordinator, for her valuable suggestions and guidance given by her during the execution of this project work. We are grateful to Prof.L.Rangaiah, Head of the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, for giving us moral support throughout the period of execution of the project. We would like to thank our Principal Dr.K.Srinivas Rao, for giving us permission to carry out the project. We would also like to thank the teaching and non-teaching Staff of Electronics and Communication Engineering Department for sharing their knowledge with us. We express our gratitude to the faculty of ZONTA TECHNOLOGIES, for permitting us to do this project work with their esteemed thoughts and also for guiding us through the entire project. Last but not the least we extend our sincere thanks to our parents and friends for their moral support throughout the project work. Above all we thank God Almighty for his manifold mercies in carrying out the project successful.

ABSTRACT As we know the importance of IP in our life, even we can say we can identify the person with statistic IP to that extent. As part of it, we are going to do mini-project on IP-switch which is a laye3 device w.r.to OSI stack and here we are going to perform the following activities. We are going to work on CISCO XXXX ROUTER and by end of project; we should learn/practise the following info. We are going to configure CISCO XXXX ROUTER step-by-step. This router is a layer-3 data router which we are going to configure step-by-step. As part of config, we are going to learn hard-ware, routing protocols like, RIP, OSPF, BGP, EIGRP and etc... We are going to learn about static/dynamic/de-fault routing techniques. We are also going to learn VLAN IP ROUTING, INTER VLAN ROUTING, ACL, NAT and etc. We are also test some of the applications like, FTP, PING, TRACEROUTE, HTTP, TELNET, DNS and etc

INDEX

CHAPTERS NAMES ABSTRACT LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES ABBREVIATIONS 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 OSI reference model 1.2 Protocols 1.3 Network elements 1.4 IP address 1.5 Sub netting 1.6 Router 1.7 Routing 2. OPEN SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION 2.1 History of OSI 2.2 OSI reference model and its layers 3. PROTOCOLS 4. NETWORK ELEMENTS 5. IP ADDRESS AND SUBNETTING 5.1 Internet protocol version 4 5.2 Internet protocol version 6

PAGES i iii iv v 1

4-8

9-11 12-19 20-25

5.3 Concept of sub netting 6. ROUTER 6.1 Types of router 6.2 Significance of MAC address 6.3 Interface and protocols of router 6.4 Memories in router 7. ROUTING 7.1 Types of routing 7.1.1 Static routing 7.1.2 Dynamic routing 7.1.2.1 RIP 7.1.2.2 OSPF 7.1.2.3 EIGRP 34-54 26-33

8. CONFIGURATION OF ROUTERS 8.1 Router commands 8.2 Simulator 8.3 Description of workspace 8.4 Implementing of routing protocol

55-72

LIST OF FIGURES

PAGE NO.

Fig 2.1: OSI model Fig 4.1: Repeater Fig 4.2: Hub Fig 4.3: Bridge Fig 4.4: Switch Fig 4.5: Router (wireless) Fig 4.6: wired router Fig 4.7: Gateway (wired) Fig 4.8: Gateway (wireless) Fig 4.9: Network Topology Fig 7.1: Network hierarchy Fig 7.2: AsBRs &ABRs Fig 7.3: Stub area Fig 7.4: NSSA Stub area Fig 8.1: Cisco packet tracer open page Fig 8.2: packet tracer block diagram

2 11 13 13 16 16 17 18 18 19 45 46 47 48 62 72

LIST OF TABLES

page no.

Table 8.1: Router Commands Table 8.2: Simulating Item Table 8.3: Description of workspace

55-57 59-61 61-64

ABBREVIATIONS
OSI IP LAN WAN TCP UDP SDLC HDLC FDDI BRI PRI ISDN RIP OSPF EIGRP NSSA VLSM AsBRs Open System Interconnection Internet protocol Local Area Networking Wide Area Networking Transfer Control Protocol User Diagram Protocol Synchronous Data Link Control High Level Data Link Control Fibre Distributed Data Interface Basic Rate Interface Primary Rate Interface Integrated Service Digital Network Routing Information Protocol Open Shortest Path First Extended Interior Gateway Routing Protocol Not-so-stubby Area Variable Length Subnet Mask As Boundary Routers

DRAM EPROM NVRAM

Dynamic Random Access Memory Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory Non Volatile Random Access Memory

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter gives a brief introduction of OSI reference model, protocols, network elements, ip address, sub netting, routers, ACL and password recovery. 1.1.OSI REFERNCE MODEL The OSI layer shows WHAT needs to be done to send data from an application on one computer through a network to an application in another computer but not HOW it should be done. The main idea in OSI is that the process of communication between two end points in a communication network can be divided into layers, with each layer adding its own set of special, related functions. 1.2. PROTOCOLS The OSI model provides a conceptual frame work for communication between computers, but the model itself is not a method of communication. Actual communication is made possible by using communication protocols. In context of data networking a protocol is a set of rules and conventions that governs how computers exchange information over a network medium. A protocol implements the functions of one or more of the OSI layers. A wide variety of protocols exist some of they include: 1.3 .NETWORK ELEMENTS The basic building blocks those are required in construction and maintenance of a network is called as the network elements. The various network elements are: 1. Repeaters

2. 3.
4.

Hubs Switches Bridges

5. 6.

Routers Gateway etc

1.4.IP ADDRESS An internet protocol address (IP ADDRESS) is a numerical label that is assigned to any device participating in a computer network that uses the internet protocol for communication between nodes. An IP address serves two principal functions host or network interfacing identification and location addressing. There are two types of internet protocol versions that are being widely used IPV4 and IPV6.

1.5. SUB NETTING A sub network or subnet, is a logically visible subdivision of an IP Network. Subnetting is the process of designating some high order bits from the host part and grouping them with the network mask to form the subnet mask. This divides a network into smaller subnets. In precise it is a sub network in a network. 1.6. ROUTER A router is a networking device whose software and hardware are customized to the tasks of routing and forwarding information. A router has two or more network interfaces, which may be different types of network (such as copper cables, fibre or wireless) or different network standards.

1.7. ROUTING Routing is the act of moving information across an inter-network from a source to a destination. Along the way, at least one intermediate node typically is encountered. Its also referred to as the process of choosing a path over which to send the packets. Routing is often contrasted with bridging, which might seem to accomplish precisely the same thing to the casual observer. The primary difference between the two is that bridging occurs at Layer 2 (the data link layer) of the OSI reference model, whereas routing occurs at Layer 3 (the network layer).

CHAPTER 2 OPEN SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION

2.1 HISTORY 0F OSI The international standard organization introduced the OSI model for standardization in 1984 in order to provide a reference model to guide product implementers so that products will consistently work with other products of different vendors to interoperate in networks. OSI stands for open system interconnection The OSI layer shows WHAT needs to be done to send data from an application on one computer through a network to an application in another computer but not HOW it should be done. The main idea in OSI is that the process of communication between two end points in a communication network can be divided into layers, with each layer adding its own set of special, related functions. The basic definitions that have to be known before having a detail study about OSI system are as follows:

SYSTEM: A system is one or more autonomous computers and their associated software, peripherals and users, which are capable of information processing and/or transfer.

SUBSYSTEM: A logically independent smaller unit of a system. A succession of subsystems makes up a system.

LAYER: A layer is composed of subsystems of the same rank of all the interconnect systems.

ENTITY: The functions in a layer are performed by hardware subsystems and/or software packages. These are known as entities. Entities in the same layer but not in the same subsystem are known as peer entities. Peer entities communicate using peer protocols. Data exchange between peer entities is in the form of protocol data units (PDU). Data exchange between entities of adjacent layers is in the form of interface data units (IDU). Service data unit encapsulated into a PDU by the lower layer. (SDU) is a unit of data that has been passed down from an OSI layer to a lower layer and that has not yet been

2.2 OSI REFERENCE MODEL AND ITS LAYERS: OSI reference model propose a general layered concept, with provision for adding or deleting layers as demanded by factors like service complexity, technology options etc. OSI model is a 7 layered model. These seven layers can be divided into two categories: upper layers and lower layers.

The upper layers deal with application issues and generally are implemented only in software. The lower layers deal with data transport issues. These are implemented in hardware and software. The seven layers are as described below. 1. Application layer (layer 7) 1. Presentation layer (layer 6) 1. Session layer (layer 5) 1. Transport layer (layer 4) 2. Network layer (layer 3) 3. Data link layer (layer 2) 4. Physical layer (layer 1)

OSI MODEL

Fig2.1:OSI model

PHYSICAL LAYER: This layer defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional specifications for activating, maintaining, and deactivating the physical link between communicating network systems. The data is in the form of bits. This layer specifications define characteristics such as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical data rates, and physical connectors.

DATA LINK LAYER: The data link layer deals with error detections and automatic recovery procedures required when a message is lost or corrupted. Another important function performed by data link layer is the data flow control, traffic regulation mechanism. The data is in the form of frames.

NETWORK LAYER: The data is in the form of packets. This layer is concerned with transmission of packets from the source node to destination node. It deals with routing and switching considerations that are required in establishing a network connection. It assures a certain quality of service to the upper layers. Since an end to end connection may involve routing through a number of different networks, internetworking is an important function of network layer. Addressing schemes, network capabilities, protocol differences, accounting and billing are all issues to be handled in internetworking. Network congestion which may occur due to many messages on a particular route is also tackled by the network layer.

TRANSPORT LAYER: This layer is first end to end layer in OSI architecture. It provides reliable data transfer services to the upper layers. It establishes, maintains and terminates virtual circuits. It makes sure that the data is delivered error free and in the correct sequence. It also provides acknowledgement of the successful data transmission. Data is in the form of segments.

SESSION LAYER:

This layer controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between local and remote applications

PRESENTATION LAYER: This layer defines coding and conversion functions. It ensures that information sent from application layer of one system is readable by the application layer of another system. Data compression, encryption, translation functions are supported in this layer. This layer is also sometimes called as syntax layer. APPLICATION LAYER: This layer provides network services directly to applications. This layer is the closest to the end user, which means that both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. Application layer functions typically include Identifying communication partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication.

CHAPTER 3 PROTOCOLS

The OSI model provides a conceptual frame work for communication between computers, but the model itself is not a method of communication. Actual communication is made possible by using communication protocols. In context of data networking a protocol is a set of rules and conventions that governs how computers exchange information over a network medium. A protocol implements the functions of one or more of the OSI layers. A wide variety of protocols exist some of they include:

LAN PROTOCOLS: They operate at physical and data link layers of the OSI model and define communication over the various LAN media. E.g.: FDDI (fiber distributed data interface), Ethernet, token ring etc. examples of data link layer protocols are SDLC (synchronous data link control), HDLC (high level data link control) etc.

WAN PROTOCOLS: They operate at the lowest three layers of the OSI model and define communication over the wide area media. SDLC and HDLC are few examples of these types of protocol

ROUTING PROTOCOLS: These are network layer protocols that are responsible for exchanging information between routers so that the routers can select the proper path for network traffic. E.g.: RIP (router information protocol), OSPF (open shortest path first) etc.

ROUTED PROTOCOLS: A routed protocol is a network layer protocol that is used to move traffic between networks. IP, IPX, and AppleTalk are all examples of these protocols.

TRANSPORT LAYER PROTOCOLS:

TCP (transfer control protocol), this is a connection oriented protocol it is reliable. UDP (user datagram protocol) this is a connectionless protocol. It is less reliable. Etc.

SESSION LAYER PROTOCOLS: Examples of this layer protocols are NFS (network file system) it allows a user on a client computer to access files over a network. Zone information protocols (ZIP) etc.

PRESENTATION LAYER PROTOCOL: ASCII (American standard code for information interchange), MPEG (moving pictures experts group), JPEG ( joint photographic experts group).these protocols help in data conversion and coding.

APPLICATION LAYER PROTOCOLS: FTP (file transfer protocol), SMTP (simple mail transfer protocol), HTTP (hyper text transfer protocol) etc. All these protocols help in providing services to the users through various applications. These are the different protocols present in the various layers of the OSI reference model

CHAPTER 4

NETWORK ELEMENTS

The basic building blocks those are required in construction and maintenance of a network is called as the network elements. The various network elements are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Repeaters Hubs Switches Bridges Routers Gateway etc

REPEAPTER: A repeater regenerates a signal from one port to another to which they are connected. These are operated in physical layer. Hence these devices are also called as layer one devices.. There are various multiple port repeaters available e.g.16 port, 8 ports etc. it suppresses noise and helps inefficient transmission of data. They dont require any addressing information. They are inexpensive and simple. The disadvantage is that they only support broadcasting and also passes electrical storms generated by huge amount of computers.

Fig4.1: repeater

HUBS: In computer networking, a hub is a small, simple, inexpensive device that joins multiple computers together. Many network hubs available today support the Ethernet standard. Other type including USB hub also exist, but Ethernet is the type traditionally used in home networking. A hub is a layer one device. It does

not read any of the data passing through them and are not aware of their source or destination. A hub simply receives the incoming packets and broadcasts these packets out to all devices on the network. It is generally a rectangular box made of plastic or fiber that receives power from an ordinary wall outlet. A hub remains very popular in small networks for its low cost.

Fig4.2 : Hub

BRIDGES: A bridge is a layer two device. It has only two ports and all its decisions are made on basis of MAC addresses or layer two addresses but do not depend on logical addressing. It is used for managing traffic. Basically there are two types of

bridges. A bridge called as translating bridge connects two different LAN segments such as token rings, Ethernets etc. and the other type of bridge known as transparent bridges move data between two similar LAN segments.

fig4.3: Bridge

SWITCHES: A switch is a layer two device that forwards traffic based on media access control (MAC) layer i.e. Ethernet or token ring addresses. It is a multiport bridge and a successor of bridge. It is used to interconnect a number of Ethernet local area networks to form a large Ethernet network. The purpose of the switch is to forward the packets only to the desired destination segment of the network whenever possible minimising the traffic on the network. The disadvantage is that the switch cannot connect different LAN segments like Ethernets; token rings etc. There are three distinct features of switch they are:

ADDRESS LEARNING: Layer two switches remember the source hardware address of each frame received on an interface, and they enter this information into a Mac database called as forward/filter table.

FORWARD FILTER DECISIONS: When a frame is received on an interface, the switch looks at the destination hardware address and finds the exit interface in the MAC database. The frame is only forwarded out the specified destination port.

LOOP AVOIDANCE: If multiple connections between switches are created for redundancy purposes network loops can occur. Spanning tree protocol is used to stop network loops while still permitting redundancy.

Fig4.4: Switch

ROUTERS: A router is an electronic device that interconnects two or more computer networks and selectively interchanges packets of data between them. It is also called as a layer three switch. They work on the logical addresses known as IP (internet protocol) addresses. When multiple routers are used in large collection of interconnected networks, the routers exchange information about target system addresses, so that each router can build up a table showing the preferred paths between any two systems on the interconnected networks. The main function of router is routing and forwarding the data packets.

Fig4.5:Wireless Router

GATEWAY:

A gateway can translate information between different network data formats or network architectures. It can translate TCP/IP to AppleTalk so computers supporting TCP/IP can communicate with Apple brand computers. Most gateways operate at the application layer, but can operate at the network or session layer of the OSI model. Gateways will start at the lower level and strip information until it gets to the required level and repackage the information and work its way back toward the hardware layer of the OSI model

Fig 4.6:Router (wired)

Fig4.7:Gateway (wired)

Fig4.8:Gateway (wireless)

These are the various network elements that are most commonly used in a network for establishing a efficient connectivity required for effective data exchange between different devices in different networks.

GENERAL NETWORK TOPOLOGY

A network topology shows all the network elements that are connected in a network. It is as shown below: Fig4.9: Network topology

CHAPTER.5

IP ADDRESSES AND SUBNETTING

An internet protocol address (IP ADDRESS) is a numerical label that is assigned to any device participating in a computer network that uses the internet protocol for communication between nodes. An IP address serves two principal functions host or network interfacing identification and location addressing. There are two types of internet protocol versions that are being widely used IPV4 and IPV6. 5.1 INTERNET PROTOCOL VERSION 4: It is the fourth revised version in the development of the internet protocol and it is the first version of the protocol to be widely deployed. IPV4 is connectionless protocol for use on packet switched link layer network (Ethernet). It is 32 bit addresses, which limits the address space to 2^32 possible unique addresses. There are two types of IP addresses private IP addresses and public addresses.

PUBLIC IP ADDRESSES: These IPs are allocated to general public and can be used only by the persons who purchase these IPs. These are unique and are not accessible by everyone and are publicly registered in the network information system.

PRIVATE IP ADDRESSES: These IPs are not registered and can be used extensively available for the public use i.e. anyone can access these IPs. Almost all the LAN IPs are private IPs.

CLASSIFICATION OF IP ADDRESSES:

CLASS A: The range of these IPs is 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255.255. All the IPs in this range except 10.0.0.0 network are used for private IPs while 10.0.0.0 network is allocated as public IP. As we know that these are 32 bit addressing the first 8 bits represent network bits and the remaining 21 bits represent host bits. Class A IPs are mostly used for large networks.

CLASS B: The range of this IPs is from 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255.255. All the IPs in this range except from 172.16.0.0 to 172.32.0.0 are used for private use while 172.16.0.0 172.32.0.0 are used in public IP addressing. The first two octets i.e. the first 16 address bits represent network bits while the other two octets represent host bits. This IPs are generally allocated to a medium sized network.

CLASS C: The range of these IPs is from 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255. all the IPs in this range are used for private IP addressing except the IPs in the range 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.0 which are used for public addressing. The first three octets represent network bits while the last octet represents host bits. These IPs are used for small to medium networks.

CLASS D:

The range of these IPs is from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255. these IPs are known as multicast IP addresses .Multicasting is the process of sending packets from one device to many other devices without any packet duplication.

CLASS E: The range of these IPs is from 240.0.0.0 to 254.255.255.255. These IPs are used for experimental purposes only and cannot be assigned for general users.

LIMITATIONS OF IPV4: ADDRESSING SPACE: The IPv4 address is 32 bit, which allows to allocate 2^32 address.IPv4 present two level addressing hierarchy i.e. network number and host number. Each network interface is identified with one or more unique addresses. Two level addressing hierarchy is convenient but wasteful of the address space.

AUTO CONFIGURATION AND MOBILITY: New technologies (mobile equipment, wireless network) are emerging and its use is quickly becoming common. IPV4 did not foresee its use. There is no automatic way of automatically configure this kind of equipment.

SUPPORT AND REAL TIME APPLICATIONS:

Services such as the transmission of real time audio and video are becoming common nowadays. IPV4 does not provide for ways of managing and reserving bandwidth, which is a drawback to the user of real time services with IPV4.

SECURITY: No security at the network layer.

RAPID GROWTH: Growth of TCP/IP usage into new areas will result in a rapid growth in the demand for unique IP addresses.

PROLIFERATION: Networks are proliferating rapidly.

5.2 INTERNET PROTOCOL VERSION 6:

IPV6 is an improved version of the current and most widely used internet protocol, IPV4. Generally the message sent via an IP is broken up into packets, which may travel via a number of different routes to their final destination and are reassembled into their original form. IPV6 is also known as IPNG (IP Next Generation). IPV6 includes the following enhancements over IPV4:

1. 2.

Expanded address space Improved option mechanism

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Address auto configuration Increased addressing flexibility Support for resource allocation Security capabilities It is a hexadecimal addressing system i.e. 128 bit addressing

In most regards, IPv6 is a conservative extension of IPv4. Most transport and application-layer protocols need little or no change to operate over IPv6; exceptions are application protocols that embed internet-layer addresses, such as FTP etc.IPV6 specifies a new packet format designed to minimize packet header processing by routers because the headers of IPV4 packets and IPV6 packets are significantly different, the two protocols are not interoperable. IPV6 is still in infant stage i.e. not completely used. It takes some time for the penetration of IPV6 in the market.

5.3 CONCEPT OF SUBNETTING: A sub network or subnet is a logically visible subdivision of an IP network. Sub netting is the process of designating some high order bits from the host part

and grouping them with the network mask to form the subnet mask. This divides a network into smaller subnets. In precise it is a sub network in a network. The default subnet mask of class A IP addresses is 255.0.0.0 so it can handle 2^24 host i.e. 16,777,216 hosts. The default subnet mask of class B IP addresses is 255.255.0.0 so it can handle2^16 hosts i.e. 65,536 hosts. The default subnet mask of class C is 255.255.255.0 so it can handle 2^8 hosts i.e. 256 hosts. In brief sub netting can be defined as conversion of network bits into host bits. There are two types of subnet masks fixed length subnet mask and variable length subnet mask.

FIXED LENGTH SUBNET MASK: FLSM follows a network wide rule that each network is assigned a fixed number of subnets irrespective of their requirement and demand. In this type of sub netting there is a chance of wastage of IP addresses if there are no much hosts present in the network. If there is an increased demand for IPs in a network, through FLSM more subnets other than what they were allocated cannot be provided. For equal distribution of IPs FLSM is used. To overcome this problem variable length subnet mask was introduced.

VARIABLE LENGTH SUBNET MASK: VLSM is a means of allocating IP addressing resources to subnets according to their individual need rather than some general network-wide rule. This is a technique used to allow more efficient assignment of IP addresses. To conserve address space, making it possible to define subnets of varying sizes variable length

subnet masking was introduced. Through this technique subnets can be provided as required and there is no wastage or deficit of IPs. For unequal distribution of IPs VLSM is used. Number of network bits, number of host bits and the number of masks can be calculated using the formula: 2^h=required number of hosts. Thus this topic on IP addresses can be summarised as IP addresses are very useful in identifying a device on a network and in providing extensive connectivity and enormous data exchange between remote devices on a network.

CHAPTER-6 ROUTERS

A router is an electronic device that interconnects two or more computer networks and selectively interchanges packets of data between them. Each data packet contains address information that a router can use to determine if the source and destination are on the same network or if the data packet must be transferred from one network to another. When multiple routers are used in large collection of interconnected networks, the routers exchange information about target system addresses, so that each router can build up a table showing the preferred paths between any two systems on the interconnected networks and such table is called as routing table. A router is a networking device whose software and hardware are customized to the tasks of routing and forwarding information. A router has two or more network interfaces, which may be different types of network (such as copper cables, fiber or wireless) or different network standards. Each network

interface is a specialised device that converts electric signals from one form to another. Routers connect two or more logical subnets each having a different network addresses. The subnets in the router do not necessarily map one to one to the physical interfaces of the router. The term layer 3 switching is often used interchangeably with the term routing. The term switching is generally used to refer to data forwarding between two network devices with the same network address. This is also called layer 2 switching or LAN switching.

OPERATION: Conceptually, a router operates in two operational planes

CONTROL PLANE: where a router builds a table (routing table) as how a packet should be forwarded through which interface, by using either statically configured statements (called static routes) or by exchanging information with other routers in the network through a dynamical routing protocol.

FORWARDING PLANE:

where the router actually forwards traffic (called packets) from ingress (incoming) interfaces to an egress (outgoing) interface that is appropriate for the destination address that the packet carries with it, by following rules derived from the routing table that has been built in the control plane.

6.1 TYPES OF ROUTERS:

CUSTOMER EDGE ROUTER: In short these routers are known as CE routers. These routers are located at the customer premises that interface to a service provider router i.e. it provides Ethernet interface between customers LAN and the service provider. PROVIDER EDGE ROUTER: In short these routers are known PE routers. These are located at the service providers network and are connected to CE router directly. P ROUTER: A P router is a provider router is a label switch router. These routers have no knowledge of the customer prefixes; they just label the switch packets. Based on the way they are connected there are two types of routers. Wired router and wireless router.

Functions of a router:

1.

It performs packet switching i.e. logical addressing

2. 3. 4.

It does packet filtering i.e. access control. It helps in internetwork communication It performs path selection.

6.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF MAC ADDRESS: MAC stands for Media Access Control. MAC address is a unique identifier assigned to network interfaces for communications on the physical network segment. These addresses are often assigned by the manufacturer of the network interface card and are stored in its hardware, the cards ROM or some other firmware mechanism. If assigned by the manufacturer, a MAC address usually encodes the manufacturers registered identification number. It may also be known as an Ethernet hardware address (EHA) or physical address

6.3 INTERFACES OF A ROUTER: The interfaces on a router provide network connectivity to the router. Console and auxiliary ports are used for managing the router. Routers also have ports for LAN and WAN connectivity. The LAN interfaces usually include Ethernet, fast Ethernet, fiber distributed data interface (FDDI) or token ring. The auxiliary port is used to provide LAN connectivity. One can use a converter to attach LAN to the router. Synchronous and asynchronous serial interfaces are used for WAN connectivity. ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) interfaces are used to provide ISDN connectivity. Using ISDN, one can transmit both video and data.

ETHERNET INTERFACE: Ethernet is one of the earliest LAN technologies. An Ethernet LAN typically uses special grades of twisted pair cabling. Ethernet networks can also use coaxial cable, but this cable medium is becoming less common. The most commonly installed Ethernet systems are called 10BaseT. The router provides the interfaces for twisted pair cables. The Ethernet interfaces on the router are E0, E1, E2, and so on. E stands for Ethernet, and the number that follows represents the port number. These interfaces provide connectivity to an Ethernet LAN. In a non-modular Cisco router, the Ethernet ports are named as above, but in modular routers they are named as E0/1, where E stands for Ethernet, 0 stands for slot number, and 1 stands for port number in the slot. Similarly another Ethernet interface called as Fast Ethernet is available. It is denoted as fa and numbered similar to the Ethernet interface.

TOKEN RING INTERFACE: Token Ring is the second most widely used LAN technology after Ethernet, where all computers are connected in a logical ring topology. Physically, each host attaches to an MSAU (Multistation Access Unit) in a star configuration. MSAUs can be chained together to maintain the logical ring topology. An empty frame called a token is passed around the network. A device on the network can transmit data only when the empty token reaches the device. The Token Ring interfaces on a non-modular router are To0, To1, To2 and so on. To stands for Token Ring and the number following To signifies the port number. In a modular router, To will be followed by the slot number/port number.

FIBER DISTRIBUTED DATA INTERFACE: Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a LAN technology that uses fiber optic cable. FDDI is a ring topology that uses four-bit symbols rather than eight-bit octets in its frames. The 48-bit MAC addresses have 12 four-bit symbols for FDDI. FDDI is very fast and provides a data transfer rate of 100 Mbps and uses a token-passing mechanism to prevent collisions. FDDI uses two rings with their tokens moving in opposite directions to provide redundancy to the network. Usually only one ring is active at a given time. FDDI interfaces on a non-modular Cisco router are F0, F1, F2 and so on. F stands for FDDI and the number following F signifies the port number. In a modular router, a slot number/port number will follow F.

INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK INTERFACE: Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of ITU-T (Telecommunication Standardization Sector of the International Telecommunications Union) standards for digital transmission over ordinary telephone copper wire as well as over other media. ISDN provides the integration of both analog or voice data together with digital data over the same network. ISDN has two levels of service:

1. 2.

Basic Rate Interface (BRI) Primary Rate Interface (PRI)

The BRI interfaces for ISDN on a non-modular router are BRI0, BRI1, and so on, with the number following BRI signifying the port number. In a modular router, BRI is followed by the slot number/port number.

SYNCHRONOUS AND ASYNCHRONOUS INTERFACES:

Synchronous transmission signals occur at the same clock rate and all clocks are based on a single reference clock. Since asynchronous transmission is a character-by-character transmission type, each character is delimited by a start and stop bit, therefore clocks are not needed in this type of transmission. Synchronous communication requires a response at the end of each exchange of Frames, while asynchronous communications do not require responses. Support for the Synchronous Serial interface is supplied on the Multiport Communications Interface (CSC-MCI) and the Serial Port Communications Interface (CSC-SCI) network interface cards. The Asynchronous Serial interface is provided by a number of methods, including RJ-11, RJ-45, and 50-pin Telco connectors Some ports can function both as Synchronous Serial interfaces and Asynchronous Serial interfaces. Such ports are called Async/Sync ports. The Async/Sync ports support Telco and RJ-11 connectors

TYPES OF PROTOCOLS:

In general two types of protocols are present they are routed protocols and routing protocols. ROUTED PROTOCOLS: A routed protocol is a network layer protocol that is used to move traffic between networks. IP, IPX, and AppleTalk are all examples of these protocols. Routed protocols allow the host on one network to communicate with a host on another network, with routers forwarding traffic between the source and destination networks. They are characterized by logical addressing (such as an IP or IPX address) that only identifies a source or destination host but also the network (or subnet) on which they reside.

ROUTING PROTOCOLS: These protocols serve a different purpose. Instead of being used to send data between source and destination hosts, a routing protocol is used by routers to exchange routing information with one another. Routing information includes defining the route, updating the routing table etc. examples of routing protocols is RIP, EIGRP, OSPF etc

6.4 MEMORIES IN ROUTER:

The various types of memories present in a router are DRAM, EPROM, NVRAM and FLASH memories.

DRAM:

DRAM stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. It has two types of memories. Primary, main or processor memory, which is reserved for the CPU to execute IOS software and to hold the running configuration and routing tables. Shared, packet or I/O memory which buffers data transmitted or received by the routers network interfaces.

EPROM: EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory is usually referred to as a boot ROM. EPROM is generally programmed at some point during the latter stages of manufacture, and cannot generally be changed by the users. EPROM is generally loaded with two crucial firmware components. The first is a boot loader which takes over should the device fail to find a valid bootable image in flash memory, and provides alternate boot options.

NVRAM: NVRAM stands for Non Volatile Random Access Memory. It stores important configuration information used by the IOS during boot and by some programs during start up, which is stored in the starting configuration file.

FLASH MEMORY:

Flash memory is the most diverse of each of these types and it comes in many forms, however, its primary use is to store a bootable IOS image from which a device can start. Most devices have onboard flash memory from which the device boots, however some equipment particularly higher end hardware components also have the capability to boot from an image stored on a flash memory, which ids removable.

DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF ROUTERS:

CORRECTNESS AND SIMPLICITY: The packets are to be correctly delivered. Simpler Routing algorithm, it is better. ROBUSTNESS: Ability of the network to deliver packets via some route even in the face of failures. STABILITY: The algorithm should converge to equilibrium fast in the face of changing conditions in the network. FAIRNESS AND OPTIMALITY: obvious requirements, but conflicting. EFFICIENCY: Minimum overhead while designing a routing protocol it is necessary to take into account the following design parameters: PERFORMANCE CRITERIA: Number of hops, Cost, Delay, Throughput, etc DECISION TIME: Per packet basis (Datagram) or per session (Virtual-circuit) basis

DECISION PLACE: Each node (distributed), Central node (centralized), Originated node (source) NETWORK INFORMATION SOURCE: None, Local, Adjacent node, Nodes along route, All nodes NETWORK INFORMATION UPDATE TIMING: Continuous, Periodic, Major load change, Topology change To summarize the topic about routers, in brief Routers are the layer three switches belong to the network layer of OSI reference model. They play vital role in exchange of data packets even between remote devices in a network. Router has various interfaces that help the user to connect them to various networks.

CHAPTER-7 ROUTING

Routing is the act of moving information across an inter-network from a source to a destination. Along the way, at least one intermediate node typically is encountered. Its also referred to as the process of choosing a path over which to send the packets. The primary difference between the two is that bridging occurs at Layer 2 (the data link layer) of the OSI reference model, whereas routing occurs at Layer 3 (the network layer). The routing algorithm is the part of the network layer software responsible for deciding which output line an incoming packet should be transmitted on, i.e. what should be the next intermediate node for the packet Routing protocols use metrics to evaluate what path will be the best for a packet to travel. A metric is a standard of measurement; such as path bandwidth, reliability, delay, current load on that path etc; that is used by routing algorithms to determine the optimal path to a destination. Routing algorithms fill routing tables with a variety of information. Mainly Destination/Next hop associations tell a router that a particular destination can be

reached optimally by sending the packet to a particular node representing the "next hop" on the way to the final destination. Some of the routing algorithm allows a router to have multiple next hop for a single destination depending upon best with regard to different metrics. For example, lets say router R2 is be best next hop for destination D, if path length is considered as the metric; while Router R3 is the best for the same destination if delay is considered as the metric for making the routing decision.

8.1 TYPES OF ROUTING: Depending upon the way the data packets are routed between the routers in a network and the way in which the routing table is updated, routing is mainly classified into two types, static routing and dynamic routing.

8.1.1 STATIC ROUTING: Static routing is the term used to refer to a manual method that is used to set up routing between networks. The network administrator configures static routes in a router by entering routes directly into the routing table of a router. Static routing is a hard coded path in the router that specifies how the router will get to a certain subnet by using certain path. A static route to every network must be configured on every router for full connectivity.

Advantages of Static Routing: 1. 1. 2.

3.

Static routes are simple and quick to configure. Static routing is supported on all routing devices and all routers Static routes are easy to predict and understand in small networks. Routers will not share static routes with each other, thus reducing CPU/RAM overhead and saving bandwidth.

4. Disadvantages of static routing: 1. Static routes require extensive planning and have high management overhead. The more routers exist in a network, the more routes that need to be configured. 2. It is easy to manage in small networks but does not scale well compared to dynamic routing.

3.

Static routing is not fault-tolerant, as any change to the routing infrastructure (such as a link going down, or a new network added) requires manual intervention.

4.

Routers operating in a purely static environment cannot seamlessly choose a better Route if a link becomes unavailable.

8.1.2 DYNAMIC ROUTING:

Dynamic routing is typically used in larger networks to ease the administrative and operational overhead of using only static routes. Dynamic routing has evolved to meet the demands of changing network requirements. It is an adaptive routing that describes the capability of a system, through which routes are characterized by their destination, to alter the path that the route takes through the system in response to a change in conditions. A dynamic routing table is created, maintained, and updated by a routing protocol running on the router.

Advantages of Dynamic Routing: 1. 2. 3. 4. Scalability and adaptability. Simpler to configure on larger networks. Will dynamically choose a different (or better) route if a link goes down. Ability to load balance between multiple links.

Disadvantages of Dynamic Routing:

1.

Routing protocols put additional load on router CPU/RAM. The choice of the best route is in the hands of the routing protocol, and not the network administrator.

2.

TYPES OF DYNAMIC ROUTING PROTOCOLS: There are two types of dynamic routing protocols: Interior gateway routing protocols and exterior routing protocols.

EXTERIOR ROUTING PROTOCOLS: To get from place to place outside your network i.e. on the internet you must use an Exterior Gateway Protocol. Exterior Gateway Protocols handle routing outside an Autonomous System and get you from your network, through your Internet provider's network and onto any other network. BGP is used by companies with more than one Internet provider to allow them to have redundancy and load balancing of their data transported to and from the internet. used to connect different router

INTERIOR GATEWAY ROUTING PROTOCOLS: Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs) handle routing within an Autonomous System (one routing domain). In plain English, IGP's figure out how to get from place to place between the routers you own. The dynamic keep track of paths used to move data from one end system to another inside a network or set of networks that you administrate (all of the networks you manage combined are usually just one Autonomous System). IGP's are how you get all the networks communicating with each other. These protocols are used to connect the routers of the same service provider. Examples of IGRP: Routing Information Protocol (RIP), Extended Interior Gateway Protocol (EIGRP), Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) etc.

7.1.2.1 ROUTING INFORMATION PROTOCOL

The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) provides the standard IGP protocol for local area networks, and provides great network stability, guaranteeing that if one network connection goes down the network can quickly adapt to send packets through another connection. In short this protocol is called as RIP. RIP is Distance vector routing protocol type. Before discussing about RIP it is important to know certain basic definitions.

METRIC:

Metric is a property of a route in computer networking consisting of any value used by routing algorithms to determine whether one route should perform better than another (the route with the lowest metric is the preferred route). The routing table stores only the best possible routes, while link state or topological databases may store all other information as well. For example RIP uses hop count (number of hops) to determine the best possible route. So in simple language metric is a measure or a unit followed by the routing protocol. A Metric can include:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Number of hops (hop count) Speed of the path Packet loss (router congestion/conditions) Latency (delay) Path reliability Path bandwidth Cost Load etc.

RIP: RIP is also called as Routing by rumour .RIP is a dynamic routing protocol used in local and wide area networks. As we know it is classified as an interior gateway protocol (IGP). It uses the distance vector routing algorithm. The protocol has since been extended several times, resulting in RIP Version 2. Both versions are still in use today, however, they are considered to have been made technically obsolete by more advanced techniques such as Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) etc. RIP has also been adapted for use in IPV6 networks, a standard known as RIPng (RIP next generation) protocol was also introduced.

HISTORY OF RIP:

The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) was written by C. Hedrick from Rutgers University in June 1988, and has since become the most common internet routing protocol for routing within networks. RIP is based on the computer program "routed", which was widely distributed with the Unix 4.3 Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) operating system, and became the actual standard for routing in research labs supported by vendors of network gateways. The earliest RIP protocol was the PUP protocol, which used the Gateway Information Protocol to exchange routing information, and was invented by a team that included R. M. Metcalfe, who later developed the Ethernet physical layer network protocol. The PUP protocol was later upgraded to support the Xerox Network Systems (XNS) architecture, and named "Routing Information Protocol", usually just called RIP.

TECHNICAL DETAILS & WORKING: RIP is a distance-vector routing protocol, which employs the hop count as a routing metric. The hold down time is 180 seconds. RIP prevents routing loops by implementing a limit on the number of hops allowed in a path from the source to a destination. The maximum number of hops allowed for RIP is 15. A hop count of 16 is considered an infinite distance and used to deprecate inaccessible, inoperable, or otherwise undesirable routes in the selection process. What makes RIP work is a routing database that stores information on the fastest route from computer to computer, an update process that enables each router to tell other routers which route is the fastest from its point of view, and an update algorithm that enables each router to update its database with the fastest route communicated from neighbouring routers: DATABASE: Each RIP router on a given network keeps a database that stores the following information for every computer in that network.

IP ADDRESS: The Internet Protocol address of the computer. Gateway: The best gateway to send a message addressed to that IP address. DISTANCE: The number of routers between this router and the router that can send the message directly to that IP address. ROUTE CHANGE FLAG: A flag that indicates that this information has changed, used by other routers to update their own databases.

TIMERS: Various timers are also used to help in proper functioning of the protocol.

ALGORITHM:

The RIP algorithm works like this: UPDATE: At regular intervals each router sends an update message describing its routing database to all the other routers that it is directly connected to. Some routers will send this message as often as every 30 seconds, so that the network will always have up-to-date information to quickly adapt to changes as computers and routers come on and off the network.

PROPAGATION: When a router X finds that a router Y has a shorter and faster path to a router Z, then it will update its own routing database to indicate that fact.

Any faster path is quickly propagated to neighbouring routers through the update process, until it is spread across the entire RIP network.

VERSIONS: There are three versions of the Routing Information Protocol: RIPv1, RIPv2, and RIPng.

RIP VERSION 1 The original specification of RIP uses class full routing. The periodic routing updates do not carry subnet information, lacking support for VLSM. This limitation makes it impossible to have different-sized subnets inside of the same network class. In other words, all subnets in a network class must have the same size. There is also no support for router authentication, making RIP vulnerable to various attacks. The RIP version 1 works when there is only 16 hop counts (015).If there are more than 16 hops between two routers it fails to send data packets to the destination address.

RIP VERSION 2 Due to the deficiencies of the original RIP specification, RIP version 2 (RIPv2) was developed in 1993 and last standardized in 1998. It included the ability to carry subnet information, thus supporting Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR). To maintain backward compatibility, the hop count limit of 15 remained. RIPv2 has facilities to fully interoperate with the earlier specification if all Must Be Zero protocol fields in the RIPv1 messages are properly specified.

In addition, a compatibility switch feature allows fine-grained interoperability adjustments. In an effort to avoid unnecessary load on hosts that do not participate in routing, RIPv2 multicasts the entire routing table to all adjacent routers at the address 224.0.0.9, as opposed to RIPv1 which uses broadcast. Unicast addressing is still allowed for special applications.

RIPng RIPng (RIP next generation), defined in is an extension of RIPv2 for support of IPV6 the next generation Internet Protocol. The main differences between RIPv2 and RIPng are: 1. 2. Support of IPv6 networking. While RIPv2 supports RIPv1 updates authentication, RIPng does not. IPv6 routers were, at the time, supposed to use IPsec for authentication. 3. 4. RIPv2 allows attaching arbitrary tags to routes, RIPng does not; RIPv2 encodes the next-hop into each route entries, RIPng requires specific encoding of the next hop for a set of route entries

LIMITATIONS OF RIP

1.
2.

Results in network congestions. Time consuming when considered with other types of protocols Convergence is slow Most RIP networks are flat. There is no concept of areas or boundaries in RIP networks Cannot handle VLSM

3. 4.

These are the various details of routing information protocol.

7.1.2.2 OPEN SHORTEST PATH FIRST Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a routing protocol developed for Internet Protocol (IP) networks by the Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) working group of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). The working group was formed in 1988 to design an IGP based on the Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm for use in the Internet. Similar to the Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP), OSPF was created because in the mid-1980s, the Routing Information Protocol (RIP) was increasingly incapable of serving large, heterogeneous internetworks. OSPF is a link state routing protocol. OSPF sends link-state advertisements (LSAs) to all other routers within the same area. OSPF routers use the SPF (Shortest Path First) algorithm to calculate the shortest path to each node. SPF algorithm is also known as Dijkstra algorithm.

HISTORY

OSPF was derived from several research efforts, including Bolt, Beranek, and Newman's (BBN's) SPF algorithm developed in 1978 for the ARPANET (a landmark packet-switching network developed in the early 1970s by BBN), Dr. Radia Perlman's research on fault-tolerant broadcasting of routing information (1988), BBN's work on area routing (1986).

TECHNICAL DETAILS & WORKING OSPF is a link-state protocol. We could think of a link as being an interface on the router. A description of the interface would include, for example, the IP address of the interface, the mask, the type of network it is connected to, the routers connected to that network and so on. The collection of all these link-states would form a link-state database.

LINK-STATE ALGORITHM OSPF uses a link-state algorithm in order to build and calculate the shortest path to all known destinations. The algorithm by itself is quite complicated. The following is a very high level, simplified way of looking at the various steps of the algorithm: 1) Upon initialization or due to any change in routing information, a router will generate a link state advertisement. This advertisement will represent the collection of all link-states on that router.

2) All routers will exchange link-states by means of flooding. Each router that receives a link state update should store a copy in its link-state database and then propagate the update to other routers. 3) After the database of each router is completed, the router will calculate a Shortest Path Tree to all destinations. The router uses the Dijkstra algorithm to calculate the shortest path tree. The destinations, the associated cost and the next hop to reach those destinations will form the IP routing table.

SHORTEST PATH ALGORITHM The shortest path is calculated using the Dijkstra algorithm. The algorithm places each router at the root of a tree and calculates the shortest path to each destination based on the cumulative cost required to reach that destination. Each router will have its own view of the topology even though all the routers will build a shortest path tree using the same link-state database.

OSPF COST The cost (also called metric) of an interface in OSPF is an indication of the overhead required to send packets across a certain interface. The cost of an interface is inversely proportional to the bandwidth of that interface. A higher bandwidth indicates a lower cost. There is more overhead (higher cost) and time delays involved in crossing a 56k serial line than crossing a 10M Ethernet line.

The formula used to calculate the cost is: Cost= 10000 0000/bandwidth in bps.

Shortest Path Tree Assume we have the following network diagram with the indicated interface costs. In order to build the shortest path tree for RTA, we would have to make RTA the root of the tree and calculate the smallest cost for each destination. The above is the view of the network as seen from RTA. Note the direction of the arrows in calculating the cost. For example, the cost of RTB's interface to network 128.213.0.0 is not relevant when calculating the cost to 192.213.11.0. RTA can reach 192.213.11.0 via RTB with a cost of 15 (10+5). RTA can also reach 222.211.10.0 via RTC with a cost of 20 (10+10) or via RTB with a cost of 20 (10+5+5). In case equal cost paths exist to the same destination Cisco's implementation of OSPF will keep track of up to six next hops to the same destination. After the router builds the shortest path tree, it will start building the routing table accordingly. Directly connected networks will be reached via a metric (cost) of 0 and other networks will be reached according to the cost calculated in the tree.

OSPF NETWORKING HIERARCHY As mentioned earlier, OSPF is a hierarchical routing protocol. It enables better administration and smaller routing tables due to segmentation of entire network into smaller areas. OSPF consists of a backbone (Area 0) network that links all other smaller areas within the hierarchy.

The following are the important components of an OSPF network:

Fig7.1: Networking Hierarchy

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Areas Area Border routers Back bone areas AS boundary routers Stub areas

6. 7. 8.

Not-So stubby areas Totally Stubby area Transit Areas

AREAS: An area consists of routers that have been administratively grouped together. Usually, an area is a collection of contagious IP subnetted networks. Routers that are totally within an area are called internal routers. All interfaces on internal routers are directly connected to networks within the area. AREA BORDER ROUTER: An area border router (ABR) is a router that connects one or more areas to the main backbone network. It is considered a member of all areas it is connected to. An ABR keeps multiple copies of the link-state database in memory, one for each area to which that router is connected. BACKBONE AREA: An OSPF backbone area consists of all routers in area 0, and all area border routers (ABRs). The backbone distributes routing information between different areas.

Fig 7.2:ASBRs & ABRs

AS BOUNDARY ROUTERS (ASBRS): Autonomous system boundary routers advertise externally learned routes throughout the AS. It is a router that is connected to more than one Routing protocol and that exchanges routing information with routers in other protocols Stub Areas: Stub areas are areas that do not propagate AS external advertisements. By not propagating AS external advertisements, the size of the topological databases is reduced on the internal routers of a stub area. This in turn reduces the processing power and the memory requirements of the internal routers. Not-So-Stubby Areas (NSSA): An OSPF stub area has no external routes in it. A NSSA allows external routes to be flooded within the area. These routes are then leaked into other areas.

This is useful when you have a non-OSPF router connected to an ASBR of a NSSA. The routes are imported, and flooded throughout the area. However, external routes from other areas still do not enter the NSSA.

Fig7.3: Stub Area

Fig7.4: NSSA Stub Area Totally Stubby Area: Only default summary route is allowed in Totally Stubby Area. Transit Areas:

Transit areas are used to pass traffic from an adjacent area to the backbone. The traffic does not originate in, nor is it destined for, the transit area. ADVANTAGES OF OSPF:

1. 2.

OSPF is an open standard, not related to any particular vendor. OSPF is hierarchical routing protocol, using area 0 (Autonomous System) at the top of the hierarchy.

3.

OSPF uses Link State Algorithm, and an OSPF network diameter can be much larger than that of RIP.

4.

OSPF supports Variable Length Subnet Masks (VLSM), resulting in efficient use of networking resources.

5.

OSPF uses multicasting within areas. After initialization, OSPF only sends updates on routing table sections which have changed; it does not send the entire routing table, which in turn conserves network bandwidth.

6.

7.

Using areas, OSPF networks can be logically segmented to improve administration, and decrease the size or the table.

DISADVANTAGES OF OSPF:

1.

OSPF is very processor intensive due to implementation of SPF algorithm. OSPF maintains multiple copies of routing information, increasing the amount of memory needed.

2.

OSPF is a more complex protocol to implement compared to RIP

As mentioned, OSPF can provide better load-sharing on external links than other IGPs. These are the various features and functioning of OSPF.

7.1.2.3 EXTENDED INTERIOR GATEWAY ROUTING PROTOCOL

INTRODUCTION: Extended interior gateway routing protocol in short is called as EIGRP. It is also called as enhanced interior gateway routing protocol. It is a distance vector routing protocol with optimizations to minimize both the routing instability incurred after topology changes, as well as the use of bandwidth and processing power in the router. EIGRP is an enhanced version of IGRP. The convergence properties and the operating efficiency of this protocol have improved significantly. This allows for an improved architecture while retaining existing investment in IGRP.EIGRP is a hybrid routing technique. It is a combination of both distance vector routing and link state routing. It uses band width and delay by default to calculate its metric. The convergence technology is based on research conducted at SRI International. The Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL) is the algorithm used to obtain loop-freedom at every instant throughout a route computation. This allows

all routers involved in a topology change to synchronize at the same time. Routers that are not affected by topology changes are not involved in the recomputation. The convergence time with DUAL rivals that of any other existing routing protocol. EIGRP has been extended to be network-layer-protocol independent, thereby allowing DUAL to support other protocol suites.

WORKING OF EIGRP:

EIGRP has four basic components: 1. 2. 3. 4. Neighbour Discovery/Recovery Reliable Transport Protocol DUAL Finite State Machine Protocol Dependent Modules

Neighbour Discovery/Recovery is the process that routers use to dynamically learn of other routers on their directly attached networks. Routers must also discover when their neighbours become unreachable or inoperative. This process is achieved with low overhead by periodically sending small hello packets. As long as hello packets are received, a router can determine that a neighbour is alive and functioning. Once this is determined, the neighbouring routers can exchange routing information. The reliable transport is responsible for guaranteed, ordered delivery of EIGRP packets to all neighbours. It supports intermixed transmission of multicast or uncast packets. Some EIGRP packets must be transmitted reliably and others

need not. For efficiency, reliability is provided only when necessary. For example, on a multi-access network that has multicast capabilities, such as Ethernet, it is not necessary to send hellos reliably to all neighbours individually. The DUAL finite state machine embodies the decision process for all route computations. It tracks all routes advertised by all neighbours. The distance information, known as a metric, is used by DUAL to select efficient loop free paths. DUAL selects routes to be inserted into a routing table based on feasible successors. A successor is a neighbouring router used for packet forwarding that has a least cost path to a destination that is guaranteed not to be part of a routing loop. The protocol-dependent modules are responsible for network layer, protocol-specific requirements. For example, the IP-EIGRP module is responsible for sending and receiving EIGRP packets that are encapsulated in IP. IP-EIGRP is responsible for parsing EIGRP packets and informing DUAL of the new information received. IP-EIGRP asks DUAL to make routing decisions and the results of which are stored in the IP routing table. IP-EIGRP is responsible for redistributing routes learned by other IP routing protocols

EIGRP Concepts: This section describes some details about EIGRP implementation. Both data structures and the DUAL concepts are discussed.

NEIGHBOUR TABLE:

Each router keeps state information about adjacent neighbours. When newly discovered neighbours are learned,the address and interface of the neighbour is recorded. This information is stored in the neighbour data structure. The neighbour table holds these entries. There is one neighbour table for each protocol dependent module. When a neighbour sends a hello, it advertises a Hold Time. The Hold Time is the amount of time a router treats a neighbour as reachable and operational. In other words, if a hello packet isn't heard within the Hold Time, then the Hold Time expires. When the Hold Time expires, DUAL is informed of the topology change. The last sequence number received from the neighbour is recorded so out of order packets can be detected. A transmission list is used to queue packets for possible retransmission on a per neighbour basis. Round trip timers are kept in the neighbour data structure to estimate an optimal retransmission interval.

TOPOLOGY TABLE : The Topology Table is populated by the protocol dependent modules and acted upon by the DUAL finite state machine. It contains all destinations advertised by neighbouring routers. Associated with each entry is the destination address and a list of neighbours that have advertised the destination. For each neighbour, the advertised metric is recorded. This is the metric that the neighbour stores in its routing table. If the neighbour is advertising this destination, it must be using the route to forward packets. This is an important rule that distance vector protocols must follow. Also associated with the destination is the metric that the router uses to reach the destination.

FEASIBLE SUCCESSORS: A destination entry is moved from the topology table to the routing table when there is a feasible successor. All minimum cost paths to the destination form a set. From this set, the neighbours that have an advertised metric less than the current routing table metric are considered feasible successors. Feasible successors are viewed by a router as neighbours that are downstream with respect to the destination. These neighbours and the associated metrics are placed in the forwarding table. When a neighbour changes the metric it has been advertising or a topology change occurs in the network, the set of feasible successors may have to be reevaluated. However, this is not categorized as a route recomputation . ROUTE STATES A topology table entry for a destination can have one of two states. A route is considered in the Passive state when a router is not performing a route recomputation. The route is in Active state when a router is undergoing a route recomputation. If there are always feasible successors, a route never has to go into Active state and avoids a route recomputation. When there are no feasible successors, a route goes into Active state and a route recomputation occurs. A route recomputation commences with a router sending a query packet to all neighbours. Neighbouring routers can either reply if they have feasible successors for the destination or optionally return a query indicating that they are performing a route recomputation. While in Active state, a router cannot

change the next-hop neighbour it is using to forward packets. Once all replies are received for a given query, the destination can transition to Passive state and a new successor can be selected.

ADVANTAGES OF EIGRP:

1.

Very low usage of network resources during normal operation; only hello packets are transmitted on a stable network.

2.

When a change occurs, only routing table changes are propagated, not the entire routing table; this reduces the load the routing protocol itself places on the network.

3.

Rapid convergence times for changes in the network topology (in some situations convergence can be almost instantaneous)

DISADVANTAGES OF EIGRP: 1. EIGRPs disadvantages are by default automatically summarize routes at the classful boundaries. 2. 3. Proprietary to CISCO Routers from other vendors cannot use or understand EIGRP

To summarize in brief EIGRP is a hybrid protocol which employs both the features of link state and distance vector routing protocols. It is efficient and overcomes most of the drawbacks of the other routing protocols.

CHAPTER.8 CONFIGURATION OF ROUTERS

8.1 ROUTER COMMANDS In general there are two types of modes in a router they are privileged mode and user mode. The following are few commands that help in configuring a router.

Enable

To get to privileged mode

Config t

To get to configuration tab

hostname

To assign a name to the router

Interface

It interfaces serial/Ethernet ports

No shut

Activates interfaces

IP address

Assigns IP address

Wr mem

To Save the data

Encapsulation ppp

Brings all routers on a network to point to

TABLE 8.1:ROUTER COMMANDS

These are few router commands which are most regularly used. Using these commands one can configure a router in a network and also can implement required routing protocol. In the forthcoming units we shall learn about implementation of routing protocols especially implementation of Interior gateway routing protocols i.e. RIP, EIGRP, and OSPF . 8.2 SIMULATOR The simulator used to implement the Interior Gateway Routing Protocols is CISCO PACKET TRACER 5.1. Using this simulator Static routing, RIP, EIGRP and OSPF are implemented. Here is a brief introduction about the simulator, which helps to understand how to use it before working with it. This simulator allows using different types of routers, switches, connectors and end devices. We can also develop different network topologies using this simulator.

CISCO PACKET TRACER 5.1: PROTOCOL IMPROVEMENTS: Packet Tracer 5.1 models protocols not included in earlier versions. These protocols include models of IPv6 Routing, IPv6 and IPv4 Dual Stack, IPv6 ND,

IPv6

Routing

Protocols,

DHCPv6,

NATv6,

Multi-Area

OSPF,

Redistribution, RSTP, SSH, Multilayer Switching, and EtherChannel. Also, a model of the Cisco Catalyst 3560-24PS Multilayer Switch has been added.

EXTENDABLE ARCHITECTURE GUI IMPROVEMENTS: Packet Tracer 5.1 retains the logical topology as the primary workspace but adds additional physical representations of devices, Real-time and Simulation modes, and a wide variety of views and windows. The GUI supports multiple languages so the application may be locally translated. New features included in Packet Tracer 5.1 are the following: Multiuser, ACL Filters, user profile, improved print functuality, the ability to toggle toolbars in the main interface, Desktop tab for the Server including IP Configuration and Command Prompt dialogs, and various Activity Wizard improvements including additional locking items, the ability to import/export activity instructions, assign point values and component categories to assessment items, lock the user profile, toggle the Dynamic Percentage Feedback, and the ability to test an activity without restarting from beginning. REPRESENTATION AND VISUALIZATION TOOLS: An Event List, a form of global network sniffer, is included in Packet Tracer 5.1. This allows the display of the majority of simulated PDUs as events. For detailed protocol analysis, these events may be played in a continuous animation mode, forward, backward or in a stepped through process. Powerful OSI Layer view and PDU view, and more sophisticated custom PDUs, are also supported.

Item

Description LAN: Ethernet (including CSMA/CD*), 802.11 wireless* Switching: VLANs, 802.1q, trunking, VTP, DTP, STP*, RSTP, multilayer switching, Etherchannel TCP/IP: HTTP, DHCP, DHCPv6, Telnet, SSH, TFTP, DNS, TCP*, UDP, IP, IPv6, ICMP, ICMPv6, ARP, IPv6 ND Routing: static, default, RIPv1, RIPv2, EIGRP, singlearea OSPF, multi-area OSPF, inter-VLAN routing Other: ACLs (standard, extended, and named), CDP, NAT (static, dynamic, and overload), NATv6 WAN: HDLC, PPP, and Frame Relay* * indicates substantial modeling limitations imposed Network topology creation Devices: generic, real, and modular Routers, switches, hosts, hubs, bridges, wireless

Protocol

Logical Workspace access points, wireless routers, clouds, and DSL/cable modems Device interconnection through a variety of networking media Multiuser remote networks

Hierarchy of device, wiring closet, building, city, and intercity views Physical Workspace Loading of user-created graphics

Annotation and Authoring Capabilities Packet Tracer 5.1 improves upon the Activity Wizard of versions 3.2 and 4.0. It also includes templates, or "design patterns," for four different types of problem-solving activities: concept builders (network modeling problems), skill builders (pre-lab and post-lab implementation and practice activities), design problems, and troubleshooting problems. Packet Tracer 5.1 is a standalone, medium-fidelity, simulation-based learning environment for networking novices to design, configure, and troubleshoot computer networks at a CCNA-level of complexity. Packet Tracer supports student and instructor creation of simulations, visualizations, and animations of networking phenomena. Like any simulation, Packet Tracer 5.1 relies on a simplified model of networking devices and protocols. Real computer networks remain the benchmark for understanding network behavior and developing networking skills. More details can be available in the help tab of the simulator. The work space looks as shown below 8.3 DESCRIPTION OF WORK SPACE When you open Packet Tracer 5.1, by default you will be presented with the following interface: This initial interface contains ten components. If you are unsure of what a particular interface item does, move your mouse over the item and a help balloon will explain the item. 1 Menu Bar This bar provides the File, Edit, Options, View, Tools, Extensions and Help menus. You will find basic commands

such as Open, Save, Print, and Preferences in these menus .You will also be able to access the Activity Wizard From the Extensions menu.

Fig8.1: Work Space

This bar provides shortcut icons to the File and Edit menu commands. This bar also provides buttons for Zoom, the drawing Palette, and the Main Tool Bar Device Template Manager. On the right, you will also find the Network Information button, which you can use to enter a description for the current network (or any text you wish to include).

This bar provides access to these commonly used 3 CommonTools Bar workspace tools: Select, Move Layout, Place Note, Delete, Inspect, Add Simple PDU, and Add Complex PDU. See "Workspace Basics" for more information.

You can toggle between the Physical Workspace and the Logical Workspace with the tabs on this bar. In Logical Workspace, this bar also allows you to navigate through levels of a cluster, create Logical/Physical 4 Workspace Navigation Bar a new New Cluster, Move Object, Set Tiled Background, and Viewport. In Physical and Workspace, this bar allows you to navigate through physical locations, create a New City, create a New

Building, creates a New Closet, Move Object, apply Grid to the background, Set Background, and go to the Working Closet. 5 Workspace This area is where you will create your network, watch simulations, and view many kinds of

information and statistics.

You can toggle between Realtime Mode and Simulation Mode with the tabs on this bar. This Realtime/Simulation 6 Bar bar also provides buttons to Power Cycle Devices as well as the Play Control buttons and the Event List toggle button in Simulation Mode. Also, it contains a clock that displays the relative Time in Realtime Mode and Simulation Mode.

This box is where you choose devices and 7 Network Component connections to put into the workspace. It contains Box the Device-Type Selection Box and the DeviceSpecific Selection Box.

Device-Type Selection Box

This box contains the type of devices and connections available in Packet Tracer 5.1. The Device-Specific Selection Box will change depending on which type of device you choose.

Device-Specific Selection Box

This box is where you choose specifically which devices you want to put in your network and which connections to make.

10

User Created Packet This window manages the packets you put in the Window* network during simulation scenarios. See the "Simulation Mode" section for more details.

TABLE8.2: DESCRIPCTION OF WORKSPACE

8.4 IMPLEMENTATION OF ROUTING PROTOCOLS:

The following algorithm gives a clear idea on how to implement various routing protocols using the simulator.

ALGORITHM: 1) Open the simulator 2) Create the required network topology by dragging the required number of routers, switches, end devices and other connecting devices from the network component box to the work space. 3) Initialise the router 4) Configure the router with required routing protocol like STATIC, RIP, EIGRP etc

5) Execute by pinging the routers and the end devices and observe the success rate. Implementation of routing protocols having three routers, three switches and nine end devices three for each router

8.5 CONFIGURING THE ROUTERS:

Consider the three routers with their default names as router0, router1, router2. Commands at Router0: router0>enable router0#config t router0(config)#hostname HYD HYD(config)#interface serial0/0 HYD(config-if)#ip address 192.168.15.1 255.255.255.0 HYD(config-if)#no shut

HYD(config-if)#interface fastethernet0/0 HYD(config-if)#ip address 192.168.9.1 255.255.255.0 HYD(config-if)#no shut HYD(config-if)#^z

HYD#wr mem

By using the above commands router0 is named as HYD and its serial and fast Ethernet interfaces are assigned with some IP addresses.

Commands at router1: router1>enable router1#config t router(config)#hostname GOA GOA(config)#interface serial0/0 GOA(config-if)#ip address 192.168.15.2 255.255.255.0 GOA(config-if)#no shut GOA(config-if)#interface serial0/1 GOA(config-if)#ip address 192.168.16.1 255.255.255.0 GOA(config-if)#no shut GOA(config-if)#interface fastethernet0/0 GOA(config-if)#ip address 192.168.8.1 255.255.255.0 GOA(config-if)#no shut GOA(config-if)#^z GOA#wr mem

Thus router1 is named as GOA and serial interfaces and fast Ethernet interfaces are assigned corresponding ip addresses. Commands at router2: router2>enable router2#config t router2(config)#hostname DELHI DELHI(config)#interface serial0/0 DELHI(config-if)#ip address 192.168.16.2 255.255.255.0 DELHI(config-if)#no shut DELHI(config-if)#interface fastethernet0/0 DELHI(config-if)#ip address 192.168.7.1 255.255.255.0 DELHI(config-if)#no shut DELHI(config-if)#^z DELHI#wr mem

Router2 is named as DELHI. Its serial interface and fast Ethernet interface are assigned the shown IP addresses.

Assigning IP addresses to end devices:

End devices used are PCs. Let the IPs to the PCs be assigned as below:

HYD: -

PC0: 192.168.9.2 PC1: 192.168.9.3 PC2: 192.168.9.4

GOA: -

PC3: 192.168.8.2 PC4: 192.168.8.3 PC5: 192.168.8.4

DELHI: - PC6:192.168.7.2 PC7: 192.168.7.3 PC8: 192.168.7.4

IMPLEMENTATION OF STATIC ROUTING: Commands that configure static routes across the different routers are as shown Static route at HYD router:

HYD>enable HYD#config t HYD(config)#ip route 192.168.8.0 255.255.255.0 192.168.15.2

HYD(config)#ip route 192.168.7.0 255.255.255.0 192.168.15.2

Static route at GOA router:

GOA>enable GOA#config t GOA(config)#ip route 192.168.9.0 255.255.255.0 192.168.15.1 GOA(config)#ip route 192.168.7.0 255.255.255.0 192.168.15.1

Static route at DELHI router:

DELHI>enable DELHI#config t DELHI(config)#ip route 192.168.9.0 255.255.255.0 192.168.16.1 DELHI(config)#ip route 192.168.8.0 255.255.255.0 192.168.16.1 Thus by assigning the ip routes saving them in the respective routers and pinging from one router to another we can route the data. IMPLEMENTATION OF RIP After assigning the IP addresses to the routers we can also configure RIP instead of static routing. The following are the routing commands to be given in the command line interface of respective routers for RIP routing.

RIP at HYD router: HYD>enable HYD#config t HYD(config)#router rip HYD(config)#network 192.168.8.0. HYD(config)#network 192.168.7.0

RIP at GOA router: GOA>enable GOA#config t GOA(config)#router rip GOA(config)#network 192.168.9.0 GOA(config)#network 192.168.7.0 RIP at DELHI router: DELHI>enable DELHI#config t DELHI(config)#router rip DELHI(config)#network 192.168.9.0 DELHI(config)#network 192.168.8.0

Thus by the above commands one can configure RIP routing in the various routers. After saving these commands one can ping with other routers in the network.

IMPLEMENTATION OF EIGRP: EIGRP at HYD router: HYD>enable HYD#config t HYD(config)# router eigrp20

HYD(config)#network 192.168.8.0. HYD(config)#network 192.168.7.0

EIGRP at GOA router: GOA>enable GOA#config t GOA(config)#router eigrp20 GOA(config)#network 192.168.9.0 GOA(config)#network 192.168.7.0

EIGRP at DELHI router:

DELHI>enable DELHI#config t DELHI(config)#router eigrp20 DELHI(config)#network 192.168.9.0 DELHI(config)#network 192.168.8.0

By these commands one can ping between different routers in the network using EIGRP routing protocol.

IMPLEMENTATION OF OSPF: OSPF at HYD router: HYD>enable HYD#config t HYD(config)# router ospf20 HYD(config)#network 192.168.8.0 255.255.255.0 area0 HYD(config)#network 192.168.7.0 255.255.255.0 area0

OSPF at GOA router: GOA>enable

GOA#config t GOA(config)#router ospf10 GOA(config)#ip route 192.168.9.0 255.255.255.0 area0 GOA(config)#ip route 192.168.7.0 255.255.255.0 area0

OSPF at DELHI router: DELHI>enable DELHI#config t DELHI(config)#router ospf10 DELHI(config)#ip route 192.168.9.0 255.255.255.0 area0 DELHI(config)#ip route 192.168.8.0 255.255.255.0 area0

Thus by saving these commands at respective routers one can configure OSPF routing protocol and can ping with other routers successfully. The commands such as NO IP ADDRESS, NO IP ROUTE, NO NETWORK etc assigned ip addresses, networks and routes can be annulled. One can even ping from the end devices i.e. from PCs to other PCs in the network, PCs to the routers etc. To ping from end devices one has to enter the PING command followed by the IP address in the command prompt available in the desktop option.

Following figure shows the network topology configured by the above programs.

Switch 1 3 HYD DELH GOA 2 I

ROUTER ROUT ER ROUT ` ER

PC O

PC 1

PC 2

PC3

PC 4

PC 5

PC PC 6 PC 7 8

Fig: Packet tracer Routers are connected to switches through fast Ethernet port. Routers are connected to each other through serial ports. The IP addresses are assigned to the routers, networks and PCs as configured in the program

CONCLUSION:

Thus by using various types of routing protocols, connections can be established across different network elements in the network connected through routers, switches etc.

Interior routing protocols both STATIC and DYNAMIC (RIP, EIGRP, OSPF) are implemented in the routers across the network topology for successful connectivity

BIBLIOGRAPHY

(i) COMPUTER NETWORKS by I.S. BAGAD

(ii) COMPUTER NETWORKS by ANDREW S TANENBAUM

(iii) TELECOMMUNICATIONS SWITCHING SYSTEMS by TYAGARAJAN VISWANADAN

WEBSITES

(i) Wikipedia (ii) www.CISCO.com (iii) Network tutorials .info (iv) webopedia (v) Communications.howstuffworks.com (vi) Techtarget.com (vii) Cisconetacad.net (viii) Reportimages.com