International Scientific and Technical Conference "New Technologies in Islamic Countries", 27-30 June 1999, Almaty, Kazakhstan

The Role of the Civil Engineer in Design and Construction of a Lunar Base Y. Cengiz TOKLU
Eastern Mediterranean University Famagusta, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus

Abstract Civil Engineering is one of the oldest professions. It started with the first feelings of mankind about sheltering, about providing water for living and for agriculture, and about making roads between settlements or around settlements. Through the years and centuries civil engineering knowledge is accumulated and this experience is used for directing great sources of power in Nature for the use and convenience of man. And now time has come for applying this knowledge and experience in an environment much different than the Nature accustomed on the Earth. One of these environments is the Moon, on which mankind is getting ready for having bases for different purposes. In this paper a summary is given for the necessities of such a base which will be covered by Civil Engineers.

Introduction Civil Engineering is one of the oldest professions with written rules and regulations. At the time as early as 1700 BC, it can be seen in the Hammurabi's Code that there are regulations about the works of men who could be classified as Constructors, or Civil Engineers in our times. This code, which is known as one of the first written laws, contains 228 clauses, and 10 (53-56, and 228-233) of them are related with Civil Engineering. Clauses 53 to 56 are related to maintenance of dams and water works, clauses 228 to 233 are related to construction of buildings and they are especially on the payment to be done to the builder and the responsibility of a builder for his works. This document shows that 4000 years ago, there were a group of people that we can call now civil engineers, and a profession which can be called civil engineering. There were subjects like construction, quality in construction, repair, retrofit, maintenance, operation, responsibility, structural works, hydraulic works etc. This profession than has served humanity for about four millenniums with interaction between other professions and other sciences. It has dealt with so many subjects that it became difficult to give a short definition of it. The best definition, which here in this paper chosen as the second milestone in the past of Civil Engineering, is the one given by Thomas Tredgold in 1828 as: "That species of knowledge which constitutes the profession of Civil Engineering; being the art of directing great sources of power in Nature for the use and convenience of man, as the means of production and of traffic in States both for external and internal trade, as applied in the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, canals, river navigation and docks, for internal
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intercourse and exchange; and in the construction of ports, harbours, moles, breakwaters and lighthouses, and in the art of navigation by artificial power for the purpose of commerce; and in the construction and adaptation of machinery; and in the drainage of cities and towns." Although this definition lacks many aspects of Civil Engineering, it is important for its emphasise on directing great sources of Nature for the use and convenience of man. In fact for more than 4000 years, men and women in increasing numbers, belonging to the profession of Civil Engineering, worked to direct great sources of Nature on Earth for the use and convenience of human beings on Earth. For this purpose Civil Engineers have accumulated an important amount of knowledge and experience for many aspects of Civil Engineering. And now, it seems that it is time to direct great sources of Nature on Earth, Moon, Mars and in space for the use and convenience of humanity on Earth and elsewhere. Even this simple sentence is self-satisfactory for making any experienced Civil Engineer afraid of the future waiting for him. Anybody who has dealt with taming of Nature has certainly learned how difficult it is to deal with Nature. And now the Nature is a new, unaccustomed one, different from the one that prevails on Earth, with which we have lived together from the beginning and still we could not understand and tame sufficiently. In the following lines, first a short description of the new Nature is given. Then an attempt has been done for listing the works of a Civil Engineer in this new environment. It is to be noted that, because of the unaccustomed and unknown properties of this Nature, now the Civil Engineer has to work in closer cooperation with other engineers and scientists, and the work suddenly becomes completely an interdisciplinary one. This means that most of the problems will be solved together with the other disciplines.

Lunar Nature The conditions that prevail on the Moon are noted elsewhere [Johnson, 1991], [Criswell, 1991]. From a Civil Engineering point of view, the following properties are to be specifically noted: Lunar gravitation is 1/6 of that on Earth There is no atmosphere on the Moon There is no global magnetic field on the Moon. The same side is always facing the Earth 1 lunar day is equivalent to 27.3 terrestrial days, half with sunlight, half with darkness on lunar equator. The lunar surface temperature is predicted to show a fluctuation such that the range is (between 1700C and +1200C on the equator) 3 times greater than that on the Earth (see Fig.1), with a minimum of approximately -2500C at the poles. It has also been measured that temperatures 30cm below ground surfaces remained relatively constant at 56 0C with a slight variation of only 20 to 40C. [Lin, 1991] The surface of the moon is continuously exposed to a flux of cosmic radiation. This effect considerably increases during daytime, due to solar radiation. The thin atmosphere of the Moon allows even the smallest micrometeorites to impact with their full cosmic velocities. This bombardment poses a hazard to all surfaces exposed on the lunar surface, especially to delicate materials like telescope mirrors and coatings.

Recent research (March 1988) has indicated that water ice present at both the north and south lunar poles [NASA2]. Data from Lunar Prospector has indicated the possible presence of discrete, confined, near-pure water ice deposits buried beneath as much as 400 mm of dry regolith, with the water signature being stronger at the Moon's north pole than at the south.

The latest results show the water may be concentrated in localised areas (roughly 1850 square km, at each pole). The estimated total volume of ice is 6.6 billion tons. Uncertainties in the models mean this estimate could be off considerably.
Figure 1: The variation of lunar surface temperature variation. (From [Lin, 1991])

The Nature defined above is quite different than the one accustomed on the Earth. To these differences, one has to add the difficulty of transport from the Earth of the manpower and other resources, and also the difficulty of maintenance and the degree of low efficiency of the workmanship on the Moon. These factors will open new horizons to Civil Engineers. The basic idea in working in these new horizons should be that as much as possible local resources would be used, effectively using the local environment. A simple example can be given in producing lunar concrete. For producing this basic structural material, lunar resources can be used with no important contribution coming from the Earth. That is one thing. But on the other hand, thermal extremes could be used for crushing lunar rocks to obtain cementitious material and aggregates, thus effectively using the local environment [Matsumoto, 1991].

Soils and Foundation Engineering Lunar regolith is a very important input to the Civil Engineer on the Moon. It is the soil formed by the continual bombardment of the lunar rocks by micrometeorites which covers the surface of the Moon and its basic characteristics are as follows [Schmitt, 1988]: Grain size: mean grain size of mature lunar soil or regolith is less than 100 micrometers, more than 50% by weight is less than 100 micrometers, and more than 25 % is less than 20 micrometers. In summary, the construction and operational environment is very dusty. Bulk density: the bulk density of the regolith ranges from 0.9 to 1.1 g/cm3 near the surface and reaches a maximum of 1.9 g/cm3 below about 20 cm. In summary, with repeated use, traffic ways may have increasing depths of uncompacted regolith. Porosity: the porosity of the regolith surface is about 45.

Surface area: the average specific surface area of the regolith is about 0.5 m2/g for sub-50 micron material. Shear strength: the shear strength of the undisturbed regolith is measured such that cohesion c=0.1 to 1 kN/m2 and the friction angle is about 30 to 50 degrees [Kanamori, 1998]. In summary, shearing at a mine or trench face is relatively easy. Modulus: the regoliths modulus of subgrade reaction is typically 1000 kN/m2/m and a footing pressure of 10 kN/m2 would settle about 1 cm [Lin, 1988]. Typically, astronaut boots and the Lunar Rover's wheels only penetrated 1 to 2 centimeters into the surface, with penetration reaching five centimeters in some places. The lunar module footpads sank 2 to 20 centimeters into the soil. When astronauts inserted sampling tubes into the soil, they typically found penetration was easy for the first 10 to 20 centimeters and increasingly difficult below that depth. The deepest penetration achieved on a hand-driven core tube was 70 centimeters, which required about 50 blows with a hammer. For sampling at greater depths, the Apollo 15, 16, and 17 crews used a battery-powered drill. This allowed sampling to depths of 1.5 to 3 meters, which was achieved easily on Apollo 16 but with much more difficulty on Apollos 15 and 17. [NASA1] Adhesion: the interpartical adhesion in the regolith is high. The regolith clumps together like damp beach sand. Seismic velocity: the seismic velocity in the regolith range from 92 to 114 m/sec. Thickness: the average thickness of the regolith is 4-5m ranging from a few centimeters to some tens of meters. At the Apollo 17 site the range of thickness is 6.2 to 36.9 m due to numerous local ejecta deposits.

Regolith provides a good protection medium against radiation and micrometeorites. It has been estimated that about two meters of regolith is sufficient to reduce radiation to the level we experience on the surface of the Earth and to eliminate the hazardous effects of micrometeorites. This depth could be decreased using pressed regolith or prefabricated blocks of regolith. For the protectional purposes, regolith can be used as a cover, or relatively large underground facilities can be constructed in the regolith without excavating to or in bedrock. Jacket type regolith shield, or regolith shield over a canopy are measures proposed for more effective use of this type of protection [Okumura, 1998], [Bennett]. As far as the foundations are concerned, it has been noted that conventional compaction, piling, and mat foundation [shall be] impractical for construction on the [M]oon [Lin, 1988]. Therefore a rigidly assembled substructure has been proposed for the prevention of differential settlements.

Choice and Design of Structures Due to the problems cited and not cited above, in the first stages of colonisation of the Moon, small habitats will be erected on the Moon as imported from the Earth. As the time will go on, the material use from the Earth and the utilisation of plants on the Earth will leave their places to lunar resources and lunar plants. In general, one can assume that, there will be five types of habitats as shown in Table I, classified according to origin of resources and the manufacturing place, the mounting place, which is the Moon, is not being shown. For example, habitats numbered as (5) will be made of parts which are constructed on the Earth using Earth sources, and with parts constructed on the Moon using terrestrial and lunar resources. The trend of evolution of these habitats will probably be as shown in Fig.2.

Thus, the habitats will be constructed on the Moon using mostly parts constructed on the Earth, at the beginning. As time passes, terrestrial resources and terrestrial plants will leave their places to lunar resources and lunar process plants. Referring to the simple tabular form on Table I, there will be a reduction trend of habitats constructed on the Earth using earth resources only (1), and an increase in the habitats using large amounts of lunar resources and fabricated on the Moon (4), as shown as in Figure 2. RESOURCES EARTH MOON (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) X X X X PLANT EARTH MOON X X X X X X

X X X

Table I: Use of Terrestrial and Lunar Resources and Plants in Lunar Constructions The proportion of lunar materials in these structures will certainly show a continuous increase as shown in Fig.3. Seeing the lunar conditions, it seems that the first structures will be directly imported from the Earth, as parts of the vehicles between Earth and the Moon, and these structures will be covered by regolith in order to provide safety against radiation, micrometeorites and also, to some extent, for their temperature isolation. Later, some prefabricated elements will be imported from the Earth, and then these elements will be assembled sur place, and again covered by regolith. So, at this stage, an assembly workmanship would be necessary. In the third phase, some manufacturing plants will be constructed on the Moon, thus enabling production of constructional pieces, like prefabricated elements, or building blocks, starting perhaps by the production of sacks full of regolith. With the use of these elements, larger and more efficient buildings will be constructed, which will result in the reduction of import of materials and prefabricated elements from the Earth. This process will continue until the phase where only some essential resources and manufactured elements are being imported, and a very high percentage of inputs are being gathered from the Moon. The basic structural difference between a terrestrial and a lunar structure will be in the basic concept of transfer of the loads. On the Earth, the fundamental problem is the transfer of the loads, dead or live, which are mainly gravitational loads and loads induced by the masses creating them due to seismic movements. To these, there will be added loads due to climatic effects like wind and snow. Typically, in a one-storey building, a column will carry a surface of 30 m2, the vertical load on that surface being 5kN/m2; the column will be under the effect of a compressive load of 150 kN. Therefore, if the column is made of steel with allowable stress 200MPa, a cross section of 750mm2, or a square section of 27 mm x 27 mm, would be sufficient to transfer that load to the foundations, if the bending and buckling effects are let aside.

The same structure considered on the Moon, the first differences will come from the loads. In this case there will be no lateral forces like earthquake and wind forces. There will be no snow loads etc., and the gravity loads will be one sixth of the one acting on the Earth, thus if the same mass is used in our hypothetical structure, instead of 150 kN, the downward force will be 30 kN only. If the structure is under protection of 2m of regolith, there will be an additional downward distributed load of 1500 kg/m3 x 10/6 x 2 m = 5000 N/m2, which will add 150 kN to the compressive load of the sample column, thus bringing the column compressive load to 180 kN. This will be the loading if inside of the building is unpressurized. In case a pressure of 1x105Pa=100kPa, equivalent to 1 atmosphere is applied in the building, there will be a tensile force of 3000 kN applied on the column. Thus the hypothetical column will be under the effect of, say, 200 kN compressive load and 2800 kN tensile load. In that case, again with an allowable stress of 200 MPa, the minimum cross section of the column would be 14000 mm2, or a steel square section of 118 mm x 118 mm would be necessary.

Evolution of Habitat Productions

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 5 Time 10 15

1 2 3 4 5

Figure 2: Timely Evolution of Lunar Constructions

Quantity

Lunar Mat. Quantity

Terrestrial Mat. Time

Figure 3. Evolution with time of the use of Lunar and Terrestrial Resources

The above paragraphs show that, the column element of the structure will normally be under the effect of a tensile force, but may also be compressed in the case the habitat is unpressurized, thus the name tensile-compression-column [Lin, 1988]. The fact that the tensile forces are much higher than compressive forces indicate that the type of building considered would be different on the Moon than on the Earth. The ideal element would be a sphere, thus the structures would be basically spheres or shapes obtained from spheres bay small distortions and aggregations. Those are the structures offered until now. In a sphere, with internal pressure of 100 kPa, and a radius of 4 m, the necessary thickness would be 1 mm, if the allowable stress were taken again as 200 MPa. A structural engineer will know immediately that, if a cylinder is used instead of a sphere, the thickness should be twice as big, thus 2 mm. These figures are affordable, but the thing is that, in the case concrete is being used, one has to use pretensioning, in order to resist these high stresses. And for pretensioning, imported steel wires can be used, but in later stages it would be beneficial to use carbon fibers fabricated on the Moon. In the first stages, as stated above, imported habitats will be used such that they will directly be carried to the lunar surface, with no manufacturing at all. In the later stages, some mounting could be done, thus giving more complex structures. At this stage another possibility is to use inflatable structures. This type of structures is investigated elsewhere [Jenkins, 1998]. It is to be noted that, on the Moon, there is the possibility of another type of structure using lavatubes. These caves will provide an environment naturally sheltered from radiation, thermal extremes, and micrometeroid impact. They can be made air-tight by using thin-skinned inflatable structures. They can also serve as unpressurized hangars or garages [Horz, 1984].

Site planning and choice The habitats, small and big, will be planned on the Moon. Some of them will be inhabited, in some others 3-5 people will be living for short periods, in some others there will be colonies of people living for long periods. The choice of these places, or sites will be very important. A civil engineer on Earth, when planning his site, takes into consideration many points, like resources, wind effects, transport, the necessities of the construction, geotechnical conditions etc. The problem will have some similarities for the engineer who is planning the site on the Moon, but again with additional difficulties and importance not comparable to those on the Earth. In general, it seems that there are a number of locations on the Moon favorable for scientific or industrial activity [ONeill], [Coombs, 1998]. The near side of the Moon has the advantage of being easy for communications with and teleoperation from Earth, the far has the advantage of its being radio quiet. The polar sides have the advantage of containing water ice and other frozen volatiles. The southern pole seems particularly advantageous (ice, largest impact crater, permanently shadowed crater bottoms, places with almost continuous sunlight, constant temperature (-30 0C), sky interesting to astronomers, close to farside) [Spudis, 1997]. When a site is chosen, its preparation will bring some new aspects as compared to the sites on the Earth. One basic difference will come from the existence of landing areas and their preparations [Graf, 1988].

Materials of Construction:

For lunar bases, there is an important task for Civil Engineers dealing with materials of construction. Their main item will be to make it possible the use of lunar resources as inputs for lunar constructions either as tout-venant material or after some processing. [Blair, 1998]. But, at the beginning, of course, terrestrial materials will be used until some level of colonisation is achieved. [Chow, 1991] The main resource to be utilised in this scheme is the regolith. Lunar regolith basically can be used in three different ways: - As the basic input for production of some elements, - As the bulk input of cement and concrete production, - As a cover for habitats. Effectively, oxygen and silicon can be found in large proportions in regolith. The other elements that can be found in the regolith are aluminium, iron, chrome, nickel and titanium. Another resource which can be found in important quantities on the Moon, and which is very rare on the Earth, is Helium 3, which could be used as a nuclear combustible. A basic structural element to be used on the Moon seems to be concrete made of local material. This idea is based on the consideration that oxygen and other raw materials used in manufacturing cement will be extracted from lunar resources and lunar soils and lunar rocks will be used as aggregates of concrete. [Matsumoto, 1991]. Properties of concrete produced on the Moon has been investigated to a certain extend, [Kanamori, 1991] and also the methods for pouring concrete. The analysis of lunar concrete production has been advanced to the point to give the details of a plant that starts with production of concrete and ends with a lunar precast concrete plant [Drake, 1991]. The behavior of lunar cement and lunar concrete is investigated to a really advanced degree. (See ASCE proceedings). On the Moon, it seems that concrete will be produced without great difficulty. The same thing cannot be said about steel bars and wires, in order to obtain the conventional and reliable basic construction material, reinforced concrete. It is evident that it will not be effective to transport steel bars and wires from Earth to the Moon for producing this basic material. But instead, it seems that a solution can be obtained using glass-fiber-reinforced-plastic that could be produced on the Moon using local resources

Transport Engineering As on the Earth, one of the most important tasks of Civil Engineers will be the provision of means of transportation between different settlements or sites on the Moon. The experience gained up to now shows that this work is not a surmountable one, since the lunar ground offers no difficulty for this purpose. Crew mobility, both on foot and in the Lunar Rover, was affected more by local topography such as craters and ridges than by soil properties [NASA1]. It has also been observed that, after a few passages, lunar regolith becomes compacted to a certain degree and enables a better movement to vehicles on it. Seeing the favorable terrain and the ease of production of electric power from solar energy, railroads are proposed as an effective, efficient, and simple means of long distance transportation

on the Moon [Schrunk, 1998]. This project would advance parallel to the construction of an electricity and communication network over Moons surface.

Construction Equipment In the same context, the civil engineers have to analyse the equipment to be used on the Moon, and they must help the design of these. It seems that, the first lunar surface vehicles will include cranes and other construction equipment [DeNike, 1962]. Considering that "hostile environment 380,000 kilometers from the earth is not the opportune place for innovation where proved techniques will work", it seems that the valid locomotion system on the Moon will again be wheels and caterpillar tracks. It should be noted that the lunar and martial vehicles used up to now were effectively wheeled vehicles. As far as the construction equipments are concerned, there are two basic differences as compared to world conditions. [Brazell, 1991] The first of them is the dusty environment. The lunar construction equipment should be designed to take into account abrasive lunar dust [which] can destroy drills and cutting edges, fasteners (such as bolts), and moving parts in machines, such as bearings, pivot joints, and linkages. Dust can also cover vehicle headlights and camera lenses, thus this has also to be taken into consideration. In Fig.4 the measure taken by the astronauts is being seen. The second problem comes from Reduced gravity [which] means that machinery weighs less on the moon, so gaining sufficient traction to conduct scooping and bulldozing operations is a problem. Dropping a wrecking ball is also less effective. In order to take this effect into consideration, either very heavy (or to be correct, massive) equipment will be designed, or some ways of anchoring will be considered. Of course, after some time passed on the Moon, more effective equipments will be designed. The fundamentals for the requirements in the design of these equipment (rover, truck, excavator, bucket wheel excavator, angle dozer, etc.) have been put forth [Graf, 1988].

Construction Management and Equipment A basic discipline in Civil Engineering is the construction management. In the construction applications on the Moon, this discipline will certainly take a primordial importance. In this new environment, labor will be very expensive [Chow, 1991]. This will come from the difficulty from the transport of qualified labor from the world, and also from limited productivity and cost of maintenance. Same kind of things can be said for materials and equipment also. For materials imported from the Earth or produced on the Moon, the initial cost will be very high as compared to those on the Earth. The productivity of the equipment will not be as high as on the Earth and will be full of unknowns. These factors will make cost relations of materials, manpower, and equipment for the moon grossly distorted from what we here used to on the Earth. The reestablishment of this relationship will be among the first order of engineering investigation for construction on the moon. It is to be expected that these relations will show a continuous change with time.

Civil engineers are used to plan and schedule their operations. On Earth, this is done mostly for allocating sources, like time, labor, finance and equipment. On the Moon the case will be the same, with the major difference that in that case the plan and schedule has to work with zero defect or so. Because, on the Moon the remedies are much more difficult and much more expensive to obtain.

Figure 4. On Apollo 17 rover prevention against dust, spare maps, clamps and a grey strip of duct tape [NASA3] Effectively, a detailed scheduling process working closely with design data could reduce costs, minimize risk to human life, and contribute greatly to the success of a space construction project [Atkins, 1988]. For this purpose a computer program is developed which starting from 3dimensional data input of the construction to be realized, goes up to the CPM programming taking into account the resources and the quantities. It is quite ordinary that for operations on the Moon, every activity is defined and followed automatically, whether realized by robots, by human beings, or by a combination of them.

Conclusion Civil Engineering is now at the start of making applications in a new Nature, or more correctly in a new environment. In doing so, civil engineers will use all their knowledge and experiences gained through 4 millenniums, but they will pass from a phase of reorientation. In the paragraphs above, new considerations as far as various disciplines of civil engineering are cited: - structural engineering - geotechnical engineering - transportation engineering - materials of construction - construction management

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To complete the scheme, one should include waste management, fluid mechanics and space civil engineering education. With the addition of these branches also, one could say that civil engineering, with all its branches, would be at the center of the lunar works also. For 40 or more centuries, they have worked on the Earth for directing great sources of power in Nature for the use and convenience of man and they were at the center of all the works performed for this purpose. And now they will continue their work on the Moon and on other space objects, probably with more interactions with other disciplines.

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Kanamori, H., S. Matsumoto, N. Ishikawa (1991) Long-Term Properties of Mortar Exposed to a Vacuum, Lunar Concrete, ACI Publication No: SP-125, pp. 57-69 Kanamori, H., S. Udagawa, T. Yoshida, S. Matsumoto, K. Takagi (1998) Properties of Lunar Soil Simulant Manufactured in Japan 6th Int. Conf. Engineering, Construction, and Operations in Space, Proc. Space 98; R. G. Galloway, S. Lokaj, editors; ASCE Publ.; pp. 462-468. Lin. T. D., G. Ahmed, G. Hill, S. Robinson, T. Lin, C. Lindbergh, J. OGallagher (1991) Stresses in Concrete Panels Exposed to the Sun on the Moon Lunar Concrete, ACI Publication No: SP-125, pp. 141-154 Lin, T. D., J. A. Senseney, L. D. Arp, C. Lindbergh (1988) Concrete Lunar Base Investigation Engineering, Construction, and Operations in Space, Proc. Space 88; S. W. Johnson, J. P. Wetzel, editors; ASCE Publ.; pp. 146156. Matsumoto, S., T. Yoshida, T. Takagi (1991) Cementitious Material Extraction from Lunar Resources, Lunar Concrete, ACI Publication No: SP-125, pp. 29-39 Okumura, M., T. Ueno, Y. Ohashi (1998) Regolith Covering Method for Habitation Module in an Early Phase of Lunar Base Construction 6th Int. Conf. Engineering, Construction, and Operations in Space, Proc. Space 98; R. G. Galloway, S. Lokaj, editors; ASCE Publ.; pp.616-621 ONeill, G. K.; Alternative Plan for U.S. http://www.ssi.org/body_alt-plan.html, 22.05.1999 National Space Program; Space Studies Institute,

Ostrega, M. Lunar Seismic Activity Artemis Data Book M.3.7 http://www.asi.org/adb/m/03/07/seismicactivity.html 11 May 1999 Schmitt, H. H. (1988) Constraints on Lunar Base Construction Engineering, Construction, and Operations in Space, Proc. Space 88; S. W. Johnson, J. P. Wetzel, editors; ASCE Publ.; pp. 35-45 Schrunk, D., M. Thangavelu, B. Cooper, B. Sharpe (1998) Physical Transportation on the Moon: The Lunar Railroad 6th Int. Conf. Engineering, Construction, and Operations in Space, Proc. Space 98; R. G. Galloway, S. Lokaj, editors; ASCE Publ.; pp. 347-353 Spudis, P., The South Pole of the Moon: Prime Real Estate, February 4, 1997; presentation to the "Exploration Group of NASA JSC. "; citation in http://members.aol.com/dsfportree/ex97a.htm, 11 May 1999 [NASA1] http://cass.jsc.nasa.gov/pub/expmoon/Apollo15/A15_Experiments_SMI.html 2 June 1999 [NASA2] http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/ice/ice_moon.html, 3 June 1999 [NASA3] http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap990501.html, 3 June 1999

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