6 Energy Efficiency

Energy efficiency technologies in buildings
Dr Steven Firth S.K.Firth@lboro.ac.uk
CVP304: Renewable Energy and Low Carbon Technologies, MSc Low Carbon Buildings Design and Modelling, Department of Civil and Building Engineering
Slide 1
Learning Objectives Energy Efficiency

To understand the various energy efficiency technologies To be familiar with simple modelling techniques for energy efficiency technologies
Slide 2
Contents
1. Energy efficiency technologies 2. Modelling energy efficiency Task 1: Build a simple steady-state model of a dwelling Task 2: Investigate the effects of various energy efficiency measures
Slide 3
Section 1: Energy efficiency technologies

Energy efficiency for housing
Cavity wall insulation Solid wall insulation Roof insulation Floor insulation Windows and doors Ventilation Airtightness Heating systems Heating controls Hot water Lighting Appliances.
DCLG: REVIEW OF THE SUSTAINABILITY OF EXISTING BUILDINGS (2006)
Slide 4
What is energy efficiency?

Efficient energy use, sometimes simply called energy efficiency, is using less energy to provide the same level of energy service Efficient energy use is achieved primarily by means of a more efficient technology or process rather than by changes in individual behaviour.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_efficiency CVP304: Renewable Energy and Low Carbon Technologies, MSc Low Carbon Buildings Design and Modelling, Department of Civil and Building Engineering Slide 5
Cavity wall insulation 1

Cavity walls are built using either two rows of brick, or a row of brick and a row of blockwork The walls are held together with metal or plastic wall ties Bricks are usually placed lengthways this is known as stretcher bond The cavity is typically 50mm to 60mm wide.
www.energysavingtrust.org.uk CVP304: Renewable Energy and Low Carbon Technologies, MSc Low Carbon Buildings Design and Modelling, Department of Civil and Building Engineering Slide 6
Cavity wall insulation 2

Installing cavity wall insulation can reduce heat losses through walls by up to 60% Injection holes are drilled at 1m intervals Air ventilators are sleeved (so they are not blocked by the insulation) The insulation is injected into the wall cavity Typical U-values might be reduced from 1.5W/m2K to 0.5W/m2K.
Solid wall insulation 1

Solid walls are typically made of brick or stone In general they were used in pre-1930 construction Bricks are placed crossways (so the ends of the bricks show) as well as lengthways. This strengthens the wall structure. Solid brick walls are typically around 220mm thick.
Solid wall insulation internal insulation 1

There are two main types of internal insulation for solid walls
Insulated studwork Rigid insulation board
Insulated studwork involves insulation held between a timber-framing system Using a fibre-based insulation, a typical thickness is around 120mm This disadvantage of this method is the space taken up inside the room.

There are two main types of internal insulation for solid walls
Insulated studwork Rigid insulation board
Rigid insulation board is plasterboard with a backing of insulation These are fixed to the wall surface Typical thickness is 60mm, so less space is taken up inside the room.

Advantages
Cheaper than external insulation Suitable for DIY No change to external wall appearance Room surfaces warm up quickly, this can suit houses with intermittent heating.
Disadvantages
Can leave thermal bridges Fixing can be difficult Reduced room size Fittings (skirting, plugs, light switches etc.) need to be repositioned Disruptive to occupants.
Using solid wall internal insulation, U-value reductions from 2.1W/m2K to 0.3W/m2K are possible.
Slide 11
Solid wall insulation external insulation 1

There are two main types of external insulation for solid walls
Wet render systems Dry cladding systems
Wet render systems consist of an insulation layer fixed to the outside existing wall An external render (such as thick sand / cement) is then applied on a wire mesh on the outside of this insulation

There are two main types of external insulation for solid walls
Wet render systems Dry cladding systems
Dry cladding systems consist of an insulation layer fixed to the outside existing wall The outside face of the insulation is then cladded. Possible materials include:
timber panels stone or clay tiles brick slip aluminium panels.
Brick slip cladding
www.energysavingtrust.org.uk Slide 13

Advantages
Less disruption to occupants Improves the faade and increases building life expectancy No reduction in living space Improves air tightness Room surfaces heat up slowly, more suited for home heated all day.
Disadvantages
Must be installed by a specialist contractor Can have a long payback time May change the external appearance of the dwelling Not suitable for historic / listed buildings May require alteration to guttering, satellite dishes etc.
Using solid wall external insulation, U-value reductions from 2.1W/m2K to 0.3W/m2K are possible.
CVP304: Renewable Energy and Low Carbon Technologies, MSc Low Carbon Buildings Design and Modelling, Department of Civil and Building Engineering Slide 14
Wall U-values
Typical U-value data is available in the SAP 2005 The table below shows wall U-values for different construction types and age bands (A=old, K=modern)
SAP 2005, Appendix S CVP304: Renewable Energy and Low Carbon Technologies, MSc Low Carbon Buildings Design and Modelling, Department of Civil and Building Engineering Slide 15
Thermal conductivity of insulation materials
Roof insulation 1
Roof insulation is typically either:
Insulation between joists Insulating rafters
Insulation between joists should be around 250 to 300mm thick Mineral wool quilt is often used Insulate between joists first, and then on top of joists if necessary This can reduce typical Uvalues from 1.9W/m2K (no insulation) to 0.16 W/m2K.
Roof insulation 2
Roof insulation is typically either:
Insulation between joists Insulating rafters
Insulating rafters from the inside is known as ventilated roof construction An air gap of 50mm should be left between insulation and roof felt Rigid insulation board can be used at the inside of the rafters This can reduce typical U-values from 1.9W/m2K (no insulation) to 0.20 W/m2K.
www.energysavingtrust.org.uk
Slide 18
Floor insulation 1
Timber floors can be insulated:
From above, by removing the floorboards From below, from access via a basement etc.
Mineral wool insulation or rigid insulation boards are often used To avoid condensation, ventilation beneath the floor is important This can reduce typical Uvalues from 0.7W/m2K to 0.20 to 0.25W/m2K.
Floor insulation 2
For solid concrete floor slabs, insulation can be installed:
Above the concrete slab Below the concrete slab
Insulation above the slab is typically rigid insulation. This option increases the floor height If the floor is being replaced then insulation can be incorporated below the floor slab Typical U-values can be reduced from 0.7W/m2K to 0.20 to 0.25W/m2K.
Windows and doors 1

Features of high performance windows and door include:
Double or triple glazing Low e-coating (helps reflect radiant heat back into the room) Gas filling between panes (argon, krypton, xenon) Insulated window frame Draught-stripping, e.g. using compression seals
In some cases, the greatest heat loss reductions can be made through draughtstripping.
Windows and doors 2

Default U-values for windows and doors are available in the SAP Table 6e
SAP 2005 CVP304: Renewable Energy and Low Carbon Technologies, MSc Low Carbon Buildings Design and Modelling, Department of Civil and Building Engineering Slide 22
Ventilation 1
All dwellings require ventilation:
For health and comfort of occupants To ensure safe operation of combustion appliances (e.g. gas boilers) To control condensation by removing water vapour To remove any pollutants and odours
The simplest form of ventilation is natural background ventilators such as trickle vents.
Slide 23
Ventilation 2
Local ventilation
Extract fans. These remove stale or polluted air while fresh air is drawn in via background ventilators Single room heat recovery ventilators. These are combined supply and extract fans for a single room, with up to 60% heat recovery
Passive stack ventilation

Ventilation achieved using no energy through ducts from the floor to the roof.
Ventilation 3
Mechanical extract ventilation (MEV)
Uses fans to continually draw air from rooms Requires a central ventilation unit, usually positioned in the loft
Whole house mechanical ventilation with heat recovery

Provides both supply air and air extraction for room Supply air is heated by extract air Can give a heat recovery of 85%.
Airtightness
Air leakage is the infiltration of air via unwanted gaps and cracks in the building envelope Too much air leakage leads to heat loss as well as discomfort from cold draughts Air tightness can be tested using a blower door test (blowing air into the dwelling) Best practice is an air permeability of 5m3/(hm2) @ 50Pa.
Heating systems 1
Three main types:
Wet central heating, e.g. boiler and radiators Other central heating, e.g. warm-air heating or electric storage Individual room heaters
Factors effecting running costs and carbon emissions include:

Fuel used Efficiency Heat loss of building Heating controls Comfort requirements.
Heating systems 2
Condensing gas boilers
A direct replacement for old boilers Can have seasonal efficiencies of up to 90% Efficiency remains high at part-load Essentially the same as noncondensing boilers, but they extract more heat Flue gases are cooler, so water vapour is visible Condensed water is drained.
Heating systems 3
Other boiler options
Combined heat and power Heat pumps Biomass boilers District heating
Other heat supply options

Warm air Underfloor heating.
Slide 29
Heating systems 4
Boiler efficiencies are available in the SAP Table 4b For example:
SAP 2005 CVP304: Renewable Energy and Low Carbon Technologies, MSc Low Carbon Buildings Design and Modelling, Department of Civil and Building Engineering Slide 30
Heating controls
Thermostatic radiator valves
Fitted to individual radiators Have a setpoint temperature to control the flow of water Not for use in a room with a room thermostat
Room thermostat
Turns the heating system off at a setpoint temperature
Programmer or time switch

Allows the programming of heating periods
Zone control
Allows control of 2 or more space heating zones.
CVP304: Renewable Energy and Low Carbon Technologies, MSc Low Carbon Buildings Design and Modelling, Department of Civil and Building Engineering Slide 31 www.energysavingtrust.org.uk
Heating controls 2
Living room, bedroom and external air temperatures, recorded at 45 minute intervals, for a single house on Monday 10th December 2007
25 20 Temperature ( o C) 15
Living room
10 5 0 -5 00:00
Heating
Heating
Bedroom External air
06:00
12:00 Time of day
18:00
00:00
M.D. Shipworth, S.K. Firth et al. Central heating thermostat settings and timing: building demographics, Building Research and Information CVP304: Renewable Energy and Low Carbon Technologies, MSc Low Carbon Buildings Design and Modelling, Department of Civil and Building Engineering Slide 32
Heating controls 3
Thermostat settings estimated and reported (for 200 centrally heated homes)
35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
o
Reported thermostat settings Estimated thermostat settings
% of dwellings
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
Temperature ( C)
Heating controls 4
Central heating hours reported on-duty and estimated active (for 200 centrally heated homes)
30%
Reported heating on-duty use

25%
Estimated heating active use
% of dwellings
20%
15%
10% 5%
0% 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hours per day
Hot water 1
Hot water can be supplied:
Directly by a combi boiler (i.e. no hot water tank) Indirectly using a hot water tank to store the hot water
A simple measure is to insulate the hot water tank Here is an example of:
A poorly insulated tank A well insulated tank
Alternatively replacement hot water cylinders have factoryapplied (spray foam) insulation of thickness 50 to 80mm.
Hot water 2
The hot water primary pipework can also be insulated
Lighting 1
Lighting energy demand can be reduced by:
Using energy efficient lamps Using energy efficient light fittings (that only accept particular types of lamps) Controlling lighting use (timer switched, occupancy detection) Maximising use of daylight
Traditional lamps are slowly being phased out.

Lighting 2
Energy efficient lamps include:
Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) Tungsten halogen
Characteristics of CFLs are:

Last 12 times longer than conventional tungsten lamps Use around 25% of the energy More expensive than conventional lamps Not all are dimmable, although some are (4-pin CFLs).
Lighting 3
Energy efficient lamps include:
Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) Tungsten halogen
Characteristics of tungsten halogen lamps are:

In general, only suitable for spotlighting At least 50% more efficient and last twice as long as conventional lamps Many operate at 12 volts which requires a small transformer.
Appliances 1
Energy efficient appliances use less electricity to provide the same function There may be a heat replacement effect where a small amount of additional space heating is required to replace the internal heat gains.
Appliances 2
Most appliances now have energy ratings This is EU compulsory scheme introduced in 1995 Energy labels give estimated fuel consumption and a rating from A (most efficient) to G (least efficient) There is an A++ rating for cold appliances (fridges, freezers etc.) Note energy ratings are different from actual fuel consumption, i.e. a large A rated fridge may consume more energy than a small B rated one.
Slide 41
Appliances 3
Trends in energy consumption of appliances 1965 to 2005
1,800
Lighting
1,600
Cooking appliances Cold appliances Wet appliances Consumer electronics ICT
Effects of energy efficiency
Electricty consumption (Thousand tonnes of oil equivalent)
1,400 1,200 1,000 800 600 400 200 1965
Consumer electronics and ICT (information and communication technologies) are areas of rising energy consumption.
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
Year
M Coleman, AJ Wright, N Brown and SK Firth, Domestic consumer electronics appliance monitoring: A practical perspective and implications for inter-disciplinary research, Energy Efficiency in Domestic Appliances and Lighting, Berlin, 2009
Slide 42
Appliances 4
Standby power can be a major source of energy use This is wasted energy use, equivalent to a leaky tap
M Coleman, AJ Wright, N Brown and SK Firth, Domestic consumer electronics appliance monitoring: A practical perspective and implications for inter-disciplinary research, Energy Efficiency in Domestic Appliances and Lighting, Berlin, 2009
Slide 43
Appliances 5
Typical appliance electricity use
Appliance category Continuous Category description Continuously switched on and constant power consumption Example appliances Clocks 1 Burglar alarms 2 Broadband modems 1 Televisions CRT 1 Televisions LCD 1 Televisions plasma 1 Set top boxes 1 Audio HiFi 1 Mobile phone chargers 1 Desktop computer 1 Fridges / freezers / fridge freezers 3, 4 Typical power (W) 2.5 5 4 84 130 253 17 14 4 100 80 to 250 in-use Typical standby power (W) 3.5 2.0 2.7 8.0 8.2 2.8 7.1 8.8
Standby
Actively switched on by householders. When not in use, power consumption may be non-zero.
Cold
Continuously switched on and power consumption cycles between zero and a set power level Actively switched on by householders. When not in use, power consumption is zero.
Active
Kettles Electric hobs 5 Washing machine 5 Electric showers Lighting - CFL Lighting - incandescent
2000 to 3000 2500 2000 4000 to 9000 9 to 13 60 to 100
S. Firth, K. Lomas, A. Wright and R. Wall. Identifying trends in the use of domestic appliances from household electricity consumption measurements, Energy and Buildings 40 (2008) 926-936
Slide 44
Appliances 6
Five-minutely total power consumption recorded over a sample day at a single dwelling
2000 1800 Total power consumption (W) 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 00:00 03:00 06:00 09:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00
Continuous appliances and appliances on standby Cycling appliances Active appliances with high power consumption
Time of day
S. Firth, K. Lomas, A. Wright and R. Wall. Identifying trends in the use of domestic appliances from household electricity consumption measurements, Energy and Buildings 40 (2008) 926-936
Slide 45
Khazzoom-Brookes Postulate
As efficiency improves, people or companies can use the same amount of energy to produce more services This has two effects
The money you save is released to spend on something else (i.e. a high energy consuming service, i.e. transport) As energy-intensive processes become more efficient, they become more financially attractive
In a free market, energy efficiency could actually increase energy use This is disputed by some energy experts.
George Monbiot, Heat, Penguin Books
Slide 46
Rebound effect
Energy efficiency interventions may not always result in the expected energy savings This can be due to the rebound effect and can include:
The intervention not being applied correctly, i.e. cavity wall insulation being installed poorly Occupants using the improved energy efficiency to increase their use / comfort levels. For example, insulation which reduces heating bills may result in occupants using the heating more (typical in low-income households).
Slide 47
Section 1: Energy efficiency technologies Summary 1

There are a wide variety of energy efficiency technologies which can be applied to buildings Insulation reduces the heat losses from a buildings through the building fabric Ventilation and airtightness reduces heat losses through minimising incoming cold air High efficiency heating systems reduce the fuel used for space and water heating.
Section 1: Energy efficiency technologies Summary 2

Heating controls reduce the use of space heating Hot water tank and pipe insulation reduces the energy used in heating water Energy efficient lights and appliances reduce electricity use. This will become a priority area as buildings become more efficient in other areas.
Slide 49
Section 2: Modelling energy efficiency technologies
Slide 50
What is a model?
MODEL BOUNDARY CONDITIONS (algorithms) (equations) OUTPUT VARIABLES
PARAMETERS
Slide 51
Simple steady-state model of a building
Qsolar
Qfabric Qventilation Qcasual_gains Qheating = Qfabric + Qventilation Qcasual_gains Qsolar
Slide 52

Qfabric
Wall, U-value = 1.0 W/m2K, exposed area A = 110 m2 Window, U-value = 1.8 W/m2K, exposed area A = 20 m2 Roof, U-value = 0.7 W/m2K, exposed area A = 50 m2
Qventilation
Air changes, N = 1 ach (air changes per hour) Volume, V = 220 m3
Qcasual_gains
Assume average rate of 700 W
Qsolar
Assume average rate of 250 W

Temperatures
Average external air temperature = 3C Average internal air temperature = 18C Qheating = Qfabric + Qventilation Qcasual_gains Qsolar Qheating = UA(To-Ti) + 0.33NV(To-Ti) Qcasual_gains Qsolar Qheating = 2.85 kW Heating energy for 1 month, boiler efficiency 80% = 2,654 kWh
Slide 54

This approach used in many space heating models For example, in the Governments Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP) to test the energy performance of new dwellings However this is a simplification as:
Qheating = Qfabric + Qventilation Qcasual_gains Qsolar None of these are constant with time
Slide 55
Tasks
Task 1: Build a simple steady-state energy model of dwelling Task 2: Investigate the effects of various energy efficiency measures
Slide 56
Any questions?
Slide 57

6 Energy Efficiency

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6 Energy Efficiency

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Energy efficiency technologies in buildings

Dr Steven Firth S.K.Firth@lboro.ac.uk

Learning Objectives Energy Efficiency

Section 1: Energy efficiency technologies

What is energy efficiency?

Cavity wall insulation 1

Cavity wall insulation 2

Solid wall insulation 1

Solid wall insulation internal insulation 1

Solid wall insulation internal insulation 2

Solid wall insulation internal insulation 3

Solid wall insulation external insulation 1

Solid wall insulation external insulation 2

Brick slip cladding

Solid wall insulation external insulation 3

Thermal conductivity of insulation materials

Windows and doors 1

Windows and doors 2

Passive stack ventilation

Whole house mechanical ventilation with heat recovery

Factors effecting running costs and carbon emissions include:

Other heat supply options

Programmer or time switch

Bedroom External air

12:00 Time of day

Reported thermostat settings Estimated thermostat settings

Reported heating on-duty use

Estimated heating active use

Hours per day

Traditional lamps are slowly being phased out.

Characteristics of CFLs are:

Characteristics of tungsten halogen lamps are:

Cooking appliances Cold appliances Wet appliances Consumer electronics ICT

Effects of energy efficiency

Electricty consumption (Thousand tonnes of oil equivalent)

1,400 1,200 1,000 800 600 400 200 1965

2000 to 3000 2500 2000 4000 to 9000 9 to 13 60 to 100

Section 1: Energy efficiency technologies Summary 1

Section 1: Energy efficiency technologies Summary 2

Section 2: Modelling energy efficiency technologies

MODEL BOUNDARY CONDITIONS (algorithms) (equations) OUTPUT VARIABLES

Simple steady-state model of a building

Qfabric Qventilation Qcasual_gains Qheating = Qfabric + Qventilation Qcasual_gains Qsolar

Simple steady-state model of a building

Simple steady-state model of a building

Simple steady-state model of a building

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