Equations

and near the surface, so: , near the surface of the earth

when the object just begins to slide on a tilted surface

on a banked curve, because static friction is the centripetal force on a banked curve, without using friction (component of normal force provides centripetal force) for satellites in circular orbits (gravity is centripetal force) for a rider to stay on a vertical circular track at the top (on inside or outside)

Work, Energy, and Power

represents work, measured in Joules (scalar) represents displacement, measured in metres (scalar) represents the angle between the force and the displacement, measured in degrees (scalar) represents potential energy, measured in Joules (scalar) represents kinetic energy, measured in Joules (scalar) (delta) represents a change in a quantity represents gravitational potential energy, measured in Joules (scalar) represents work done by non-conservative forces, measured in Joules (scalar) represents the total energy of an object, measured in Joules (scalar) represents Power, measured in watts (W) (scalar) represents time, measured in seconds (scalar)

Equations

Variables

represents the momentum of an object, measured in kilogram-metres per second (scalar) represents the total momentum of a system represents impulse, measured in Newton-seconds (vector)

Equations

(average force times time)

Notes
The Impulse-Momentum Theorem states that impulse is the change in momentum; this is useful because changes in velocity are easier to measure than are forces and time Conservation of Linear Momentum states that momentum is conserved when the sum of the external forces on a system is zero (an isolated system has no net external force). This implies that . When two objects collide without friction, etc. (the system is isolated), linear momentum is conserved. However, some kinetic energy is usually lost, in the form of heat, dents, etc. Types of collisions: o Elastic o and large changes in velocity, momentum; large impulse, force this equation can be solved for one velocity in terms of the other, then plugged into for

. Inelastic some energy is lost, but momentum is still conserved if the objects stick together, the collision is completely inelastic

Rotational Motion

Variables
represents the angle rotated through, from initial ( ) to final ( ), measured in radians (scalar) represents angular velocity, measured in radians/s (vector) represents time, measured in seconds (scalar) represents angular acceleration, measured in radians/s/s (vector) represents the moment of inertia, measured in represents angular momentum, measured in (scalar) or

Equations

for point particles

Notes
The greater the mass and the farther away is it from the axis, the greater the resistance to change in rotational motion. Angular momentum is conserved, just as linear momentum is conserved, when the net external torque is zero. Spinning objects have a momentum that helps them resist external torques.

Torque

Variables
represents the lever arm, measured in metres (scalar) represents the centre of gravity, measured in metres (scalar)

Equations

on an object in circular motion

Notes
Torque is what causes an object to rotate - a net force causes linear acceleration, whereas a net torque causes angular acceleration. The lever arm is the line that is perpendicular to the "line of action" (a line drawn through the force) and goes through the axis of rotation; if it goes through the line of action, , so there's no torque. Torque is positive if turning is counterclockwise, negative if clockwise (by convention). Equilibrium: no net forces or torque: and . To solve problems, draw a free body diagram and the sums of the forces in the x and y directions. Then, choose a convenient axis of rotation to cancel out forces whose values are not known. When only one unknown remains, solve for it using either a sum of forces equation of a sum of torques equation. When an object is on a hinge, pin, joint (anatomy), or other connection, there is a force from that object. Its magnitude and direction are usually not known, so solve for each of its components, and use the Pythagorean Theorem to turn those two values into one force.

Table: Rotational vs. Linear variables

Variable Inertia Velocity Acceleration Displacement Force Momentum Linear Rotational

or

becomes

for a particle in angular/circular movement.

becomes becomes becomes rotational kinetic energy: ; rotating objects can have both translational and

Electric Circuits

Variables
represents current, measured in Amperes (A) (scalar) represents charge, measured in Coulombs (C) (scalar) represents time, measured in seconds (t) (scalar) represents potential difference, measured in Volts (V) (scalar) represents power, measured in J/s or W (scalar) represents resistance, measured in Ohms ( ) (scalar) represents resistivity, measured in ohm-metres (scalar) represents length, measured in metres (scalar) represents area, measured in (scalar) represents capacitance, measured in Farads (F) (scalar)

Equations

(Ohm's Law)

Parallel Circuit: Voltage is COnstant Series Circuit--Current is Constant

Equations

, where is the angle between the velocity and the field 1 gauss (not SI) = Tesla (SI) - no work done by B, as F is perpendicular to displacement; the force causes acceleration in direction, not speed

, where

is the angle between one arm of the loop and the magnetic field

for a current in a wire for a straight bar; v, B, L are mutually perpendicular - uses the component of B that is perpendicular to surface , or the time rate of change of flux

Notes

Changing magnetic flux induces an emf (and therefore a current, if there is a closed circuit). This can be caused by a change in the magnetic field or in the area of a loop. As a bar moves through a magnetic fields, the electrons experience a force (RHR #1) which pushes them to one end, which is the negative terminal of the emf.

For a conducting bar sliding on conducting rails, there must be a force in the direction of the velocity. Otherwise, the induced emf creates a magnetic field (and hence force) that slows the bar to a stop, where the process will repeat. Magnetic flux is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field passing through the plane of a loop of wire (its area).

If given B, area, or emf, use the emf and flux equation, substituting changes in area or B; keep the constant value the same. That is, if B is constant, use . Change in time is usually 1 if not given. Lenz's Law: induced B opposes change in . That is, if B is to the right and lessening, a B will be induced to the right, and cause a current, given by RHR #2 (put hand through centre of loop and "grab" it). An induced current through a loop into a circuit (by Lenz's Law) has a positive terminal where the induced current enters the external circuit. Often, charged particles are accelerated through a voltage difference. Use

Interference and the Wave Nature of Light

Variables
represents the speed of light in a vacuum; m/s represents velocity, measured in m/s (vector) represents frequency, measured in Hz (scalar) represents wavelength, measured in metres (scalar) represents the "order" of a fringe; dark fringes are n + 0.5, light fringes are n (unitless) represents the angle from the centre of the slit arrangement to the fringe, measured in degrees (scalar) represents the distance between two slits, measured in metres (scalar) represents the vertical distance from the centre of the slit arrangement to the fringe, measured in metres (scalar) represents the distance from the slit(s) to the screen, measured in metres (scalar) represents the thickness of a thin film, measured in metres (scalar) represents the width of an opening (diffraction), measured in metres (scalar) represents the minimal angle between two objects to be resolved, measured in degrees (scalar) represents the diameter of an optical instrument, measured in meters (scalar)

Equations
for thin film interference for the minima of single-slit diffraction for resolving power for the double-slit experiment for the double-slit experiment