Introduction to Radio Technologies

Module 2

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Discussion Topics
Discussion Topics
Radio wave basics Formulas for Distance Planning Calculating EIRP Calculating path loss Calculating RSL and range Transmit power and cell size Theory of capacity Background information on ProCurve antennas

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This section teaches you how to estimate a radios range based on factors such as the transmit power and the path between the transmitter and the receiver.

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Calculating Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)

Calculating Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)
EIRP = Transmit power (dBm) Cables and connectors (dB) + Antenna gain (dBi)
Connector (-.25 dB) Cable (-.22 dB) Connector (-.25 dB) Pigtail (-1 dB) Radio Transmits at 15 dBm Site A EIRP 19.78 dBi Antenna (6.5 dBi)

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EIRP is the measurement of signal strength generated by a radio system and output through the antenna. It refers to how much total power the signal gains in the radio system. EIRP is measured in units of decibels over isotropic (dBi). The ratio compares the device in question to an isotropic radiator: the greater the dBi value, the higher the gain. An isotropic radiator is a theoretical device emitting energy in all directions equallya spherical radiation pattern. No antenna is actually an isotropic radiator; for EIRP measurements, dBi simply provides a basis for consistent comparison between different radios and antennas. EIRP is the sum of two main sources of power less one source of power loss. To calculate EIRP, consider: The radios transmission power The loss caused by cables and connectors The gain of the antenna

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The figure shows how to calculate EIRP for a simple site: take the radio transmit power specified in dBm; subtract any loss associated with a pigtail cable, lightning arrestor, extension cable, and the connectors that join these devices; and then add antenna gain. (Note that dBi is used to express both gain and loss, with loss in negative dBi.) That is: EIRP = Transmit power Cable loss + Antenna gain You will learn how to configure and check transmit power in ProCurve Mobility. You can find the values for cable and connector losses, as well as for antenna gains, in the documentation for those products. The slide shows the calculation for EIRP for an AP 420 radio operating at 15 dBm and connected to a 6.5 dBi gain antenna: 15 dBm (1 dB + .25 dB + .22 dB + .25 dB) + 6.5 dBi = 19.78 dBi

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Adjusting EIRP Affects Coverage

Adjusting EIRP Affects Coverage

The higher the EIRP, the larger the cell
Power
+3 dB 200% 0 dB 100% 3 dB 50% 10 dB 10%

Range

Size
200%

140% 100 %

+3 dB
100%

71% 50% 32% 10%

Full power 3 dB

Cluttered environment

Free space
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Now that you understand EIRP and how the signal fades through space, you can consider how adjusting the EIRP affects range and coverage. You can adjust the EIRP by reducing the transmit power or by adding an external antenna; you will learn how to do both a bit later. Because range depends on many factors, you cannot relate EIRP directly to an exact range. However, you can see how adjusting the value changes the relative cell size. Power falls off as a square of distance. Therefore, coverage area (which is distance squared) corresponds directly to power. Halving a radios EIRP (reducing it by 3 dB) cuts the cell size in half; doubling the EIRP doubles the cell size, and so forth. The radios range, on the other hand, changes as a square root. For example, at 50 percent power, a radio has roughly 70 percent the range it has at full power. Note that these rules apply to free space. In a real-world environment, coverage areas are smaller, and so are the gradations between cell sizes at various transmit powers. To increase the cell size, you might need to add a higher-gain antenna. Similarly, to decrease the cell size, you might need to reduce the transmit power more than you expect. Experiment with various settings on your APs and RPs or use PMMs site-planning tool, as described in Module 8: Designing Wireless Networks of the ProCurve Mobility course.

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Cabling Cautions

Cabling Cautions
Cables and connectors create negative gain. Use high-quality, low-loss product. When possible, keep cables short.

Vertical antenna 4 dBi gain

Gain reduced to 1.15 dBi

5m cable -2.85 dB gain AP 420 13 dBm transmit power
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The connectors and cables between a radio and its antenna are important components of EIRP calculation and distance planning. Dont overlook them! Cables are especially costly in terms of signal loss. The example above shows an AP with an external antenna attached (perhaps mounted on a mast outside). While the antenna has a reasonable gain of 4 dBi, the cable and connectors eat up a full 2.85 dBi, leaving a net gain of 1.15 dBi for the investment in cable and antenna. The most common antenna cables available today are the LMR195 and the LMR400. With its high loss (-.19dBi/foot), the LMR195 is best suited for connecting a desktop antenna to a wireless device on the same surface; the cable should be no longer than a couple of feet. The LMR400 loses approximately .064dBi per foot, which is significantly better, but still not suited for long cable lengths. Some cables on the market lose up to .75dBi/footalways check the cable specifications. If possible, place APs so that antennas will not need to be deployed further than one meter from the radio, maximizing EIRP.

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Calculating Path Loss

Calculating Path Loss
Signal attenuation between the transmitter and the receiver Depends on:
Frequency Distance between the two devices Medium through which the signal travels

Free-space path loss: (Lp) = (32.4 + 20 log10 F) + (20 log10 D)

Lp = Path loss in dBi, F = Frequency in GHz, and D = Distance in m For 802.11b/g, Lp = 40.0 + 20 log10 D For 802.11a, Lp = 46.4 + 20 log10 D

Example:
Lp = 40 + (20 * log 2500) Lp = 40 + (20 * 3.9) Lp = 40 + 68 Lp = 108 dBi AP 530 802.11g
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AP 530

km 2.5

-108 dB

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Having calculated EIRP, you must next figure out how much the signal degrades between transmitter and receiver; path loss measures that attenuation. Path loss is based on three general factors: Frequency Distance between the transmitter and receiver Medium through which the signal travels For example, if, at one point, the signal must cross a brick wall, it will degrade more than in an area through which the signal simply travels through free space. The equation in the slide derives path loss based on: Distance Frequency Free space between the two endpoints Free space is literal here. The equation does not take any obstructions into account, even the air. The calculated signal loss originates entirely from the spreading of the signal through space and is related to the distance between the transmitter and receiver in terms of wavelength.

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The equation uses these variables: Lp = free-space path loss F = frequency in GHz D = distance, or path length, in meters Make sure to use the correct units; otherwise, the constant 32.4, which takes these units (as well as constants related to calculating the surface area of a sphere) into account, is incorrect. Wireless networks use one of two frequencies, so you can use these simplified equations: For 802.11b/g, Lp = 40.0 + 20 log10 D For 802.11a, Lp = 46.4 + 20 log10 D

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Real-World Path Loss

Real-World Path Loss

In free space, power falls off as a square of distance.
Scattering exponent: 2 Distance component of path loss equation: 20 log D

In a real-world environment, power falls off more quickly.

The more cluttered the environment, the higher the scattering exponent. Scattering exponent * 10 log D = Distance component of the equation

For major obstacles, add dB to the equation.

Closed Offices

Obstacle

High scattering

5 + (32.4 + 20 log F) + 40 log D

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The free space equation may give you an accurate picture for path loss if your company sets up operations in the middle of a desert. But the clutter of the real world complicates the model. The free space equation assumes that power falls off as a square of the distance. Because dBs are logarithmically related to power, this assumption emerges as the 20 coefficient in the equation: 10 * log D2 = 20 * log D. Obstacles distributed throughout a coverage area tend to increase scattering exponentially. Because all real-world environments include obstacles, if only the air, a more realistic path loss equation would use a different exponent than 2 and a different coefficient than 20.
Scattering Exponent

The following are scattering exponents for some typical environments. Although these values are only approximations, you can use them to plan more realistic coverage areas: Open outdoors spaces2 for short distances; add .5 for each 200 m to take into account the effects of the air Outdoors with trees or buildings (urban areas, parks, and so forth) 3 or 4 Indoors with open spaces (warehouses and so forth)2.5
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Indoors with cubicles or other partitions3.5 Indoors with walls (fully divided offices, hospitals, houses, and so forth)4 or 5 Thus, if your company has a building with fully divided offices, you might use this equation to calculate path loss: (32.4 + 20 log F) + (40 log D) Far from insignificant, the increase in the scattering exponent from 2 to 4 could decrease range tenfold and coverage area one hundredfold.
Major Obstructions in the Signal Path

Altering the scattering exponent attempts to account for landscapes as a whole. You should also add an absolute loss for each major obstruction in the signal path. For example, add between 3 and 8 dB to the total path loss for floor-to-ceiling partitions through which the signal must pass. The Module 8: Designing Wireless Networks of the ProCurve Mobility course gives you more tips for dealing with obstructions.
Antenna Type

You should also consider your type of antenna when determining a realistic path loss equation. Directional antennas, particularly high-gain directional antennas, usually experience less scattering than omnidirectional antennas. However, an obstruction directly in the signal path, particularly an obstruction near the antenna, can have a great effect on the directionally focused signal. Finally, remember: the world is not tidy, and no model or equation is perfect. Equations such as these can help you to estimate path loss, but nothing can replace rigorous testing of the signal throughout the desired coverage area.

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Calculating Received Signal Level (RSL) and Range

Calculating Received Signal Level (RSL) and Range
RSL = Transmitter EIRP (dBi) Path loss (dB) + Receiver antenna gain (dBi) Two devices are in range when RSL > receiver sensitivity threshold

Site AAP 530 Transmit power: 15 dBm Antenna gain: 6.4 dBi Receiver Sensitivity: -83 dBm

Site BAP 530 Transmit power: 17 dBm Antenna gain: 2.5 dBi Receiver Sensitivity: -83 dBm Distance = 50 meters Path loss = -82.5 dB

Site A to Site B 21.4 dBi 85.5 dB + 2.5 dBi = -58.6 dBm Site B to Site A 19.5 dBi 85.5 dB + 6.4 dBi = -56.6 dBm

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You can now calculate the signal level when the radio wave reaches the receiver, called the received signal level (RSL). First, determine the EIRP of the transmitter, as you learned how to do earlier, subtracting any calculated path loss from this value. The receivers antenna acts like your outer ear, focusing and amplifying the signal. To account for this focusing, add the antennas gain to the equation (which you can assume is the antennas maximum gain as long as it is properly oriented in line with the transmitting antenna). The end result is the RSL: RSL = Transmitter EIRP Path loss + Receiver antenna gain If the RSL is higher than the receivers threshold (the level at which the device can receive the signal without significant error), the receiver accepts the signal. The threshold is determined by the receiver sensitivity. For example, if the receiver sensitivity at 11 Mbps is -80 dBm, the RSL must be higher than this level or the devices range is exceeded. (This module later lists the receiver sensitivity of ProCurve products.) To determine whether the two devices shown above (one AP 530 with an external antenna and one with an internal antenna) are within range of each other, you must determine both whether the signal can reach Site B when Site A transmits and whether the signal can reach Site A when Site B transmits.

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First, consider the Site A device as the transmitter. 1. Calculate the EIRP of Site A. The antenna gain listed in the slide already includes cable loss. 15 dBm + 6.4 dBi = 21.4 dBi 2. Calculate path loss between the sites (for this example, assume an open indoor environment). The APs operate in the 2.4 GHz range. Loss = 40 + 25 log 50 = 82.5 dB 3. Calculate the RSL at Site B using the equation shown in the slide. 21.4 dBi 85.5 dBi + 2.5 dBi = -58.6 dBm 4. Compare the RSL to the Site B devices receiver sensitivity. -58.6 dBm is above the -83 dBm sensitivity threshold. Next, consider the Site B device as the transmitter: 5. Calculate the EIRP of Site B. 17 dBm + 2.5 dBi = 19.5 dBi 6. Calculate the RSL at Site A using the equation shown in the slide. The path loss is the same as that calculated previously. 19.5 dBi 82.5 dB + 6.4 dBi = 56.6 dBm 7. Compare the RSL to the Site A devices receiver sensitivity. -56.6 dBm is above the -83 dBm sensitivity threshold. The two devices can communicate.

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System Gain and Fade Margin

System Gain and Fade Margin
System gain
Difference between output power (EIRP) and receiver threshold Maximize to increase range and quality

Total EIRP (dBm)

Fade margin
Difference between the RSL and the threshold Maximize for stable connections

System gain

Target RSL Threshold (minimum usable signal strength) Fade margin

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System Gain

The system gain is the difference between the systems output power (EIRP) and the receiver threshold. You can think of the system gain as the signal strength radios provide above the minimum threshold in order to offset the effects of distance, interference, and obstructions. Of course, to achieve any sort of range, system gain must be significantly higher than the desired RSL. A radio might transmit a signal at 20 dBm, but path loss could very well lower the RSL to, for example, -50 dBm. High system gain is desirable because it can: Allow longer distance connections Create higher RSL Improve system performance Improve immunity to interference Allow smaller receiver antennas with less gain Overcome cable loss Increasing EIRP and receiver sensitivity works to maximize overall system gain. In other words, you can increase system gain in two ways: raise the output power or lower the threshold.
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You can increase output power by: Increasing transmit power Adding external antennas Minimizing cable loss Higher-quality equipment can increase receiver sensitivity, which lowers the threshold.
Fade Margin

Signals always weaken over space; they might also change over time. The RSL for a transmission may drop due to slight changes in the receivers position, the introduction of a new obstruction, or even changes in the weather. The fade margin can be considered a buffer zone between the RSL and the threshold at which the signal becomes unusable. In theory, the fade margin can be zero. However, any change in the environment would then disrupt the signal, and wireless network environments change frequently. Clearly, the larger the fade margin, the more stable the connection due to the greater allowance for path interference and other noise. You may not always have control over receiver sensitivity, but the RSL, like the system gain, can be adjusted by modifying some of the variables leading to its derivation. The stronger the RSL, the larger the fade margin will be, and fade margin should be maximized in all wireless designs, especially for outdoor links and longer-distance connections. A good minimum fade margin is generally considered to be between 10 and 20 dB.

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Formulas Relating EIRP, Range, and Coverage Area

Formulas Relating EIRP, Range, and Coverage Area
Free space:
Range Coverage Area For example:
Half power Twice power 70% range and half the coverage area 140% range and twice the coverage area
Scattering exponentPower

Power Power

Real-world environments:
Range Coverage Area (Scattering exponentPower)2 For example, in an office with scattering exponent 3.5:
Half power Twice power 80% range and two-thirds the coverage area 120% range and 150% the coverage area

Is proportional to

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Because range depends on factors other than EIRP, you cannot map EIRP directly to an exact range. You can see, though, how EIRP, range, and cell size relate. This self-study guide gives you the formulas you need. You will learn more about planning cells for your own environment in the ProCurve Mobility course.
Free Space

Remember that, in theory, power falls off as a square of distance. Therefore, the maximum distance from the AP (or RP) is proportional to the square-root of the power. Cell size is a coverage area, which is the range squared and directly proportional to the power. For example, you halve an AP radios power (reduce it by 3 dB). To calculate the theoretical reduction in range, take the square-root of .5. The range, you find, is .71 or about 70 percent. Calculating the change in the coverage area is easy: when you halve the power, you halve the area as well. Similarly, doubling the radios power (for example, by adding a 3 dBi-gain antenna) increases the range by 140 percent and doubles the coverage area.

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Note

The coverage area is proportional to the square of the range only when the radio transmits in all directions equally. An antenna may give directional coverage. In this case, the range still increases proportional to the square-root of the power, but the increase in coverage area may be less than expected.

The table below shows howin the theoretical world of free spacetransmit power relates to cell size and maximum distance between a station and AP.
Transmit Power as a Percentage of Maximum 80 63 50 40 32 25 20 16 13 10 Transmit Power as a Reduction in dB 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Cell Size as a Percentage of Size at Maximum Power 80 63 50 40 32 25 20 16 13 10 Range as a Percentage of Range at Maximum Power 89 79 71 63 56 50 45 40 36 32

Real-World Environments

The relationships described above are theoretical. In real-world environments, power falls off more quickly. Cells are smaller no matter what the radios EIRP and so are the differences between cell sizes at various powers. In other words, to shrink a cell, you might need to reduce the radios power more than you expected. Similarly, you might need to add more gain to increase coverage to the desired level. In the real-world, the range is proportional to the scattering exponential root of the power. For example, if the scattering exponent is 3, the range is proportional to the third-root of the power. As always, the coverage area is proportional to the range squared (unless, as noted above, the radios antenna does not produce a circular coverage pattern). For example, your AP operates in an office with cubicles; you have estimated the scattering exponent at 3.5. You cut the AP radios transmit power in half. You can estimate that the reduced range will be about 80 percent of the range at the previous power (3.5.5 = .82). The new coverage area will be about two-thirds the previous area (.822 = .67). You can perform a similar calculation to estimate the effect of doubling the power, perhaps by adding a 3 dbi-gain omnidirectional antenna. The range is increased by about 20 percent (to 120 percent the previous range); the coverage area is increased by about 50 percent.
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The table below shows how transmit power may relate to cell sizes and maximum ranges in a cluttered environment with a scattering exponent of 4.
Transmit Power as a Percentage of Maximum 80 63 50 40 32 25 20 16 13 10 Transmit Power as a Reduction in dB 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Cell Size as a Percentage of Size at Maximum Power 89 79 71 63 56 50 45 40 36 32 Range as a Percentage of Range at Maximum Power 94 89 84 79 75 71 67 63 60 56

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