Construction Materials, Prakash

Chapter- 1 1.
0 General
1.1 Introduction to the subject As far as construction material is concern, it seems worthful to know about Material Science because it deals with the study of properties, characteristics and application of Engineering materials. Thus Material Science is the branch of applied science dealing aforesaid properties of solid Engineering Materials. Solid Engineering Materials are classified as: Metals/Alloys Ceramic Materials Organic Materials Compisite Materials So, Construction Material mainly deals with properties and application of those which are used for the construction purpose. Construction Materials also be called as Engineering Material as they satisfies various Engineering Requirements. Thus Engineering Materials or Construction materials deals with the study of materials in respect of followings: Sources, composition and properties. Manufacturing methods and testing. Utility in the various field of engineering and technology. Modern techniques being developed for handling and using materials to materialize economical and safer. 1.2 Types of Construction Materials Engineering Materials can be classified as following: 1. Civil Engineering Materials 2. Electrical Engineering Materials: Example: Copper, aluminium, iron and steel etc. --------Conductors: Asbestos(A fibrous amphibole; used for making fireproof articles), bakelite(type of plastic), mica, varnishes, air etc. -------------- Insulator: Iron, Nickel, cobalt, etc. --------- Magnetic materials. 3. Mechanical Engineering Materials: Example: Cast iron, steel, lubricating materials etc. As far as Construction Material is concern, it fully deals about Civil Engineering Materials, the types of which are: Building Stones Bricks and clay product Cementing materials: Lime and Cement Concrete, Mortar Timber Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 1
Other types of Construction Materials are : 1.0 Metals: It may be further divided as: (i) Ferrous Metals : Metals containing iron are called Ferrous Metals, example: cast iron, wrought iron and steel. (ii) Non-ferrous Metals : Metals not containing iron are called as Non-ferrous metals, example: Copper, aluminium, zinc etc. (iii) Ferrous Alloys : Product of metal and any other element is called ferrous alloy, example: silicon steel, high speed steel, spring steel etc. (iv) Non-ferrous Alloy : Product of non-ferrous metal and other element is called non-ferrous alloy, example: brass, bronze, duralumin etc. 2.0 Non-metals: Building stones, cement, concrete, rubber,plastic, Asbestos etc. 3.0 Alloys: Product of more than one elements are known as Alloys. Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. 4.0 Ceramics Materials: Ceramics are phases, in general ceramics are inorganic nonmetallic materials. Example: silica, sodalime glass, concrete cement, ferrites(i.e. solid solution), garnets(i.e. mineral), MgO, CdS, ZnO, SiC, etc. 5.0 Organic Materials: These materials are derived directly from carbon. They usually consist of carbon chemically combined with hydrogen, oxygen or other non-metallic substances. Example: Plastics, PVC, polythene, fibre: terylene, nylon, cotton, natural and synthetic rubbers, leather etc. 1.3 Properties of Materials Following properties of material will be discussed here: 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 Physical Properties Thermal Properties Mechanical Properties. Chemical Properties and Electrical Properties.
1.0 Physical Properties: It consist followings: (a) The melting or freezing point: The melting or freezing point of a pure metal is defined as temperature at which the solid and liquid phases can exist in stable equilibrium. When a metal is heated to melting point, the liquid phase appears, and if more heat is supplied, the solid melts completely at constant temperature. The freezing of a pure liquid exhibit the phenomenon of super-cooling. Use of mercury in thermometer, manometers arises from its low melting point, while use of tungsten filaments in incandescent light bulbs in possible because of its extre-mly high melting point. (b) Boiling Point: The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its vapour pressure equals to one atmosphere. The boiling points of the metals except mercury are high. The boiling point of zinc is 907oC & cadmium is 865oC . (c) Density: Mass per unit volume is termed as the density. In MKS, its unit is kg/m3 Mass per unit volume of a material in its natural state is called Bulk Density. Some building materials are having following values of bulk densities: Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 2
Material Bulk Density (a) Granite 25 to 27 kN/m3 (b) Clay Brick 16 to 18 kN/m3 (c) Sand 14.5 to 16.5 kN/m3 (d) Gravel 14 to 17 kN/m3 (e) Limestone(dense) 18 to 24 kN/m3 (f) Concrete (light) 5 to 18 kN/m3 (g) Concrete (heavy) 18 to 25 kN/m3 (h) Steel 78.5 kN/m3 (i) Plastic material(porous) 0.2 to 1.0 kN/m3 (j) Pinewood(conifer tree) 5 to 6 kN/m3 Note: The ration of bulk density of a material to its density is called density Index. The density index of most of building material is less than unity. (d) Porosity:The degree by which the volume of material is occupied by pores is indicated by the term porosity. The strength, bulk density, durability, thermal conductivity etc. of a material depends on its porosity. (e) Water absorption: It is the ability of material to absorb and retain the water. It mainly depends on the volume, size and shape of pores present in the material. (f) Water Permeability: It is the capacity of material to permit water to pass through it under pressure. (g) Fire resistance: It is the ability to resist the action of high temperature without losing its load bearing capacity. (h) Durability: It is the property of material to resist the combined action of atmospheric and other factors. (i) Refractorness: It is the ability of a material to withstand prolonged action of high temperature without melting or loosing shape. (j) Chemical Resistance: It is the ability to withstand the action of acids, alkalies, gases and salt solutions. 2.0 Thermal Properties: It consist followings: (a) Linear coefficient of expansion: The linear coefficient of expansion of a solid is defined as the increase in length per unit length, for each degree rise in temperature. (b) Thermal conductivity: The thermal conductivity of a metal is defined as the number of kilojoules of heat that would flow per second through a specimen 1sq. in crosssection and 1m in length when the temperature gradient is 1oC. Silver & copper show the highest thermal conductivities of all metals. But some metals like German Silver exhibit very low conductivities and hence find the applicable where heat losses by metallic conduction should be kept to a minimum. Silver is the best conductor and copper is next. (c) Thermal resistivity: It is the reciprocal of thermal conductivity. 3.0 Mechanical Properties: Mechanical properties of engineering materials are such properties, which defines the behaviour of materials under the action of load or force.
Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari
The study of mechanical properties is very important in order to select the material for various engineering requirements. It consist followings: (a) Elasticity: It is the temporary deformation of materials under the action of load. This phenomena takes places within elastic limit of materials. Steel is said to be more elastic than Rubber, because elastic limit of steel is higher than rubber. Elasticity is always desirable in metals used in machine tools and other structural members. (b) Plasticity: It is permanent deformation of a material under the action of load. The plasticity of a metal depends up on its nature and environmental condition. Lead(Pb) has good plasticity even at room temperature. (c) Malleability: It is defined as the property of the metal by which if we can able to get a thin sheet without fracture that property of metal is called its malleability. Gold has good property of malleability. The following metals have malleability in decreasing order-- Gold, Silver, Aluminium, copper, tin, platinum, lead, zinc, iron, nickel. (d) Ductility: It is defined as an ability of metal to draw into a thin wire without fracture. Under the application of load, before fracture, ductile material gives sufficient warning. Materials whose % of elongation is more than 15 are always referred as ductile material. During machining(cutting), formation of continuous chips indicates that the material is ductile. Materials which withstand high tensile stress are called ductile materials. Silver (Ag), copper (Cu), Aluminium (Al), Mild steel etc. are the example of ductile materials. (e) Brittleness: Under the action of load, if all metal undergoes for instant fracture without giving any information to the operator then that property of metal is called as brittleness. Materials whose % of elongation is less than 5 are always referred as brittle materials. During machining, formation of discontinuous chips indicates that metal is brittle. Materials which withstand high compressive strength are called brittle. Concrete, Asbestos, glass, cast iron are the example of brittle materials. (f) Hardness: It is defined as an ability of metal by virtue of which if the metal gives resistance to cutting, bending, drilling, abration etc. by harder bodies then this ability is known as its hardness. If the metal is very hard its corresponding melting point and bond strength is also higher. (g) Stiffness: It is defined as the property of metal by virtue of which, if a metal gives resistance to deformation (deflection) then we can say the metal is stiff. Under the application of load, if a metal deflects with a low angle of deflection, then its corresponding stiffness is higher and vice versa. Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 4
(h) Creep: Continuous deformation of a metal under the application of steady (constant) load with high temperature defines creep in metal. OR Above 0.4 Tm(melting temperature) plastic deformation in metal takes pla ce. This deformation is a function of time with the application of steady load. This phenomenon is called creep. In short, it can be remembered as LTTE Where, L = Load T = temperature These two are constant parameters. T = Time E = Elongation These two are variables. (i) Fatigue (Indurance): It is defined as an ability of metal by virtue of which how much of cyclic load (alternate load), a metal can withstand before its fracture. Fatigue is only considered when the metals are subjected to cyclic stress or alternating loads. If a metal withstand more cyclic load before fracture then its corresponding fatigue strength is higher. (j) Toughness: It is defined as an ability of metal by virtue of which how much energy it can sustain (observe) before its fracture under the action of loading. If a metal has high toughness then its corresponding impact strength is also higher, vice versa. It has already been understood that steel is more tough than cast iron. In other word, ductile metals are having more toughness as compare with brittle materials. (k) Resilience: The amount of energy that a metal can stored within it before fracture under the action of loading is called resilience. Proof Resilience: The maximum amount of energy that can be stored within elastic limit of the metal is called its proof resilience. Modulus of resilience: Proof resilience per unit volume of material defines modulus of resilience. (l) Strength: If a metal can withstand higher stresses before its fracture under the action of loading, it gives its strength. 4.0 Chemical Properties: Its study is essential as most of the construction material when comes in contact with other substances with which they can react, tend to suffer from chemical deterioration. It comprises: (a) Chemical composition: It provides the constituents of any material. For example, the chemical composition of cement are CaO, SiO2, Fe2O3, etc. (b) Acidity or alkalinity: It gives the chemical character (i.e. either acidic or alkaline) of the material, so that use of materials may be defined. (c) Corrosion Resistance: Corrosion is a gradual chemical or electrochemical attack
on a metal by its surroundings so that metal is converted in to an oxide, salt or some other compound. The reasons for corrosion may me air, moisture, industrial atmosphere soils, acids, bases and salt solutions etc. 5.0 Electrical Properties: It comprises: (a) Electrical Resistivity: It is the property of a material due to which, it impedes or Resists the flow of electricity through it. Resistivity, = R*A / l Where, R = Resistance of a conductor (ohms) A = Area of the conductor section l = Length of the conductor. (b) Electrical Conductivity: The conductivity ( ) is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity. Conductivity, = l / = l / R*A The dimension of are ohm-1 cm-1. Electrical conductivity is that electrical property of material due to which the electric current flows easily through the material. (c) Temperature coefficient of resistance: It is usually employed to specify the vari-ation of resistivity ( ) with temperature. Temperature coefficient of resistance is T = (( - o) / o)* 1 / (T-To) Where, = resistivity at temperature T o = resistivity at temperature To, and T and To are temperature in degree Kelvin. (d) Dielectric strength: It is the insulating capacity of a material against high voltage. It is an insulation. A material having high dielectric strength can withstand sufficiently high voltage before its break. (e) Thermoelectricity: If two dissimilar metals are joined and this junction is then heated, a small voltage in the milivolt range is produced, and this is known as thermoelectric effect.
END OF CHAPTER 1 (ONE)
CHAPTER 2 2.0 Characteristics of construction materials

2.1 Stress and Strain: These two are the resistance of the body to deformation due to the application of external forces. Stress: Stress is the force per unit area of a body. If P is the total load acting on the original cross-section area Ao, then stress is given by relation: Stress, = P/Ao Strain: Strain is the deformation produced per unit length of a body. It is the ratio of change in length of the specimen to its original length. If l is the change in length and lo is the original length of the sample, then strain is given by relation: Strain, = l / lo = longitudinal strain Strain can be lateral strain or shear strain depending up on the type of loading. It has no unit. Hookes Law: This states that, within elastic limits, the relationship between stress and strain is constant and is represented by E (Youngs modulus of elasticity). Thus, Stress Strain i.e. =E E = / = Proportionality Constant Since, E is the characteristics of the material and is different for different materials and for different nature of stresses, it is called Modulus of the Materials. When tensile and compressive stresses are used, it is called Youngs Modulus of Elasticity(E). When shear stresses and strains are used, the costant is called Modulus of rigidity (G). When volumetric stresses and strains are used, the constant is called Bulk Modulus (K). Poissons Ratio: When a test sample is stressed by a uniaxial force, it is strained in the direction of force and also in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the force. The strain in the direction of force is called Longitudinal strain and that perpendicular to it as lateral strain. The ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain of the test sample is known as Poissons Ratio. Mathematically, Poissons ratio = Lateral Strain / Longitudinal Strain = l/m = Constant
It is an important elastic constant and its value for most common engineering materials is lies between 0.3 to 0.6 Stress-Strain Relationship: It is the graphical representation of the data obtained from tensile/compression test of any material where stress and strain are kept along Y-axis and X-axis respectively. During tensile test, the specimen is subjected to increasing stresses and corresponding change in length (i.e. strain) is measured by strainmeasuring devices. 2.2 Comparative stress-strain curves for various engineering materials There are mainly two types of stress-strain curves: (a) For brittle materials. (b) For ductile materials. To derive the stress-strain diagram for the material, a test for compression or tension should be carried out. Stress applied and the corresponding strain caused are to be noted to plot the stress-strain relationship. Followings are the stress-strain diagram for various brittle engineering materials:
2.3 Stress-Strain diagram for ductile material (Ductile Metal) This diagram is mainly derived from the tensile test of metal (i.e. ductile materials). From the test, stresses applied and the corresponding strain caused are noted and are plotted to be obtain stress-strain curve. Y
Stress ( )
O A B C D F ER PR FR
Strain ( ) Stress-Strain curve for metal (ductile materials)
: Proportionality Limit (Proportionality Point) : Elastic Limit (Elastic Point) : Upper Yield Point, E : Lower Yield Point : Ultimate Tensile Stress (or Maximum tensile stress or Tenacity) : Fracture Point (or Breaking Point) : Elastic Region : Plastic Region : Fracture Region.
From the curve it has been observed that, the stress corresponding to point F is known as Breaking (Fracture) stress. The stress at F is less than at point C because the formation of neck at D reduces x-sectional area of the specimen which results to the specimen to fail suddenly at point F even with small load (stress). The curve CF is called Nominal or Engineering Curve because it only used for all engineering applications in real practice. Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 9
The greater value of will represent the material to be more elastic. The higher position of Upper Yield Point C will represent the material to be more hard. The higher position of point D will represent the material to be more strong and ductile. Simillarly, position of breaking stress will represent brittleness or toughness of the materials. Detail information about stress-strain curve. (For Understanding) From above figure, the following information can be obtained: (a) The graph OA indicates that the ratio of stress to strain is constant and hooks law holds good from O to A. From A curve is slightly deviates from straight line (it means stress strain up to A only). After this point proportionality is not constant, thus point A is known as Proportionality Limit. (b) The graph AB is very small curve which indicate that the ratio of stress to the strain is not constant but slightly changes. In this portion metal continue to behave perfectly elastic. Thus, point B is known as Elastic Limit. (c) The graph BC indicates that the strain increases more quickly than the stress in compare to OA and AB. It may be noted that if the load on the specimen is removed, the elongation from B to C will not disappear, but it will remain as a permanent set. Thus, point C is called Yield Point. (upper one). (d) In graph CD, very small length of curve from C (i.e. CE) is almost horizontal. It indicates that strain increases without any appreciable increase in stress. This happens as there is a sudden elongation of specimen due to creep. (e) The remaining portion of the curve between CD is upward which indicates that the specimen regains some strength and thus higher value of stresses are required for higher strain. The curve rises up to maximum limit indicated by the point D. The stress corresponding to point D is called Ultimate Tensile Strength or Tenacity. It is the measure of tensile strength of the materials. (f) The graph DF is a downward curve which indicates that, a neck is formed reducing the x-sectional area of the specimen. Now it needs low stress to continue extension till fracture takes place at F. FRACTURE Fracture refers to the breaking of the components into two or more pieces either during service or during fabrication due to the application of external load. Factors which are responsible for fracture are: Rate of impact Temperature Geometry of the materials There are following types of fracture: Brittle Fracture Ductile Fracture and Creep Fracture. 2.4 Griffiths theory for brittle fracture (or Mechanism of brittle fracture) Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 10
It has been understood that the stress required for the material at which it fractured is only a small fraction of its cohesive strength. Therefore Griffith suggest that the low observed strength were due to the presence of micro-cracks, which acts at the point of concentration. Elliptical Crack c Tip 2c Tip
In order to explain this mechanism of brittle fracture, Consider a crack of elliptical cross-section in rectangular specimen of glass which is subjected to an axial tensile stress() as shown in above figure. Let, = Applied tensile stress c = Half crack length When tensile stress is applied to the specimen, then the stress is distributed throughout the specimen in such a way that the maximum stress occurs at its tips.The expression for maximum stress at the tip of the crack is given by the relation: max = 2 (c/r) Where, r is radius of the curvature at its tip. We also know that before fracture some amount of energy is always stored in the material, which is called Elastic Strain Energy and is given by the following relation: Ue = - ( c2 2) / E Where, Ue = Elastic Strain Energy E = Youngs Modulus of Elasticity A negative sign(-) indicates that the elastic strain energy stored in the material is released as the crack formation takes place. According to Griffiths theory such a crack will propagate when the released elastic strain energy is sufficient to provide the surface energy for the creation of new surfaces. Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 11
If be the specific surface energy per unit area in J/m2, then the surface energy due to the presence of crack of length 2c is given by the relation: Us = 2*(2c*1)* = 4c Thus, Total Energy, U = Ue + Us
According to Griffith, such crack will propagate and produce brittle fracture when an incremental surface energy is compensated by a decrease in elastic strain energy. Mathematically, d(U)/dc = 0 d{(- c2 2) / E + 4c}/dc = 0 -2c2 / E + 4 = 0 2c2 / E = 4 = (2E / c) where, is stress required to cause fracture. For the material having and E are constant, then = (2E / ) * 1/c = k * 1/c Thus, 1/c Therefore fracture stress() is inversely proportional to the square root of half crack length. , where k is Griffiths constant
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From the above figure we can concluded that the surface energy is linear in nature and strain energy is quadratic in nature. In total energy curve when dU/dC=0. 2.5 Principles of hardness and impact tests of engineering materials. Hardness Test Aim To know the hardness of the metals. In other word, to know the resistance against penetration, abration, cutting etc. of a metal. Hardness test can be conducted by the following methods: 1. Vickers Hardness Test (VHN Test) 2. Rockweels Hardness Test (RB or Rc) 3. Brineils Hardness Test (BHN Test) 4. Knoops Hardness Test (KHN Test) Note: (A) For test no. (1), (3) and (4), hardness is determined by the corresponding number like VHN(Vickers Hardness Number), BHN(Brineils Hardness Number) and KHN(Knoops Hardness Number). (B) For test no. (1), (3) and (4), penetrators are used along with loads for the evaluation of hardness. V.H.N. = 1.854P/L2 Where, P = Load in N A = Surface area of indentation in mm2 L = Length in diagonal in mm = Angle between opposite face of the pyramid. B.H.N. = P/A = Load on the ball / Area of indentation B.H.N. = P/ (D/2*(D-(D2-d2)) Where, P = Load in kN D = Diameter of steel ball in mm d = Diameter of the indentation in mm K.H.N. = P / (unrecovered projected area of the impression in mm2) Where, P = Load in N (C) For Rockweels hardness test, hardness number is automatically reads from the dial indicator either by RB or by Rc. B represents B-scale and C represents Cscale, which are available in the indicator. Penetrators are used for this test. Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 13
Rockweels B number is R.H.B = 130- depth of indentation in mm / 0.002 Rockweels C number is R.H.C = 100- depth of indentation in mm / 0.002 Impact Test Aim To know the toughness of the metal under the application of impact load. To determine the notch sensitivity of a metal under the application of impact load. In practice Impact test is conducted by several means but all the machines works on the same principle. The very effective impact testing machine by which better impact test results can be found out are given below: 1. Charpy Testing machine (Charpy Test) 2. Izod Testing Machine (Izod test)
1.0 Charpy Test Specimen for charpy test is shown in fig. below and in this test the specimen is fixed inside the machine like simply supported beam having a notch at its centre. Notch specimen 45o 10 mm 2 mm 55 mm 10 mm Machine set up notch Anvil (support) specimen Size of specimen = (55*10*10)mm
Striking Edge(S.E.) or Pendulum Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari
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Figure
Procedure Specimen is placed over the anvil as shown in above figure. When the pendulum arm is released from known value of angle, then the striking edge (S.E.) or pendulum strikes the specimen with high velocity at the opposite side of the notch. Therefore striking edge may cause fracture for the specimen. After breaking, the pendulum rises on opposite side through the same angle. Neglecting all the mechanical losses during the test, the energy required to fracture this specimen can be found out from the difference of Initial Energy and the Residual (final) energy of Striking Edge. Thus, Energy required for Fracture = I.E. R.E. Where, I.E. = Initial Energy R.E.= Residual Energy Calculations
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Where, R W H h Now, Initial Energy (I.E.) And Residual Energy (R.E.) R.E. We know thet, at fracture, Fracture Energy = Wh = W(R- OB) = WR WR Cos ---------------(2) = WH = W(R-OA) I.E. = WR WR Cos ------------------- (1) : Length of pendulum arm : Weight of striking Edge (S.E.) : Angle of fall : Height of fall : Angle of rise : Height of rise
= I.E. R.E. = WR WR Cos - WR + WR Cos [from 1 & 2] Thus, F.E. = WR(Cos - Cos ) 2.0 Izod Test This test is conducted by the same machine which is already used for charpy test, the test calculations for fracture energy is exactly like that of charpy test. But, in this case the dimensions of specimens is different while the striking edge will strike the specimen at the same side of notch. The view of machine set up and specimen size is shown in figure below. In this case the specimen is placed inside the machine like cantilever beam. Striking Edge 6mm 22mm 45o 2 mm Anvil Specimen 10mm
28mmm 75mm m
10mm Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 16
Size of specimen Notch angle Notch depth
: (75*10*10)mm : 45o : 2 mm
Factor affecting Impact Resistance Dimensions of the specimen Notch details Grain size of the specimen Temperature of the specimen Impact velocity of load (i.e. hammer)
END OF CHAPTER TWO
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CHAPTER 3 Basic Construction Materials

3.1 Sieve Analysis Introduction Sieve Analysis (or Dry Mechanical Analysis) is the method of grading of the construction material (basically Aggregate). It is also called particle size distribution of aggregate. Basically there are three types of gradation of the aggregates: Well graded Uniformly (or poorly) graded and Gap Graded For the construction purpose well graded material either for fine aggregate or for coarse aggregate is preferred as it consist almost all size of grains and gives compact or dense concrete. But, poorly graded aggregate consist same size of grains, so it is not considered as a good materials. Whereas gap graded consist the presence of some size of particles. Procedure Sieve Analysis is useful for coarse grained material which are more than 75 micron in size. The sample of aggregate is sieved through a stack of sieves. The sieve with largest opening is placed on the top of the stack. Downward, the size of the sieve opening reduces progressively. For the analysis of fine aggregate, the arrangement of sieve size from top to bottom should be in following order: : 3.35mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600 micron, 300 micron, 150 micron and 75 micron. But, for the analysis of coarse aggregate, the arrangement should be like this: 80mm, 63mm, 50mm, 40mm, 31.6mm, 25mm, 20mm, 16mm, 12.5mm, 10mm, 6.3mm and 4.75mm. Below the stack of sieve a pan is to be placed to collect the particles passing through smallest sieve opening. The sample is placed on the topmost sieve and whole set is to be shaken till each sieve contains constant amount of sample. The retained amount of sample in each sieve is weighed. The cumulative weight and % finer passing each sieve is calculated and plotted against the sieve opening (in log scale) to produce the Grain Size Distribution Curve. The particle size corresponding to the % finer than can be obtained from the gradation curve & denoted as Dp. It is defined as the particle size such that p% of soil are smaller than Dp. For example: D10 = 0.22 mm means that 10% of the total weight of the sample consist of particles smaller than 0.22mm. Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 18
The general slope of the grain size distribution curve can be described by the term Coefficient of Uniformity (Cu) Cu = D60 / D10 A smaller Cu means a steeper curve which is the result of concentration of the particlensize in smaller range (particles are more uniform) The aggregate is said to be well graded if 1 < Cc < 3, where Cc is Coefficient of curvature Cu > 4 for gravel/aggregate Cu > 6 for sand If aggregate fails one or both of these criteria, it is considered as Poorly Graded (or, Uniformly Graded). The coefficient of curvature(Cc) indicates general shape of the gradation curve and is defined by: Cc = (D30)2 / (D10*D60) Observation Table S.N. Sieve Wt. of Wt. of Wt. of % of Cummulative % % finer = Remarks Size empty sieve + sample sample of sample 100% sieve sample retained retained retained col.(7) retained
The gradation curve for different gradation will be:
For poorly graded
For well graded
% finer
For gap graded
Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari Grain size(opening of sieve)
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3.2 Stone, its type and properties Stones are naturally occurring compact, solid and massive materials that make the crust of the earth. Technically, stones are called as rocks. These rocks occur in a great variety and possess suitable properties often find use in building construction. Stone have been used in all types of construction since time immemorial. The pyramids of Egypt, The Eiffel Tower, The Temple of Jagannathpuri, the Tej Mahal, the Red Fort, thousands of grand palaces in different part of world, the Great China Wall, and hundreds of historical buildings in each big country are made of stones. Types (Classification) of Stones (A) Geological Classification This classification based on the mode of formation of rock. These are: (a) Igneous Rock: The molten magma when gets exposed to the outside cooling effect, solidifies in the form of rock, which is known as Igneous Rock. Eg. Granite, Basalt. It may be of following types: (i) The Plutonic Rocks: These are formed at great depth below the earth surface due to solidification of molten magma. Granite, Syenites and gabbros are the example of plutonic rock. (ii) The Volcanic Rock: These are formed on the surface of earth from lava coming out from numerous volcanoes that erupt from time to time. Example: Basalt and Trap. (iii) The Hypabyssal Rock: These are formed at shallower depth, about 2 to 3 km below the surface from magma that could not come out as lava. They show crystals that are partly coarse and partly fine in size. Eg. Porphyries. (b) Sedimentary Rock: These rocks are formed by transportation, deposition and cementation of disintegrated rocks, vegetable matter and clay due to the atmospheric action such as rain, wind and temperature. These are usually formed at the bottom of rivers, lakes and sea. Limestone, Sandstone are belongs to this category. Depending up on the way of formation, sedimentary rock may be of followings: (i) Clastic Rocks: These are formed by deposition and consolidation of disintegrated sediments and fragments from the previous rock in suitable river basins, lake basins and sea basins etc. Example: Sandstone. (ii) Chemically formed rocks: These are formed by precipitation from river, lake and seawater by evaporation. Some components of previous rocks are taken in solution during the process of weathering and erosion. Water may get saturated with these compounds with
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passes of time and precipitates them, which forms rock. Limestone, gypsum, anhydrite and rock salt are example of this category. (iii) Organically formed sedimentary rocks: As we know, great variety of life exists in great water bodies (like sea, river lakes etc.) which have their hard parts made up of bones (which are a mixtures of Ca and Mg carbonets). These parts get accumulated at proper places on the seafloors after death of these animals. Gradual deposition of such parts with the passes of time form sedimentary rock like Limestone. (c) Metamorphic Rock: When igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to a very large heat and pressure, a new type of rock will form due to effect of such high temperature and pressure. The newly formed rock is known as Metamorphic rock. The process of forming metamorphic rock is known as metamorphism. Marble, slate are the example of this rock. (B) Chemical classification: On the basis of dominant chemical composition, following three groups of rocks are commonly recognized: (i) Siliceous Rocks: Rocks having Silica (SiO2) as a predominant mineral component (i.e. > 50% of rock composition). Granite, Sandstone and Gneisses belongs to this category. (ii) Calcareous Rocks: Rocks having calcium carbonate as a predominant minerals. Limestone, dolomite and marble belongs to this group. (iii) Argillaceous Rocks: Rocks having clay as a predominant minerals. Shales, Slates and Schiests are example of Argillaceous rock. (C) Structural (Physical) Classification: (i) The massive or Unstratified rocks: These occurs in huge mass without showing any layered structure. All Igneous rocks are belongs to this group. (ii) The stratified rock: These occurs in distinct layers of same or different colour and composition. All sedimentary rocks are belongs to this category. (iii) Foliated rocks: Rocks with the development of well defined bands of different composition due to high temperature and pressure. All metamorphic rocks are the best example of this category.
Properties of stones:
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For ensuring durable, cost-effective and aesthetically appealing construction, the following properties of stone are desirable to consider: (1) Compressive Strength: It is the load bearing capacity of stone expressed as the maximum load per unit area at which the stone starts cracking. i.e c = P/A. For common building compressive strength should be within the range of 280 to 2800 kg/cm2. (2) Transverse Strength: It is the resistance a stone offers to bending loads. This property is commonly determined by Modulus of Rupture R. For different stones R-values varies from 20 to 300 kg/cm2. (3) Shear strength: Stones used in pier, column have to withstand shearing load. Hence it must posses sufficient shearing strength. Shearing strength of common building stone lies in between Kg/cm2. (4) Hardness: It is the capacity of stone to resist scratching or abration. Limestone wear out easily compared to quartzite. The hardness of stone depends up on their mineral composition. Generally igneous rock have high hardness than other rock. (5) Toughness: It is defined as the capacity of stone to withstand impact loads. Stones having good toughness are used in foundations under heavy machines where vibrations may be a common phenomenon. They should be hard and strong also. (6) Water absorption: It may be defined as the quantity of water absorbed (in % by weight) by a stone till its saturation. Thus absorption value of % means that a stone on saturation can hold % water by weight. But water absorption value of good stone should not be more than % by weight. In cold climate, water inside the pores may freeze (expand up to % by volume) and exert disintegration stresses. Absorption value of some common stone after immersion in water for hour are: Granite : 0.3 to 1.5% Sandstone : 5 to 8% Limestone : 4 to 10% Marble : 0 to 0.5% (7) Appearance: Aesthetically, light colour are preferred in the exterior of buildings. Appearance has no significance when stones are used in fopundation. (8) Workability: Stones in their natural form may have low workability due to presence of outcrops in quarry. Thus, after dressing workability can be achieved. The process of giving proper shape, dimension and surface finish to a raw stone before it is fit for use in construction is called Dressing. (9) Durability: It denotes the period in years for which a stone may stand practically unaltered after being used in construction. A durable stone must Withstand loads imposed on it for the entire period. Must keep up original appearance even in exteriors Must resist effect of heat and cold. Must not suffer deterioration & decomposition by gases. A stone will be durable when, It has quite high strength value for the designed loads It has uniform, close packed, dense structure, with very low water absorption values I t is made up of very hard and resistant mineral constituents.
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3.3 Aggregates Aggregates are those chemically inert materials which when bonded by cement paste, forms concrete. Aggregate influence the strength of concrete to a great extent because they constitute bulk of the total volume of concrete. Aggregates are derived from igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Functions (Advantages) of the Aggregates There are following functions of the concrete: It provides concrete to behave like artificial stone. It is cheaper materials than cement. It gives the body to the concrete, reduces shrinkage and effect economy. It provides durability to the concrete. It increases the density of the concrete. It prevents segration of concrete. It provides 70 to 80% of volume of concrete (i.e. provides bulk of concrete). It increases workability of the concrete. Qualities (or Requirements) of Ideal (good) Aggregates Followings are the most important qualities of the aggregates: It must be of proper shape and of well graded . It should be free from dust and should resist heat and freezing. It must be hard and strong enough to bear compressive and normal tensile loads on ordinary concrete. It must be chemically inert , i.e. should not react with cement or any other aggregate or admixture used for concrete making. It should possess sufficient hardness to resist scratching and abrasion in the set & hardened concrete. It should possess sufficient toughness to withstand impact and vibratory loads. It should be free from impurities, inorganic or organic in nature, which can effect adversely on the quality of concrete. It should be capable of producing an easily workable plastic mixture on combining with cement, water and other aggregate. Classification of Aggregates 1. 2. 3. 4. There are mainly four basis of classification of aggregates: Classification based on Geological origin. Classification based on Size Classification based on specific gravity or unit weight. Classification based on shape. 23
1.0 Classification based on Geological origin. Under this classification the aggregate may be divided in to followings: (a) Natural Aggregate (b) Artificial (processed) Aggregate (c) By product Aggregate (a) Natural Aggregate: These includes all those types of fine and coarse aggregates that are available in almost ready to use form from natural resources. Example are sands from riverbeds, pits and beaches and gravel from river banks. Natural aggregates are generally derived from their formation like: Igneous rock, sedimentary rock and metamorphic rock. (b) Artificial Aggregate (processed aggregate): These are specially manufactured for use in making quality concrete and includes broken pieces of burnt clay, shale etc. The broken bricks of good quality provide a satisfactory aggregate for the mass concrete, but not suitable for RCC work. If the crushing strength is less than 30 35 MPa, the brick aggregate is not suitable for water proof construction and for road work as well. (c) By-product aggregate: These includes the material obtained as waste from some industrial products which are suitable for being used as aggregates. CINDER obtained from burning of coal in locomotives and KILN & SLAG obtained from blast furnaces as scum are best example of this category. Concrete made with blast furnace aggregate will have good fire resisting qualities. 2.0 Classification based on Size The size of aggregates used in concrete varies from few centimeter or more to few microns. According to this basis, aggregates are classified as: (a) Fine aggregate (b) Coarse aggregate (c) All-in-aggregate (a) Fine aggregate: It is a aggregate most of which passes through 4.75mm I.S. sieve. Sand is generally considered to have a lower size limit of about 0.07mm and is the universally available & commonly used natural fine aggregate. Material between 0.06 mm to 0.002 mm is classified as silt and still smaller particles as clay. The fine aggregate may be of following type(i) Natural sand: i.e. fine aggregate resulting from natural disintegration of rock or that which has been deposited by stream or glacial agencies. (ii) Crushed sandstone: i.e. fine aggregate produced by crushing hard stone. (iii) Crushed gravel sand: which is produced by crushing natural gravel. (b) Coarse aggregate: The aggregate must of which retained on 4.75 mm I.S. sieve. Gravel from river beds form the best coarse aggregates in making common concrete. The coarse aggregate may be one of the following types: Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 24
(i) Crushed Gravel or stone obtained by crushing of gravel or hard rock. (ii) Uncrushed gravel or stone resulting from natural disintegration of rock, or (iii) Partially crushed gravel or stone obtained as a product of the blending of above two types. The coarse aggregate is described by its nominal size, i.e. 40mm, 20mm, 16mm and 12.5mm etc. For example, a graded of nominal size 12.5mm means an aggregate most of which passes the 12.5mm I.S.sieve. (c) All-in-aggregate: Sometimes combined aggregates are available in nature consisting different fraction of fine and coarse aggregates, which are known as All-in-aggregate. In such cases there is no need to mix sand and stone chips separately. The all-in-aggregates are not generally used for making high quality concrete. 3.0 Classification based on Shape The particle shapes of aggregates influence the properties of fresh concrete more than those of hardened concrete. Depending up on the particle shape the aggregate may be classified as: 1.0 Rounded 2.0 Irregular (or, partially rounded) 3.0 Angular 4.0 Flaky (Elongated) 1.0 Rounded Aggregate The aggregate with rounded edge (not spherical) particle (e.g. gravel, sand) has minimum voids ranging from 32 to 33%. It gives minimum ratio of surface area to the volume and hence requires less cement paste to make concrete. The only disadvantage is that the interlocking between its particle is less and hence the development of bond is poor making it unsuitable for high strength concrete and pavements. 2.0 Irregular Aggregate The aggregate having partly rounded particles and partly other has higher % of voids ranging from 35 to 38%. It requires more cement paste for a given workability. The interlocking between particles, though better than that of obtained with the rounded aggregate, is inadequate for high strength concrete. 3.0 Angular Aggregate The aggregate with sharp, angular and rough particles (crushed rock) has a maximum % of voids ranging from 38 to 40%. The interlocking between the particles is good, thereby providing a good bond. The aggregate requires more cement paste to make workable concrete of high strength than that required by rounded aggregates. The aggregates are suitable for high strength concrete and pavement subjected to tension.
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4.0 Flaky Aggregates (Elongated) An aggregate is termed as flaky when its least dimension (thickness) is less than 3/5 of its mean dimension. The mean dimension of the aggregate is the average of the sieve size through which the particle passes and retained. The particle size is said to be elongated when its greatest dimension (length) is greater than 9/5th of its dimension.
th
4.0 Classification based on specific gravity or unit weight. According to this aggregates are classified as followings: (a) Normal (standard) weight aggregate (b) Heavy weight aggregate (c) Light weight aggregate (a) Normal (standard) weight aggregate The aggregates which have the specific gravity 2.5 to 2.7 are known as Normal weight aggregate. The commonly used aggregate like gravel, crushed rock such as basalt, quartz, sandstone, limestone, brick ballast produces the concrete with unit weight ranging from 23 to 26 kN/m3 and crushing strength at 28 days lies between 15 to 40 MPa. It is used for general RCC and PCC work. (b) Heavy weight aggregate The aggregate having sp.gr. ranging from 2.8 to 2.9 are known as Heavy weight aggregates. This types of aggregate is generally achieved from magnetite (Fe3O4) and Barytes (BaSO4,rock name). Concret having unit weight of about 30 to 37 kN/m3 can be produced by using magnetite, barites and scrap iron. This type of aggregate is used to construct radiation shield (Nuclear power plant) and Operation Theater, and also used to produce dense and crack free concrete. The main drawback with this aggregate is that it is difficult to have adequate workability without segration. The compressive strength of these concrete is of the order of 20 to 21 MPa. The cement aggregate ratio varies from 1:5 to 1:9 with water cement ratio in between 05 to 0.65. (c) Light weight aggregate The aggregate having unit weight in a range of 1.2gm/cc (12 kN/m3) are known as light weight aggregates. These aggregates can be either natural such as diatomite, pumice, volcanic, cinder etc or manufactured such as bloated (Abnormally distended especially by fluids or gas) clay, sintered (forged) fly ash or foamed blast furnace slag. They generally used for the manufacture of structural concrete and masonry blocks for reduction of the self weight of concrete. They can also be used to provide better thermal insulation and to improve fire resistance.
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Bulking of sand (fine aggregate) The increase in the volume of a given mass of sand (fine aggregate) caused by the presence of water is known as Bulking of sand. The bulking of sand is caused by the films of water which pushes the particle apart. The extent of bulking depends up on the % of moisture present in the sand and its fineness. Fine snad
Bulking % of dry volume or change in volume (%)
Medium sand
Coarse sand
Moisture content (%) It has been observed that bulking of sand increases gradually with moisture content up to certain point and then begins to decrease with further addition of water due to merging of films until when the sand is inundated (covered with water). At this stage the bulking is practically nill. Thus, bulking effect will be maximum when water content in sand lies in between 4 to 6% . Above figure shows variation of % bulking with moisture content. The realation shows, fine sand bulks considerably more and the maximum bulking is obtained at higher water content than that of coarse sand. In general, bulking may be to an extent of 30% of original dry volume of sand in the fine sands ( particle size 0.25 mm to 0.15 mm) and 15% in the case of coarse sand (particle size around 2mm). If the sand is measured by volume and no allowance is made for bulking, the mix will be richer than that specified because for given mass moist sand occupies considerably larger volume than that of dry sand of same mass. This results in a mix deficient of sand increases the chances of the segration of concrete, then yield of concrete also will be reduced. Hence, an increase in bulking from 15 to 30% will result in an increase of concrete strength by as much as 14%. If no allowance is made for bulking of sand, the concrete strength may vary (reduce) by as much as 25%. Determination of bulking of Sand Procedure sand water Sand+water
V2
27 C
V1 1. Take a clean glass cylinder and fill it about with the sand sample. Note down its volume, say V1 = 30 cm. 2. Now carefully take the sand out and place it on a glass plate. Fill the glass cylinder with water to of its volume. 3. Put the sand sample back in to the glass cylinder very slowly, stirring the water while adding sand into it. This is essential to make all the sand grains settle fully in the cylinder. 4. Note new volume of sand sampl; let it be V2. If V1 = V2 , it will mean sand sample has retained its original volume, i.e. it has shown, No bulking. But, V2 is changed, let s say V2 =34 cm, then bulking of sand is = (V2 V1)/V1 * 100 = (34 30)/30 * 100 = 13.33%
END OF CHAPTER - 3
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CHAPTER 4 Metals
Ferrous and Non-ferrous Metals Ferrous metals are such which contains iron whereas non-ferrous metals are such which contains no iron. Ferrous and non-ferrous metals are mostly used in engineering field because they confirms to the engineering requirements. Classification of Ferrous Metals Ferrous Metal
Iron
Steel
Pig Iron
Cast Iron
Wrought Iron
Plain Carbon Steel
Alloy Steel
Tool Steel Low carbon steel Medium carbon steel High carbon steel
Stainless Steel Die Steel Heat Resistive Steel
IRON (A) Pig Iron When iron ore (i.e. mineral from which metal is extracted) is smelted by using Blast-furnace, the initial formation which comes from furnace is called Pig Iron. It is Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 29
an impure form of iron. Pig iron can not be used directly in practice but pig iron is used as a raw materials for further production of wrought iron and steel. Composition: It contains iron and varying quantities of other elements amongst which carbon, silicon, manganese, sulphur and phosphorus are the most important. These may amount to as mush as 10% of the weight and 25% of the volume of pig iron. Manufacture (Formation) of pig iron It is manufactured in following stages: (a) Selection of Ore: The natural In nature, iron occurs in combined form as oxide, sulphate, carbonate and silicate etc. from such raw resources iron can be extracted economically and are called iron ore. Following are common ores: Hematite (Fe2O3) or Red Iron Ore Magnetite (Fe3O4) or Black Iron Ore Siderite (FeCO3) or Spastic Iron Ore (b) Dressing of Ore: The process of reduction in size and removing of impurities to get within required limit is called dressing of ore. This is achieved by passing the ore through a series of crushers and washing mills. (c) Calcination, roasting and smelting: It is done through Blast Furnace.
Iron making Blast Furnace (B) Wrought Iron Wrought Iron is the oldest form of iron made by man. It was originally produced by slow reduction of the metal from the ore in the forge fire. This reduction process results very impure iron which requires further refining by mechanical working i.e. Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 30
by hammering or shaping to the form in which it is used. Thus, It is the purest form of iron with iron silicate in physical association and it contains very small amount of impurities. It is very low in carbon and the iron silicate or slag is distributed through the base metal in fibres which gives it a woody or fibrous appearance when fractured. Wrought Iron is used for some selected engineering applications. Manufacture of Wrought Iron It is manufactured from Pig Iron with following two processes: (i) Puddling Process: It comprises following procedure: A small reverberatory furnace called puddling furnace is to be used which has lining of iron oxide bricks. Pig iron is heated with the help of charge to a 1200oC. At this temperature, melted pig iron is oxidized on coming in contact with iron oxide lining. The molten charge is regularly stirred or puddle through puddling hole to ensure oxidation with iron oxide lining. Carbon is driven off as carbon dioxide and remaining molten charge ,containing some slag forms the Wrought Iron. It is squeezed to remove any extra slag. (ii) Aston Process: Pig iron is refined by heating in a Bessember Converter. All impurities is to be removed by directing current of air and molten pig iron is cast into mould. A mixture of iron oxide and silica in predetermined proportion is heated separately in a furnace to fusing temperature which forms slag(iron silicate). The refined pig iron is put into the mixing machine and hot slag is poured on to it with the help of slag ladle (A spoon-shaped vessel with a long handle; used to transfer liquids). Slag is at lower temperature than pig iron. The process mixing slag with iron is called shooting and it results formation of iron-slag balls. The iron-slag balls so formed are subjected to pressing machines where extra quantity of slag is squeezed out. The resulting material from pressing machine is Wrought Iron. (C) Cast Iron Cast Iron is produced from pig iron by a process of melting and casting into shape. Composition: It contains iron, silicon and carbon. Cast iron contains more than 2% of carbon to a maximum of 6.67%. Along with carbon and iron, cast iron also contains sulphour (S), silica (Si), Phosphorous (P) and manganese (Mn). In general cast iron is hard and brittle. It has high compressive strength.
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Manufacture of Cast Iron It is manufactured from remelting pig iron in a special furnace called Cupola. A cupola is an essence a small sized blast furnace of height 5m, diameter 1 m and cylindrical in shape. The cylinder has an inner lining of refractory bricks and is provided with tuyer near bottom for injecting the supply of air blast. The raw materials like pig-iron, steel scrap, fuel and fluxes are added from the charge door at the top to a previously heated cupola. The air blast is continuously fed through tuyers. All impurities of pig iron get oxidized and form a slag that starts floating at the upper layer. The molten cast iron is removed from the lower draw hole and charged directly into mould of desired shapes. These are called Cast Iron. Properties of cast iron No generalization of properties of cast iron is possible because properties of cast iron depends on the followings: 1. The composition of cast iron, 2. The rate of cooling and 3. The nature of heat treatment. Following are are the properties which depends on composition: (1) Carbon: When most of carbon is present as graphite(free carbon), cast iron becomes soft & weak (e.g.grey cast iron). But when carbon presents as cementite, the metal is hard and strong. (2) Allowing elements: (a) Nickle: (i) Nickel cast iron: It contains Nickle in between 0.5 to 3%. Machinability is uniform. (ii) Chilled cast iron: Nickle lies in between 3 to 5%. This has high resistance to abrasion. (iii) High nickel cast iron: Nickle lies up to 20%. It has resistance to corrosion. (b) Chromium: Addition of chromium increases hardness and tensile strength of cast iron. (c) Molybdenum: Addition of this increase the hardness of cast iron. (3) Heat Treatment: This treatment changes the properties of cast iron to a great extent. White cast iron when subjected to Annealing becomes soft, very ductile and easily machinable. (4) Impurities: The influence of certain common impurities like phosphorous, sulphur, silicon and manganese is quite pronounced. Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 32
Classification of cast iron: Cast iron is further classified into followings: 1. Grey Cast Iron (GCI.) 2. White Cast Iron (WCI.) 3. Malleable Cast Iron (MCI.) 4. Sphenoidal Graphite Cast Iron (SGCI.) 5. Alloy Cast Iron (ACI.) (1) Gray Cast Iron: It is basically an alloy of carbon and silicon with iron. It contains: Carbon (C) : 2.7% Silicon (Si) : 1.1% to 2.8% Sulphour (S) : 0.10% Manganism (Mn) : 0.4% to 1.0% Phosphorus (P) : 0.15% Iron (Fe) : Rest Properties: It is hard and brittle in nature. It has better compressive strength. It has better machinability and castability and weldability. Uses: Grey cast iron are generally used for manufacturing of machine tool beds, piston rings etc. (2) Alloy Cast Iron: When some amount of Nickel(Ni), Chromium(Cr), Molybdenum(Md) etc. are added to the composition of cast iron, the resulting iron which produce is called Alloy Cast Iron. Comparatively it has better properties and strength than other cast irons. It has following properties. It has high strength and hardness. It has better castability. It can be machined and forged easily. It possesses resistance to wear and heat. It has better corrosion resistance. Uses: Alloy cast irons are generally used for making cylinder, I.C. Engine, Piston rings, pipes etc. STEEL Steel is an alloy of iron (Fe) and Carbon (C). It is produced from pig iron with the help of Bessemer converter. The best thing about steel is that it has very high compressive strength of cast iron and very high tensile strength of wrought iron. As such it is suited for all types of situation as a structural materials. Composition: Steel contains maximum up to 2% of carbon (about 1.7%) theoretically. It is tough, strong and ductile. Manufacture of Steel Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 33
The Bessember Process
Bessemer Converter (Isometric Figure) Flame
Iron
Bessemer Converter The Bessemer Converter is an egg or pear shaped vessel supported on trunions in such a way that it can be tilted and even rotated about its horizontal axis. The inner walls of the converter are lined with a refractory material. Stages (1) The Bessemer converter is first tilted to a horizontal position. Molten pig iron (raw material) is then fed directly from the furnace . Air is also simultaneously blown into the converter through the tuyers and the converter is straightened up. (2) Air is kept blowing continuously through the charge. During this process, most of the impurities of the pig iron like Si, C, Mn, S & P gets oxidized on reacting with iron oxide formed as a result of reaction of iron and air. Chemical representation of this change is as follow: Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 34
2FeO + Si = 2Fe + SiO2 FeO + Mn = Fe + MnO (3) When oxidation process has progressed sufficiently, predetermined quantities of ferromanganese are added for two purposes: It supplies carbon for the steel and It deoxidizes any iron oxide left during oxidation of other impurities. (4) Converter is then tilted into the discharge position and molten metal poured into moulds of special rectangular shapes. The solidified steel is known as INGOT, which is the initial material for preparing other steel shapes. Some other processes are also available for the manufacture of steel which are as follows: 1. Open Hearth Process 2. The Electric Process 3. Linz-Donawitz Process 4. Duplex Process etc. Properties and Uses of Steel (1) Plain Carbon Steel It contains Carbon and iron only in its structure. It contains no alloying elements (such as Si, P, S Mn, etc.). It has three types: (a) Low Carbon Steel or Mild Steel): It contains : Carbon (C) : Up to 0.35% Iron (Fe) : Rest Properties: It is tough and ductile in nature. It has better machinability and weldability. It can be forged easily into required form. It has better tensile strength. Uses: It is generally used in R.C.C., Locomotives(A wheeled vehicle consisting of a self-propelled engine that is used to draw trains along railway tracks), Sheet metals, Fabricated items, Machine components etc. (b) Medium Carbon Steel: It contains: Carbon (C) : 0.35% to 0.5% Iron (Fe) : Rest Properties: It is stronger than mild steel (M.S.) It has better hardness as compared to mild steel. It is tough and less ductile. Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 35
Have a self study for Knowledge (Refer Book).
It can be machined and firged into required shapes. Uses: It is generally used for making Rails, Automobile components etc. (c) High Carbon Steel: It contains: Carbon (C) : 0.5% to 1.65% Iron (Fe) : Rest Properties: It is hard and strong. It is less tough as compared to mild steel. It has better forgeability and castability. It has better resistance to wear and heat. Uses: It is generally used for making structural members, Automobile components, Spring, hacksaw blade, carpentors hand tool, light duty dies etc. (2) Alloy Steel When alloying elements like Silicon (Si), Chromium (Cr), Molybdenum (Mo), Vanedium (V), Cadmium (Cd), Covalt (Co) etc. are added in small quantities into the composition of plain carbon steel, the resulting steel is called Alloy Steels. Alloy steel possesses superior properties & strength as compared to plain carbon steel. Alloy steel containing less than 10% of alloying elements are called low alloy steel, where as high alloy steel contains more than 10% of alloying elements. Alloy steels are of following types: (a) Tool Steel Steels which are used for tool making are called Tool Steel. Modern technology accepts High Speed Steel (HSS) as a better tool steel, thus HSS can be better used for metal cutting. A typical composition of HSS is as given below: Carbon (C) Tungsten (W) Chromium (Cr) Vanadium (V) Iron (Fe) : 0.65% to 0.75% : 18% : 4% : 1% : Rest
18/4/1 HSS
Properties: It is sufficiently strong, hard and tough. It has better corrosion resistance. It has better red hardness. It can be forged and machined into the required tool form easily. Its cost should be reasonable. It has better wear resistance. Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 36
(b) Stainless Steel: It is a rustless or corrosion resistance steel which contains chromium (Cr) and Nickle (Ni) as a allowing elements. A typical stainless steel which is generally used in practice will have following composition: Carbon (C) Chromium (Cr) Nickle (Ni) Iron (Fe) : 0.3% to 0.4% : 18% : 8% : Rest
18/8 Stainless Steel
Properties: It is strong, hard and tough. It has excellent corrosion resistance. It has better formability and machinability. It has better resistance to heat, ware and abrasion. Cost should be reasonable. Uses: In Nuclear power plants. In Processive Industries (i.e. Farmatutical production) In food Industries. For making surgical equipments. For making Injection Needle. For making domestic utensils etc. (c) Spring Steel: Steels are which are useful for spring manufacturing process are called Spring Steel. A typical composition of a spring steel contains the following: Carbon (C) Silicon (Si) Manganese (Mn) Iron (Fe) : 0.5% : 2% : 0.7% : Rest
Sillco-Manganese Steel
Properties: It is strong and tough. It has high Resilience (An occurrence of rebounding or springing back). It has corrosion resistance. It cab be easily made into spring form. Its cost is higher as compared to other steel which can be used for spring steel. Uses: For the manufacture of all types of springs. (d) Heat Resistive Steel (HRS):
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This alloy steels are used in places where steel objects are subjected to temperature. It contains high carbon % along with C, Cr, Ni, W and Co. It should have following Properties: It should have high creep resistance. It should be hard and strong. It should have low coefficient of expansion. It should have corrosion resistance. It should have better formability and castability. It should be stable at high temperature. (e) Die Steel Steel which are used for die making purpose are called Die steel. Die steel should have the following properties: It should be sufficiently hard, strong and tough. It should be of better heat resistance capacity. It should have corrosion resistance. It should have dimensional stability during operation. It should be friendly to some machining process and manufacturing process. ALUMINIUM Aluminium is a very common component of the earth crust (about 8%). The most common ore of aluminium is Bauxite (Al2O3.nH2O). Manufacture of Aluminium The ore (Bauxite) is first purified from all of its usual impurities such as silica, titania, iron and pure oxide of Aluminium (Al2O3) by treating with sodium hydroxide solution. By this way Alumina can be obtained. From the alumina so obtained above, metallic alumina is prepared by the process of electrolysis. To get 100% purity, further electrolysis should be done. The following figure shows the process of Electrolysis to get pure Aluminium.
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Properties of Aluminium: It is white metal and shows brilliant luster when fresh. It is lightest material and have sp.gr. of 2.7 It has low melting point of about 650oC. It has high electrical and thermal conductivities. It has tensile strength of about 900 kg/cm2 in the annealed condition. It has high ductility and so can be transformed into any shape by rolling, stamping, extruding, forming, drawing and spinning. It has good castability, so it can be cast in any shape by any method. It has highly resistance to corrosion. It forms excellent alloy with a number of metals such as cu, Mg, Si, Zn, Mn, Cr and Ni. Uses: For structural purpose i.e. frame, railing & roofing material. For making Door, window frame, gates, water reservoir & ventilations. For making super Duralumin in aircraft industry. For fabrication of railway wagons & other body product. For the fabrication of automobiles bodies. For making economical conducting materials in electrical industries. For making aluminum tanks, condensers, heat exchanger, containers etc. in chemical and food processing industry. For making cooking utensils.
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It has considerable resistance to nuclear radiation, so it is used in Nuclear Energy Projects. Alloys of Aluminium Aluminium Alloys are classified as: Aluminium Alloy
Wrought Alloy
Cast Alloy
With Copper (Durallumin)
With Mg
With Mg + Si
Heat Treatable
Non-heat treatable
DURALLUMINIUM It is an aluminium alloy etc. It contains: Aluminium (AL) Copper (Cu) Magnesium (Mg) which is commonly used in Aero Parts, Automobiles, In Rivets : 95% : 4.5% : 0.5%
Properties: It is tough and ductile and durable. It has excellent corrosion resistance. It has excellent machinability. It has low specific gravity. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
END OF CHAPTER 4
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CHAPTER 5 Types of steel, and its composition

For article 5.1 to 5.5, Refer note of Chapter 1, 2 and 4. 5.6 Deformation of steel/Metal Deformation is defined as the change in dimensions or forms of the solid matter under the action of applied force. Deformation is caused either by mechanical action of external force or by some physical process. Deformation is longitudinal when it produces the change in length and it is angular when it changes the angle between the various faces of the bodies. This deformation of steel/metal is necessary to form various metallic shape without fracture. Deformation may be of following two types: 1. Elastic Deformation 2. Plastic Deformation (1) Elastic Deformation It is defined as the deformation of a body which completely disappear when external load is removed from the body. Therefore elastic deformation is a temporary deformation. Under the application of tensile load brittle materials shows Elastic deformation up to its fracture point, while ductile materials show the elastic deformation up to a point called as Elastic Limit. Elastic Deformation is of following two types: (a) An-elastic Deformation (b) Elastomeric Deformation (a) An-elastic Deformation It is defined as the deformation which is fully recoverable but time dependent. In this case, stress is proportional to strain which obeys Hookes Law but the straining is time dependent. (b) Elastomeric Deformation This deformation do not obeys Hookes Law. In this case stress is not directly proportional to strain within elastic limit. This type of deformation is possible only in noncrystalline materials like polymers. For example, Polymers like Synthetic Rubber, which is also called elastomer undergoes to this type of deformation, thus the deformation is named as Elastomeric Deformation. Elastic After Effect (or Delayed Elasticity) (VVI)
The asymptotic approach of elastic strain to its equilibrium value with the passes of time after the application of load is called Elastic After Effect.
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Consider a metal which is subjected to a constant stress at a level very much below its elastic limit. Let, at a time 1sec, if constant stress is suddenly increased to that metal then it undergoes same instantaneous elongation (e1) followed by a delayed elastic strain (e2) during the time t second.
Unloaded strain Loaded e2 e1 e1 An-elasticity e2 1sec. t sec. Time (sec)
At the time t sec. when the load is suddenly removed the instantaneous strain e1 decreased in the same amount as it was increased during loading. The delayed strain (e2) again follows at a decreasing rate until the total strain is zero. (2) Plastic Deformation It is defined as the deformation of a body which remains even after the removal of the applied load from the body. Elastic deformation always followed by a considerable amount of plastic deformation. For materials above 0.4Tm, if loadd then plastic deformation takes place. Plastic Deformation mainly takes place by following two mechanism (mode of plastic deformation) (A) By Slip It is defined as shear deformation where atoms move over a number of interatomic distances relative to their initial positions. Slip Block Slip Plane
Before shear load
After shear load
The above figure represents slip process in a perfect crystal under the application of shear load. As a result of shear load application, plastic deformation takes Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 42
place and the crystal is divided into layers or slip blocks. The plane at which slipping of atomic layers takes place is called slip plane and the preferable direction is called slip direction. (B) By Twinning It is an important mechanism by which metals are deformed. In twinning each atoms moves by only a fraction of interatomic distances relative to its neighbors. The orientation of twinned region is different from untwined region. The plane at which twinning occurs is known as twinned plane and the preferable direction is called twinned direction. It is already understood that a metal usually deforms by twinning only if it is unable to slip. Twins produced by mechanical deformation are called mechanical twins and the twins produced by annealing are called anneal twins. Comparisons (A) Comparison between Slip and Twinning Slip SN Twinning Orientation of the crystal above & below 1.0 It results in an orientation difference the slip plane is same. across the twinned plane. Slip occurs on relatively wide plane. Slip takes time to form. 2.0 Every atomic plane is involved in the deformation by twinning. 3.0 It takes very less time to form.
Slip occurs due to the application of 4.0 It is not known. shear stress. It is a phenomenon at high temperature 5.0 It is a phenomenon at lower temperature with lower strain. with high strain. (B) Comparison between Elastic and Plastic Deformation Elastic Deformation SN Plastic Deformation It is temporary deformation which 1.0 It is permanent deformation which exist appears and disappears with application even after the removal of stresses. and removal of streses. It is the beginning of progress of 2.0 It takes place after the elastic deformation deformation. has stopped. It takes place over the short range of 3.0 It takes place over a wide range of stressstress-strain curve. strain curve. In this deformation, strain reaches its 4.0 In this deformation, strain occurs maximum value after the stress has simultaneously with the application of Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 43
reached its maximum value. Critical Resolved Shear Stress (fcr)
stress.
Stress required to initiate slip in a pure and perfect crystal is called critical Resolved Shear Stress (fcr) P
Normal to slip plane
Slip plane
Slip Direction
P Consider a crystal is subjected to an axial load as shown in above figure: Let, P : Load applied in a axial direction. A : Cross-section area of the crystal. : Angle made between slip direction and tensile axis. ( 90o) : Angle made between the normal to the slip plane and the tensile axis. As a result of axial load application, slip takes place along the slip plane. Therefore, Area of slip plane = A / Cos Thus, the component of the applied load acting in the slip direction = P*Cos We know, Stress at slip plane = Critical Resolved shear stress = fcr Therefore, fcr = P*Cos / (A / Cos) = (P / A) Cos * Cos Thus, Where, fcr = (ft) * Cos * Cos --------------------- (1) 44
Ft = Direct tensile stress. Equation (1) is also known as Schamids Law. 5.7 Heat treatment of steel & its thermal properties Heat treatment is defined as the process of heating the steel from room temperature to operating temperature, held at that temperature for predetermined time followed by cooling to reach room temperature. The main aim of heat treatment is to alter or change the mechanical properties of metal as desired. Objectives of Heat Treatment (General Purpose or Importance of H.T.) To soften the steel, thus to improve its ductility and machinability. To refine the grains. To eliminate the internal stresses from the objects. To remove the gases from the cast objects. To increase the hardness of steel. To increase ware, heat and abrasion resistance of steel. To improve the toughness of the steel. To increase the surface hardness. To produce a hard case over a ductile interior. To restore electric and magnetic properties. General Procedure of Heat Treatment The general procedure of heat treatment is best explain in steps as given below with the help of a Heat Treatment cycle. Y
O.T. Temperature (oC) H (1)
Ho (2) (3) C
X R.T. O.T. (1) (2) R.T. : Room Temperature : Operating Temperature : Heating H : Holding or Soaking, Ho Time (sec)
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(3)
: Cooling C
Step-1, Heating: Steel are heated from Room Temperature to Operating Temperature. O.T. varies for process of heat treatment. Step-2 Holding or Soaking: Hold the steel at that O.T. for predetermined time or proper time in order to achieve uniform temperature throughout the object. Step-3, Cooling: Now cool the steel from O.T. to R.T. by using suitable cooling rates. Cooling rate varies for process to process of heat treatment. Note: Cooling rate Slow Medium Fast (Quenching) Heat Treatment Processes The following Heat Treatment processes are generally carried put in industries to achieve the purposes: 1. Annealing 2. Normalising 3. Hardening 4. Tempering 5. Surface Hardening 6. Case Hardening Fe-C Equilibrium Diagram (For Steel region only) Y 1130 a3 910 Tempr (oC) 723 a1 +P R.T. P + Fe3C 2.0 X + + Fe3C L.C.T. Line acm Cooling Medium Air cooling and Furnace cooling Oil and by lead bath By H2O and By Brine (Nacl) Solution
0.8 Hypo Hyper Steel Region
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% of C in Fe In above figure; , , P are the phases of steel at different temperature. : Ferrite : Austenite P : Pearlite Fe3C : Cementite. a1 : Line corresponding to LCT. a3 : Boundry line between iron and ( + ) iron. acm : Cementite Precipatation line Lower Critical Temperature (L.C.T.): When steels are heated below this temperature, no change takes place in their microstructure. But when heating takes place above LCT, then critical changes in microstructure takes place for steel. 723oC (i.e. a1 line) correspondence to LCT. Upper Critical Temperature (U.C.T.): The temperature at which rise in temperature of steel during heating from room temperature is over, is known as UCT. Critical Range: The region between the UCT and LCT for a given steel is known as Critical Range. Critical range can be referred when the steels are heated above the a1 line, around a3 and acm line. (1) Annealing: It is a softening process where steels are heated above the critical range followed by very slow cooling. The main aim of this process is to soften the steel to eliminate internal stresses and gases from the objects. (2)Normalizing: It is a type of Heat Treatment where steels are heated above the transformation range followed by still air cooling to reach room temperature. The main aim of this process is to refine the grains of steel. (3) Hardening: It is a type of Heat Treatment where steels are heated above the transformation range followed by fast cooling to reach room temperature. The main aim of this process is to increase the hardness of steel. (4) Tempering: It is a type of Heat Treatment where hardened steels are reheated below lower critical temperature followed by medium cooling to reach room temperature. The main aim of this process is to increase toughness of steel. (5) Surface Hardening: It is a type of Heat Treatment process which is very much useful whenever a depth surface to be hardened is more than 1mm. The main aim of this process is to produce a hard and wear resistive surface on ductile interior. (6) Case Hardening: Whenever it is required to go for hardening the depth of surface less than 1mm, then case hardening is to be conducted. The main aim of this process is to produce a hard and wear resistive case over a ductile core. Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 47
5.8 Fracture modes of materials Fracture refers to breaking of the components into two or more pieces either during service or during fabrication due to the application of external load. Factors which are responsible for fractures are: Rate of impact Temperature and Geometry of the materials. Several terms are used to describe fracture depending up on the behaviour of the metal under stress. The most important modes of fractures are followings: 1. Ductile Fracture 2. Brittle Fracture and 3. Creep Fracture. (1) Ductile Fracture: It may be defined as the fracture which takes place by a slow propagation of crack with considerable plastic deformation. Energy consume for this fracture is very high. The appearance of fracture surface is rough and dull. In this case failure is mainly on the account of shear stress. In this fracture the crack continue to propagate so long as the material is in strain. If the straining is stopped then a crack development is also stopped. In actual practice ductile fracture is not much significant. (2) Brittle Fracture: It occurs when the material breaks into pieces without any considerable plastic deformation. So, brittle fracture may be defined as a fracture which takes place by the rapid propagation of crack with a negligible deformation. If the broken pieces of this fracture materials are fitted together then the original shape and dimensions are obtained. If brittle fracture takes place along the grain boundry then it is known as Intergrannular Farcture, if it takes place at high temperature then the fracture is called Intragrannular Fracture. (3) Creep Fracture: It may be defined as the fracture which takes place due to the excessive creping of materials under steady loading. In this case tendency of fracture increases as the temperature increases. Comparision between Ductile and Brittle Fracture. Ductile Fracture SN Brittle Fracture This fracture takes place after 1.0 In this deformation, no considerable considerable plastic deformation. plastic deformation takes place. It happens just after elastic region. Fracture rate is very slow. 2.0 Fracture rate is very quick. Failure is on the account of direct stress. Energy consumed is very low Fracture surface looks smooth and 48
Failure is on the account of shear stress. 3.0 Energy consumed is very high. Fracture surface looks rough and dull. Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 4.0 5.0
regular. 5.9 Steel corrosion & its treatment It is understood that in nature, metals are available in the form of their oxides, carbides, sulphides, silicates etc, when those things are processed then the corresponding pure metal is produced. When the very same pure metal is exposed in atmosphere then it gets oxidized or corroded. Therefore, corrosion is sometimes known as Reversible process on producing metal ore. Thus, Corrosion is defined as the distortion of metal in nature either having contact with oxygen directly or having the contact with oxygen indirectly. More or less all metals gets corroded in nature. Classification of Corrosion Corrosion is broadly classified into the following two groups: 1. Dry Corrosion (Direct-chemical Corrosion) 2. Wet Corrosion (Electro-chemical Corrosion) (1) Dry Corrosion (Direct-chemical Corrosion): In this case corrosion is mainly due to direct attack of oxygen in nature. In this case metal will not have a contact with electrolytes but corrosion takes place. Mechanism of Dry Corrosion Atmosphere Oxide film
Metal Piece
Whenever metals are exposed to atmosphere they came to contact with atmospheric dry elements. As it is already understood that dry corrosion is mainly due to dry attack of oxygen, therefore oxygen directly penetrate into the upper surfaces of the metal and oxidize it. As a result, oxide layer is formed at the upper surface. As the process is continuous one, similarly the other layers of metal gets oxidized with some time period and finally destroy the metal.
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Note: *At high temperature dry corrosion phenomenon is higher. ** the oxide film thickness on the metal goes on increases then the corrosion rate gradually decreases. (2) Wet Corrosion (Electro-chemical Corrosion):
Metal Piece. Electrolytes
When metal will have a contact with electrolyte, wet corrosion takes place. It is mainly due to the indirect attack of oxygen. This corrosion takes place due to the flow of electrons or ions. Thus wet corrosion is also known as Electro-chemical corrosion. Mechanism of Wet Corrosion Mechanism of Wet Corrosion takes place by following two methods: (a) Hydrogen Evolution Method: Whenever the metal will have a contact with electrolyte such as industrial wastage & acid solutions then, wet corrosion takes place. This corrosion mechanism takes place by indirect attack of oxygen. In this case when any metal is exposed to electrolytes, then it gains some electron potential, thus some part of metal is at higher electron potential and some other part of metal will be at lower electron potential. Therefore higher electron potential part of metal is act as Anode, where lower electron potential part of metal will act as a Cathode. As a result, anodic and cathodic reaction takes palce which is given below: At Anode Metal Me++ + 2eAt Cathode H2O + 2e(OH)- + H+ 2H+ + 2eH2 (Evolution or vapouraisation)
Finally metallic hydroxide results which is treated as a corrosive mass. Thus wet corrosion mechanism takes place by Hydrogen Evolution Method. (b) Oxygen AbsorbtionMethod: Whenever a metal will have a contact with electrolyte like natural aqueous (water), salt solution and when the metal is exposed to those electrolytes, after some period a crack is found at the upper surface. Near the crack electron starts Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 50
releasing into electrolytes then act as a anode and the remaining area of the metal acts as cathode. As a result, anodic and cathodic reaction takes place which is: At anode, Metal Me++ + 2eAt cathode H2O + 2e- + () O2 2(OH)Finally, the metal is destructed in the form of its corresponding hydroxide. Thus wet corrosion takes place by oxygen absorbtion method. Types of corrosion 1. Uniform Corrosion 2. High temperature Corrosion 3. Pitting Corrosion 4. Intergrannular Corrosion 5. Underground Corrosion 6. Stress Corrosion Cracking 7. Selective Corrosion 8. Erosion Corrosion 9. Galvaionic Corrosion 10. Biological Corrosion 11. Fretting Corrosion Treatment (or Control or Prevention) of Corrosion. Corrosion can not be controlled completely. But it can be prevented to some extent, thus the life of the metal is increased in corrosion environment. The various prevention methods which are used in practice are explained below: 1. By Purification of metals. 2. By alloy addition 3. By Heat Treatment 4. By applying protective coatings. 5. By using Inhibitors 6. By proper Design 7. By cathodic protection (1) By alloy addition: Alloying elements like Ni, Cr are added to ferrous metals say steel, in order to improve their corrosion resistance. It is already understood that alloy possesses better corrosion resistance as compared to pure metals. (2) By Heat Treatment: As we know that due to stress variation in object, corrosion takes place. To prevent this corrosion, stresses are to be made equalize for that object which can be only possible by heat treatment. Stress releasing annealing is the process to be used to prevent the corrosion.
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(3) By applying protective coatings: Protective coatings are applied to the surfaces of the base metal in order to protect from corrosion. Protective coating may be metallic or it may be non-metallic which can be applied to the base metal surface by any method. Metallic coatings are durable than non-metallic coating as corrosion atmosphere is considered. Metallic coating is costlier. (4) By using Inhibitors: Inhibitors are those substances which are added to electrolytes in very small quantities in order to prevent the corrosion. Inhibitors may be calcium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg). (5) By Proper Design: During design analysis, a Design Engineer first consider the following given points so as to prevent corrosion. Avoid abrupt (irregular) sectional changes. Avoid sharp corners and bends. Avoid rough surfaces. Avoid dissimilar metal contact. (6) By Cathodic Protection: this prevention method can be done by following two methods: (a) By sacrificial anodisation: In this case the structure to be protected is connected with more anodic metal. For example, steel with Mn, Zn, Al etc. It starts reacting and sacrificially protect the structure. In this case anode metal sacrifies completely to protect cathode metal, hence the name is sacrificial anodisation. (b) By impressed current method (External voltage method): For the prevention of wet corrosion, structure to be protected is connected to cathode of external D.C. supply.
END OF CHAPTER-5
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CHAPTER 7 Properties of ceramic Materials

7.1 Definition Creamics are the phases, in general ceramics are inorganic non-metallic materials. The bonding in ceramic materials is mixed ionic and covalent in character. Ceramics are insulators and they possesses high compressive strength. In actual practice ceramics are hard and brittle. 7.2 Classification of ceramics Ceramics are classified according to their mechanical and commercial use in following manner: 1. Clays or clay products. 2. Refractives or Refractories. 3. Rocks 4. Glasses 5. Abrasives, etc. (1) Clays or clay products.: Clays are essentially the weathered remains of various types of rocks. They are natural occurring inorganic materials. The important clay minerals are: (a) Kaolinite: It is a white clay which is used for the production of electrical porcelains bodies, sanitary wares, fire bricks etc. (b) Montmorillonite: It is a large groups at common clay contains Talc, which is used for the production of electrical dielectrics for high frequency applications. Clay possesses following properties: Clay possesses plasticity when moist. Clay possesses rigidity when dried. Clay possesses strength and hardness when fired. (2) Refractories Or Refractive Materials: Materials which are capable of withstanding high temperature in various situation are known as Refractories. These are basically ceramic materials used for the construction lining of furnace, boilers, gas turbine, rotary kiln, convertor, fuels etc. Basic functions refractories are thermal insulation and conductions. Types of Refractories: (a) Acid Refractories: These are composed of acidic materials such as Alumino silicates and siliceous materials. Silica is basic constituent of acid refractory. Some important acid refractories are silica, sillimanite, fire clay, zircon etc.
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(b) Basic Refractories: These are basically composed of basic materials like magnesia which acts as principle constituents of basic refractories. Some example are limestone, dolomite, magnesiite etc. (c) Neutral Refractories: These are such refractories which do not combine with either acidic or basic oxides. Some examples are carbon, Graphite, Bauxite etc. Thus, Refractiveness is the ability of material to withstand the action of heat without any deformation or irregularities under particular service condition. Properties of Refractories: It possesses resistance to high temperature, thermal shock and abrasion. Refractories are chemically inactive at higher temperature. Long life without cracking at high temperature, hence it is durable. It should have minimum expansion and contraction. It should have very low electrical conductivity. It should able to resist fluxing (flow or discharge) action of slag. (3) Rocks: A rock is defined as a portion of earth crust having no shape or definite chemical composition. It is not a homogeneous material. It is composed of minerals. The rocks are polycrystalline solids of definite texture. Different types of rocks are: (a) Igneous Rock Plutonic Rock Hypabasal Rock Volcanic Rock (b) Sedimentary Rock (c) Metamorphic Rock. (4) Glasses: Glass is an inorganic product of fusion, which has been fused to rigid condition without recrystallisation. Silica is a perfect glass forming material along with silica oxides of carbon, vanadium, germanium and some colors are added to improve the quality of glass. It possesses excellent corrosive resistance to all corrosive medium. The structure of glass is nearly similar to that of liquids, hence, glasses are generally regarded as super cooled liquids. According to commercial use the different types of glases are listed below: 1. Sodalime glass 2. Borrosilicate glass 3. Lead glass 4. High silica glass. (5) Abrasives: Abrasion is mechanically rubbing away of surface from the material, whereas abrasives are hard materials used to wear away other materials. Abrasives from ceramic groups are very economical and plently available. Abrasives are used in grinding wheels and energy sheets for the purpose of roughening, polishing and cutting operations. A different types of abrasives are: Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 54
Hard abrasive Soft abrasive Artificial abrasive Silicious abrasive
: Diamond and Garnet : Metallic oxides : Silicon carbide, Al2O3 etc. : quartz, sand, stone etc.
Mechanical Properties of ceramics In general mechanical properties of ceramics concern over its strength. The various mechanical properties of ceramics are: (1) Compressive strength: It possesses high Compressive strength. (2) Tensile strength: It possesses quite low tensile strength. (3) Shear strength: It has high shear strength but low fractured strength. (4) Transverse strength: It is difficult to achieve this strength in ceramics. Thus ceramics are not used in places where transverse strength of the material is an important considerations. (5) Torsional strength: It is seldom considered as a critical properties of ceramics. (6) Modulus of Elasticity: In ceramics this value is very high. Thermal Properties of ceramics Thermal proerties of ceramics are quite different from that of metals, the most important thermal properties of ceramic materials which vary from material to material and under different conditions are given below: Thermal Capacity: Thermal capacity of ceramics mainly concern over its specific heat. The specific heat of fire clay brick is 0.25 at 1000oC and 0.297 at 1400oC. If we consider carbon bricks, they have specific heat about 0.812 at 200oC and 0.412 at 1000oC. Thermal shock: It is the ability of ceramic material to resist cracking or disintegration of the material under sudden change in temperature. Thermal Conductivity: In ceramic heat is conducted by the interaction of the lattice vibration, but at high temperature conduction takes place by the transfer of radiant energy. Thermal conductivity decreases with impurity contents. Applications of Ceramics. Ceramics are used in heat resistance application which includes pyrometer tube, burners, burner tips and radiant heater support. Used as refractories for industrial furnaces flues, crucibles, convertor etc. Used in electrical and electronics industries. Ceramics are used as cutting tools, this tool materials will have hot hardness and better wear resistance. Ceramics are used in nuclear applications. It is also used in optical applications.
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7.3 Composition of brick, its harmful ingredients, qualities of good bricks Composition of Brick A good brick earth should have following compositions: Alumina or clay : 20 to 30% by weight. Silica or Sand : 35 to 50% by weight. Major Composition Silt : 20 to 25% by weight Remaining Ingredients which includes: Iron oxide (Fe2O3) Magnesia (MgO) Lime (CaO) 1 to 2% by weight. Sodium potash Manganese Small quantity of iron oxide present in brick earth acts as a flux, helps grains of sand and clay to bind together. Small quantity of Magnesia in brick earth make the brick yellowish color and reduce shrinkage. But excess of magnesia leads to the decay of bricks. Manganese in small proportion along with iron makes brick darker. Harmful Ingredients in Brick Earth (1) Limestone and kankar nodules: The presence of limestone and kankar nodules in brick earth is harmful & creats serious troubles. On heating, limestone is converted into lime which on contact with water swells and causes the brick to split and crumble into pieces. But, however a certain quantity of limestone is desirable as it binds the particle of brick together & reduces shrinkage on drying. (2) Alkalies: If Alkali present in the brick earth, they lower the fusion point of clay and cause the brick to fuse, twist and warp during burning. Alkaline salts if present in finished brick absorb moisture from atmosphere and create damp condition. Further when the moisture dries up a greysh white deposit is left behind which spoils the appearance the structure, the effect is known as efflorescence. (3) Pebbles of stone and gravel: They do not permit the clay to be thoroughly mixed and thus impair the uniformity of a brick. (4) Iron pyrites: If it present in earth decompose and oxidize in the brick and cause the brick to split. (5) Kallar or reh: It consists of sulphate of soda, mixed with common salt and carbonate of soda. It prevent the bricks from being properly baked (Dried out by heat or excessive exposure to sunlight) (6) Vegetation and organic matter: The presence of vegetation and organic matter in brick assist in burning. But if such matter is not completely burnt, the bricks become porous. Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 56
Qualities of good bricks It should be well burnt with uniform color (Deep red, cherry or copper) All the face should be uniform and smooth and all edges should be sharp. It should be free from cracks. Scratch with finger nails should leave no marks. It should not absorb more than 15% of their weight of water when kept immerses for 24 hours. It should give sharp metallic sound (ringing) when two bricks are strike to each other. Its crushing strength should not be less than 105 kg/cm2. It should not break when dropped on a hard ground from a height of 1 mtr.
Size of standard Brick: 7.4 Popular types of tiles, and their uses, Roof tiles Floor Tiles, wall tiles. Tiles are thin slab of brick earth, burn in kiln. These are thinner than bricks and have a grater tendency to crack and warp in drying and burning than ordinary bricks and are more liable to breakage. Types of Tiles: There are following types of tiles: 1. Roofing Tiles 2. Flooring Tiles 3. Wall Tiles 4. Drain Tiles 5. Glazed Earthenware Tiles (1) Roofing Tiles: These should be strong, durable and perfectly leakproof. These tiles may of following types: (a) Flat Tiles: These are rectangular in shape and are of various dimensions. They are laid in cement or lime mortar. The different types of flat tiles are: (i) Slate tiles: The size available are 60cm*30cm*15mm and 50cm*25cm*10mm. These tiles are straight, of uniform color, texture, free from veins, cracks, fissures, white patches etc. Water absorption after 24 hours immersion in cold water should be maximum 21% by weight. (ii) Burnt clay flat terracing tiles: These are uniform in shape, size and should be free from irregularities like bends, twist, crack etc. The water absorption should not exceed 20% by weight. Compressive strength should not be less than 7.5 MPa.
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(b) Pot tiles or Pan tiles: These are semi-circular (in section) hand moulded, first into a flat tile, then to required shape on wooden pattern & burnt in a kiln after drying. These tiles are laid on slopped roofs along with concave side up and longer end towards the ridge. Then another row of same tiles with convex side up and small end towards the ridge is laid covering the adjoining edges of every pair of tiles below. Extensively used in rural areas.
(c) Allahabad tiles: These are flat tiles provided with interlocking arrangements at the side. They are generally laid side by side and joints are then covered with half round tile. They should not absorb water more than 20% by weight. They are tapering in dimension form 30cm to 25cm form bigger end to smaller end. Length will be 40 cm.
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(d) Corrugated tiles: These tiles have corrugations and when they are placed in position, a side lap of one or two corrugations is formed. They are very good in appearance.
(e) Mangalore Tiles: They are flat and provided with suitable projections so that they interlock with each other, when placed in position. Life of this tile is more(about 25 years with replacement of 5% per year). These tiles consist at least 2 nibs, each with a base width of not less than 19mm & projecting above the surface not less than 10mm. These confirms the size as 410mm*235mm; 420mm*250mm; 425mm*260mm. The weight of this tile at 1050C + 50C shall not be less than 2kg and shall not be more than 3kg. This tile is classified into two groups: Class AAMoisture absorption less than10% by weight and average breaking load of 102 kg/cm2. Class A Moisture content not exceeding 24% and average breaking load of 68 kg./cm2.
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(f) Ridge, valley and lip tile: These are of specially shaped as shown in fig. below:
(2) Flooring Tiles: These are flat and usually square or rectangular in shape. They can be constructed in any shape. They should give ringing sound when struck with each other. They should not absorb water more than 24% by their weight. Fracture surface of the tile should be clean, dense and sharp at the edges. They should show maximum resistance to impact. They should confirm dimensional specifications with tolerance of plus or minus 3mm for length or breadth and plus or minus 1.5mm for thickness. Common sizes of flooring tiles are: 15cm*15cm*18mm, 20cm*20cm*20mm, 22.5cm*22.5cm*22mm. (3) Wall Tiles: These are similar to floor tiles except for their and degree of burning. They are burn comparatively at a low temperature, glazed and burnt again at a still lower temperature. They are use in face work at bathroom, kitchen etc. 7.5 Glass, its manufactory types, forms, & common properties Glass is an amorphous solid substance that has been formed by supercooling a liquid solution containing chiefly silica and some other selected components. Glass is an inorganic product of fusion, which has been fused to rigid condition without recrystallisation. Silica is a perfect glass forming material along with silica oxides of carbon, vanadium, germanium and some colors are added to improve the quality of glass. It possesses excellent corrosive resistance to all corrosive medium. The structure of glass is nearly similar to that of liquids, hence, glasses are generally regarded as super cooled liquids. According to commercial use the different types of glases are listed below: 1. Sodalime glass 2. Borosilicate glass (Pyrex). 3. Leaded glass Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 60
4. High silica glass. (1) Sodalime glass: This is most common type of glass-used extensively for domestic purpose, i.e. window panes, plate glass, light bulbs, glass plate and containers like bottles. It consist: SiO2 : 71% 74% (Silica) Na2O : 13% - 17% CaO : 5% - 14% Features: It is the cheapest quality of glass. It is easily fusible at comparatively low temperatures. It is available in clean and clear state. (2) Borosilicate glass (Pyrex): It is special type of glass made by adding Boron oxide as the chief additive with silica at the time of manufacture. Addition of Boron oxide increases its melting point and resistance against thermal shock. This glass can be heated and cooled again and again without any risk of damage, this is because its coefficient of expansion gets reduced considerably by the addition of boron oxide. Alumina and sodium oxide are other additives in this glass. It contains: Silica (SiO2) : 81% Boron oxide (B2O3) : 12% Sodium oxide (Na2O) : 4% Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) : 2% Pyrex is trade name of Borosilicate glass. It can be used at high temperature condition such as: (i) making of laboratory wares for experiments; (ii) cooking utensils. It is also used for telescope and glass piping. (3) Leaded glass: This glass has high refractive index. This property inglass is induced by adding lead oxide with silica during manufacturing stage. Composition is: Silica (SiO2) : 67 73% Lead oxide (PbO) : 15 30% Potassium oxide (K2O) : 4 7% Sodium oxide (Na2O) : 9 12% Its special application is: In making shields for protection against gamma radiation; In the manufacture of optical instruments; For making neon signs. (4) High Silica Glass: It is pure silica (SiO2), without any additives. Its use is restricted to temperature applications. It has high softening temperature. Forms of Glasses. Glass used in industry in a various forms, some common forms are:
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(1) Pressed glass: This is prepared by moulding the fused glass into sheets and other shapes under pressure. These sheets are the starting material for making glassware and structural blocks. (2) Glass building blocks: These are manufactured from pressed glass by fusing two or more sheets in such a way that a partial vacuum is caused in the interior of the blocks. These blocks are used in masonry construction for permitting transmission of light without being transparent and without bearing any loads. (3) Glass Fibres: It has been found that very thin fibres of glass possesses very high tensile strength. The thinner the fibre, higher the tensile strength. The molten glass is forced out through numerous minute openings in the form of thin streams. Up on these stream is impinged a blast of air or steam under a precalculated pressure. The streams solidifies in to thin fibres. It is used in manufacture og shock proof helmets, car bodies, boats and a variety of other components. (4) Laminated glass: These are made by bounding together two or more plates of glass. Sometimes, layers of a third material like asphalt, rubber or resin are also made a part of the laminated glass. It characterized with: (a) Shattering resistance: Its pieces do not fly away in all directions on its getting suddenly broken under impact. This makes laminated glass as an ideal material for the use as safety glass in automobiles and aircraft. (b) Shock resistance: It can bear safely sudden impacts up to desired value. It makes use of this glass as safety glass. (5) Bullet resistant glass: It is a variety of laminated glass which is made by pressing together several layers of glass and vinyl resins in alternating manner. Thickness of such glass varies from 12mm to 75mm or more. It is specially used in vehicles and other automobiles for security reasons. Common Properties of Glass 1. Glass has high tensile properties. The glass in the form of fine glass shows the tensile strength as high 7.0*105 kg/cm2. Ordinary glass thread possesses tensile strength of 700 to 1400 kg/cm2. 2. Modulus of elasticity of glass is very high. 3. Glasses are more brittle, has low conductivity and low coefficient of thermal expansion. 4. Glasses are resistant to acids and many other chemicals. Hence they are ideal materials for storage of chemicals. 5. Glasses are very good electrical insulators. 6. They are very high softening point and can be used at high temperature.
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END OF CHAPTER - 7
CHAPTER 8 Cementing materials

8.1 Clay Clays are essentially the weathered remains of various types of rocks. They are natural occurring inorganic materials. Clays are called cohesive soil and formed due to chemical weathering. The important clay minerals are: (a) Kaolinite: It is a white clay which is used for the production of electrical porcelains bodies, sanitary wares, fire bricks etc. (b) Illite: These are the medium group of clay content. These are also used for the manufacture of electrical porcelain bodies, sanitary ware etc. (c) Montmorillonite: It is a large groups at common clay contains Talc, which is used for the production of electrical dielectrics for high frequency applications. Clay possesses following properties: Clay possesses plasticity when moist. Clay possesses rigidity when dried. Clay possesses strength and hardness when fired. For article 8.2 to 8.6, refer class note. 8.7 Testing of cement mortar and lime mortar Following tests are generally carried out on mortar: 1. Test for adhesiveness 2. Crushing strength test 3. Tensile strength test 4. Setting time test. (1) Test for adhesiveness: The following procedures are to be adopted for the test: A uniform thin horizontal layer of mortar is to be placed between two bricks of standard size (i.e.190mm*90mm*90mm) laid upon one another at right angles. Once mortar is completely set, the upper brick is suspended from an overhead support. Weights are attached to the lower brick. The loads are to be increased gradually till the two bricks separate out along the mortar joint. The load at which two bricks separate out divided by area of contact gives measure of adhesiveness of mortar.
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Overhead Support
Upper Brick Mortar Joint Lower Brick
Weight (2) Crushing Strength Test: The following procedures are to be adopted for the test: The brickwork is carried out with mortar to be tested. A sample of brickwork is taken and it is gradually loaded in a compression testing machine (Universal Testing Machine) till the failure occurs due to crushing. The ultimate load causing failure divided by x-sectional area gives the ultimate crushing strength of the mortar per square area. This value will vary between 40 t/m2 for lime mortars to 70 t/m2 for cement mortar. (3) Tensile strength test: Test is conducted as follows: The mortar of standard mix (1:3) is first cast into briquette mould. These briquettes are allowed to set and hardened. These samples are tested on Tensile testing machine till briquettes breaks. Total applied tensile load at which the briquette breaks is divided by the area of cross-section of the briquette at the place of its breaking (central portion area = 38*38 = 1444 mm2 ), gives ultimate tensile strength of the mortar. (4) Setting time test: Test is conducted as follows: Mortar is tested in Vicat apparatus for thr setting time. Depending up on the type of lime mortar, the test may be conducted after one day, 3 days or 1 week. In case of cement mortar, this test is conducted within 3 to 5 minutes of adding water.
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END OF CHAPTER - 8
CHAPTER 10 Synthetic Polymers

10.1 Definition Synthetic polymers are often referred to as "plastics", such as the well-known polyethylene and nylon. However, most of them can be classified in at least three main categories: thermoplastics, thermosets and elastomers. Man-made polymers are used in a wide array of applications: food packaging, films, fibers, tubing, pipes, etc. The personal care industry also uses polymers to aid in texture of products, binding, and moisture retention (e.g. in hair gel and conditioners). Polymer Polymer is a important organic material. Polymer is composed form of large number of repetitive units called monomers or simple molecules. It has following types: Linear Polymer: It is a polymer which is obtained by simply adding the monomers together to form a long chain. Co-polymer: It is a polymer which is obtained by adding different types of monomers. Cross-linked polymer: It is a polymer which is obtained by connecting the long chain through a covalent bond. Polymerisation It is a process of forming polymer. Polymerisation process may be of following two types: (1) Addition polymerization: The process in which two or more chemically similar monomers are polymerized to form a long chain molecule are known as addition polymerization. Example-1: H H H H H H H H C= C+C= C H H H H Monomer of ethelene Example-2 H H Cl H - C C C C H H H H Polythelene. H H H H
C= C+C= C H H Cl H
-C C C CH Cl Cl H 65
Monomer of Vinylechloride
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
(2) Condensation polymerization: The process in which two or more chemically different monomers are polymerized to form either a long chain or crossed linked polymer or linear polymer along with a bi-product such as water or ammonia, is known as condensation polymerization. Example: H H H H H C OH + H C C OH H Monomer of Methyl alcohol H O H C O C C H + H2O H Easter O H
Acetic Acid
Behaviors (Properties ) of Polymers Polymers have the following behaviors: (1) Mechanical Behaviors: This behavior is influenced by molecular structure which are: They give limited elastic deformation and fractured in a brittle manner. Stress-strain relationship in a polymer is not linear like that of metals. (2) Thermal Behaviors: It has been observed that at very lower temperature polymers are hard, rigid and glass like material. As the temperature of the polymer increases then it gradually deforms under the applied load. This type of behaviors in polymer is known as Viscoelastic behavior. It exist below the temperature known as glass transition temperature. If the temperature is further increased then it undergoes plastic deformation under the action of load. This property is only possible within melting temperature. (3) Elastic Behavior: Almost all polymers are very poor conductor. This is due to the fact that all the electrons are strongly bound in the covalent bonds and none is free to conduct electricity. But some of the polymers are very good insulator. Plastic Plastics are polymers which can be moulded into any desired shape and size with the help of heat, pressure or by both. Plastic in its liquid form is known as Resin. Now a days plastics have greater use in engineering field because of the following advantages: Raw materials are plentley available and their cost is economical. Easy to produce. They have excellent corrosion resistance. Depending up on the binder used for the production of plastics, it may be of following types: 1. Natural Plastic Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 66
2. Synthetic Plastic. In actual practice, synthetic plastics are much more used which further classified into the following two types: 1. Thermo-plastic (Thermo-softening plastics) 2. Thermo-setting plastic (Thermo-hardening plastic) (1) Thermo-plastic (Thermo-softening plastics): These are the plastics which is produced by addition polymerization, this plastic increases its plasticity with the increase in temperature. During moulding this plastic never gives any chemical changes and they do not become permanentaly hard with the application of pressure and heat. Some common example of such plastics are polythene, polystrens, polyvinyls, acroylics etc. Thermo-setting plastic (Thermo-hardening plastic): These are the plastics which do not deform on mechanical stressing. This plastics are formed by condensation polymerization. In this case, plasticity of this plastic does not change with the change in temperature. This plastic after moulding possesses a permanent hardness. They cannot be remoulded in to any other new shape. Some of the examples of such plastics are polyster, phenolic resins, epoxites etc. NOTE: Plastic components or plastic objects are formed by the following manufacturing processes: By injecting plastic into the mould, which can be done by injection moulding machine. By blowing plastics into the mould which can be done by using blow-moulding machine. By hand moulding. Comparison between Thermoplastics and Thermo-setting plastics. Thermo-plastics It is produced polymerization. by SN Thermo-setting plastics addition 1.0 It is produced by polymerization. condensation
This plastics are the composed of chain 2.0 molecules. This polymers can be mechanically 3.0 deform. These plastic temperature. softened at high 4.0
This plastics are the composed of crosslinked polymers. These polymers mechanically. can not be deform
These plastics never softened at any temperature. Plasticity does not increases with increase in temperature. Can not be circumstances. reused under given
Plasticity increases with increase in 5.0 temperature. Can be reused. 6.0
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10.4 Use of Polymers in repairs of structures Three relatively new applications for controlling wind and water erosion using polyacrylamide copolymers are described that take advantage of their ability to stabilize and add structure to soil. In the first application, low concentrations of anionic, high purity polyacrylamide (PAM) eliminates sediment in runoff water by more than 90% when added to irrigation water at 10 ppm, or at a rate of 1 to 2 kg ha1 per irrigation. Lab-furrow tests were utilized to characterize the role of molecular weight, charge, and ion concentrations in applying PAM during irrigation. In the second application, PAM is applied at construction sites and road cuts at rates of 22.5 kg ha2 (tenfold higher rates than in irrigation control) resulting in reduction in sediment runoff by 6085% during (simulated) heavy rains. Finally, a formulation of PAM mixed with aluminum chlorohydrate and cross-linked poly(acrylic acid) superabsorbent at a ratio of (6:1:1) has been applied to create helicopter landing pads that minimize dust clouds during helicopter operation. This formulation was specifically developed to minimize dust clouds during landing of helicopters in fine, arid soils such as those potentially encountered in the Middle East. A biodegradable alternative to PAM, acid-hydrolyzed cellulose microfibrils, was tested in lab-scale furrows and was less effective than PAM at similar concentrations, but show promises. Microfibrils reduce sediment run-off in lab-furrow tests by 88% when applied at eight- to tenfold the concentration of PAM.
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CHAPTER 10 Miscellaneous Materials

Rubber It is an organic polymer. It may contain large number of constituent such as sulphur, accelerator, plasticizers, dyes and pigments etc. The structure of rubber consists of long chain molecule which are interlocked with one another. Rubber may be broadly classified into the following two typer: (1) Natural Rubber: It is an elastic material present in the latex (fluid) of a certain plants such as Brasilensis and Gaugule etc. It is a polymer of isoprene which has got the following structure: H H -- C H Issoprene Natural Rubber is of the following three types: 1. Chlorinated Rubber 2. Rubber Hydrochloride 3. Cyclised Rubber. (2) Synthetic Rubber (Elastomer): It is the modern developed rubber which is manufactured from raw materials such as petroleum. Alcohol, salt, coke, ammonia, limestone, sulphur and coaltar etc. It will have many properties like natural rubber and sometimes possesses better strength than natural rubber. It never contains any amount of natural rubber. It may be of following types: 1. Neoprenes rubber: Gaskets, oil seals, tank lining etc. 2. Butyle rubber: Tank lining, tyre, wire etc. 3. Butadine rubber: Belts, shoe sole, tyre etc. 4. Silicon rubber: Gasket, wires, tyres, cable insulation etc. 5. Nitrite rubber: Conveyor belts, tank lining, tyres etc. Q. What is vulcanization (vulcanizing) ? Ans. It is a process by which rubber composed is heated with sulphur. After vulcanization, rubber improves its elasticity and strength. H- C- H C = C H H - C H
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Insulating Materials (Dielectrics) The materials that retard or stop the flow of heat or electricity or sound through them may be broadly defined as insulators or insulating materials. These are also known as Dielectrics. When those materials are used to prevent the flow of electricity through them on the application of potential difference then they are called as Insulator. But when they are used to store electricity and release the same under controlled condition, they are known as Dielectrics. Dielectric Properties: (1) Dielectric Loss: When an alternating voltage is applied across a capacitor having free space or vacuum as dielectric, the polarization of dielectric is in phase with the voltage. (2) Dielectric Constant: It is the ratio of absolute permittivity of the dielectric to the absolute permittivity of the free space. (3)Dielectric Strength: Whenever the electric field strength applied to a dielectric, exceed the critical value, the large amount of current flows through it. As a result, the dielectric losses its insulating property. This phenomenon is known as dielectric break down. The electric field strength at which this occurs is known as dielectric strength. Note: The important insulating materials which are used in various field are Glass, mica, Ceramics, Asbestos, Resin, Rubber etc. Q. How to select dielectric? OR What are the very good requirements of dielectrics? Ans: It should have high value of dielectric constant. It should have small dielectric loss. It should have sufficiently high dielectric strength. It should have high insulation resistance. Types of Insulators (1) Electrical Insulator: Followings should be the qualities of Electrical Insulator: Should have very high electrical resistivity. Should have resistance to deterioration on heating. Should have very low thermal expansion. Should be non-inflammable. Should have chemical stability at high temperatures. Should have high strength, hardness and resistance to abrasion. Mica, Asbestos, Rubber, Paper, Synthetic resins, Porcelain, glasses, cotton etc. are the example of Electrical insulator. Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 70
(2) Thermal Insulators: Followings should be the qualities of Thermal Insulator: Should have very low thermal conductivity. Should have very high softening point. Should be stable to thermal shocks. Should be stable chemically and physically at high temperature for prolonged period. Should be resistance to moisture and vibration. Magnesia plastic, asbestos, cork, cellular rubber, mineral wool, vermiculites etc. are the example of thermal insulator. (3) Sound Insulators (Accoustic): It prevents from noise pollution to the city. Cellular concrete, acoustic plaster, acoustic boards etc. are the example of sound insulator. Fuel A fuel may be defined as any material that on combustion yields heat energy. The fuel may be solid, liquid or gas. Classification of fuel Origin Natural Solid (a) Wood (b) Coals (i) Peat (ii)Lignite (brown coal) (iii)Bituminous coal (iv)Anthracite Manufactured Coke Liquid (a) Crude oil (b) Natural gasoline Gaseous Natural gas
(a) Tar Petroleum (b) Distillates Gasoline (c) Diesel (d) Kerosene
(a) Producer gas (b) Water gas (c) Coke oven gas (d) LPG
Coal is principally a highly carbonaceous matter. In all cases coal has been formed in nature as a result of alteration of wood (plants) under favorable conditions of temperature, pressure and chemical decomposition and dissociation. It is composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen, carbon being the single most important constituent. Peat is the least converted variety of coal.Often vegetable structure is visible to the naked eyes. Lignite is the coal of lowest rank. The decomposition of woody tissue in lignite is of higher order than peat. Coal is compact and woody in texture. Bituminous coal is a group of coal that are pitch black to dark grey in color. They are laminated in structure and show high degree of coalification. Anthracite is the coal of the highest rank in which all the vegetable matter has been completely converted to coal. Carbon content up to 98%. Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 71
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Chapter- 1 1.

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END OF CHAPTER 1 (ONE)

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CHAPTER 2 2.0 Characteristics of construction materials

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Strain ( ) Stress-Strain curve for metal (ductile materials)

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Striking Edge(S.E.) or Pendulum Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari

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10mm Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari 16

Size of specimen Notch angle Notch depth

END OF CHAPTER TWO

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CHAPTER 3 Basic Construction Materials

The gradation curve for different gradation will be:

For poorly graded

For well graded

For gap graded

Prepared By : Er. Prakash Bdr. Adhikari Grain size(opening of sieve)

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Bulking % of dry volume or change in volume (%)

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Plain Carbon Steel

Stainless Steel Die Steel Heat Resistive Steel

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The Bessember Process

Bessemer Converter (Isometric Figure) Flame

Have a self study for Knowledge (Refer Book).

18/8 Stainless Steel

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With Copper (Durallumin)

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CHAPTER 5 Types of steel, and its composition

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Unloaded strain Loaded e2 e1 e1 An-elasticity e2 1sec. t sec. Time (sec)

Before shear load

After shear load

reached its maximum value. Critical Resolved Shear Stress (fcr)

Normal to slip plane

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O.T. Temperature (oC) H (1)

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0.8 Hypo Hyper Steel Region

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Metal Piece. Electrolytes

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CHAPTER 7 Properties of ceramic Materials

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Hard abrasive Soft abrasive Artificial abrasive Silicious abrasive

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