2.0
Fiber-Optic Applications
FIBRE OPTICS : The use and demand for optical fiber has grown tremendously and optical-fiber applications are numerous. Telecommunication applications are widespread, ranging from global networks to desktop computers. These involve the transmission of voice, data, or video over distances of less than a meter to hundreds of kilometers, using one of a few standard fiber designs in one of several cable designs. Carriers use optical fiber to carry plain old telephone service (POTS) across their nationwide networks. Local exchange carriers (LECs) use fiber to carry this same service between central office switches at local levels, and sometimes as far as the neighborhood or individual home (fiber to the home [FTTH]). Optical fiber is also used extensively for transmission of data. Multinational firms need secure, reliable systems to transfer data and financial information between buildings to the desktop terminals or computers and to transfer data around the world. Cable television companies also use fiber for delivery of digital video and data services. The high bandwidth provided by fiber makes it the perfect choice for transmitting broadband signals, such as highdefinition television (HDTV) telecasts. Intelligent transportation systems, such as smart
highways with intelligent traffic lights, automated tollbooths, and changeable message signs, also use fiber-optic-based telemetry systems. Another important application for optical fiber is the biomedical industry. Fiber-optic systems are used in most modern telemedicine devices for transmission of digital diagnostic images. Other applications for optical fiber include space, military, automotive, and the industrial sector.
3.0
Fig. - Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchies (PDH) Traditionally, digital transmission systems and hierarchies have been based on multiplexing signals which are plesiochronous (running at almost the same speed). Also, various parts of the world use different hierarchies which lead to problems of international interworking; for example, between those countries using 1.544 Mbit/s systems (U.S.A. and Japan) and those using the 2.048 Mbit/s system. To recover a 64 kbit/s channel from a 140 Mbit/s PDH signal, its necessary to demultiplex the signal all the way down to the 2 Mbit/s level before the location of the 64 kbit/s channel can be identified. PDH requires steps (14034, 34-8, 8-2 demultiplex; 2-8, 8-34, 34-140 multiplex) to drop out or add an individual speech or data channel (see Figure 1). 5.0.2 The main problems of PDH systems are: 1. Homogeneity of equipment 2. Problem of Channel segregation 3. The problem cross connection of channels 4. Inability to identify individual channels in a higher-order bit stream. 5. Insufficient capacity for network management; 6. Most PDH network management is proprietary. Every vendor used its own line coding, optical interfaces etc. 7. Theres no standardised definition of PDH bit rates greater than 140 Mbit/s. 8. There are different hierarchies in use around the world. Specialized interface equipment is required to interwork the two hierarchies.
9.Each multiplexing section has to add overhead bits for justification (higher rate -> more overhead) Justification (bit stuffing) spreads data over the frame 10. add-drop-multiplexers are hard to build 11. To extract a single voice call -> demultiplex all steps down 12. The management and monitoring functions were not sufficient in PDH 13. PDH did not define a standard format on the transmission link 14.Very hard to interoperate-As it is vendor based technology which does not follow any Global standards. 6.0 Started by Bellcore in 1985 as standardisation effort for the US telephone carriers (after AT&T was broken up in 1984), Later joined by CCITT (later: ITU), which formed SDH in 1987 Three major goals: Avoid the problems of PDH Achieve higher bit rates (Gbit/s) Better means for Operation, Administration, and Maintenance (OA&M) SDH is THE standard in telecommunication networks now It is designed to transport voice rather than data It covers the lower 2-3 OSI layers SONET/SDH defines only a point-to-point connection in the network
SDH/SONET Introduction
SDH is an ITU-T standard for a high capacity telecom network. SDH is a synchronous digital transport system, aim to provide a simple, economical and flexible telecom infrastructure. The basis of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) is synchronous multiplexing - data from multiple tributary sources is byte interleaved
6.2.1 Terminal Multiplexer Terminal multiplexers Terminal multiplexers are used to combine plesiochronous and synchronous input signals into higher bit rate STM-N signals.
Figure 2 is a schematic diagram of a SDH ring structure with various tributaries. The mixture of different applications is typical of the data transported by SDH. Synchronous networks must be able to transmit plesiochronous signals and at the same time be capable of handling future services such as ATM. Current SDH networks are basically made up from four different types of network element. The topology (i.e. ring or mesh structure) is governed by the requirements of the network provider. 6.2.2 Regenerators Regenerators as the name implies, have the job of regenerating the clock and amplitude relationships of the incoming data signals that have been attenuated and distorted by dispersion. They derive their clock signals from the incoming data stream. Messages are received by extracting various 64 kbit/s channels (e.g. service channels E1, F1) in the RSOH (regenerator section overhead). Messages can also be output using these channels.
6.2.3
Add/drop Multiplexers(ADM)
Add/drop multiplexers (ADM) Plesiochronous and lower bit rate synchronous signals can be extracted from or inserted into high speed SDH bit streams by means of ADMs. This feature makes it possible to set up ring structures, which have the advantage that automatic back-up path switching is possible using elements in the ring in the event of a fault.
6.2.4
Digital Cross-connect
Digital cross-connects (DXC) This network element has the widest range of functions. It allows mapping of PDH tributary signals into virtual containers as well as switching of various containers up to and including VC-4.
6.2.5
Network element management The telecommunications management network (TMN) is considered as a further element in the synchronous network. All the SDH network elements mentioned so far are software-controlled. This means that they can be monitored and remotely controlled, one of the most important features of SDH. Network management is described in more detail in the section TMN in the SDH network
6.3
SDH Rates
SDH is a transport hierarchy based on multiples of 155.52 Mbit/s. The basic unit of SDH is STM-1. Different SDH rates are given below: STM-1 = 155.52 Mbit/s STM-4 = 622.08 Mbit/s STM-16 = 2588.32 Mbit/s STM-64 = 9953.28 Mbit/s Each rate is an exact multiple of the lower rate therefore the hierarchy is synchronous.
6.4
The standardized SDH transmission frames, called Synchronous Transport Modules of Nth hierarchical level (STM-N).
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A frame with a bit rate of 155.52 Mbit/s is defined in ITU-T Recommendation G.707. This frame is called the synchronous transport module (STM). Since the frame is the first level of the synchronous digital hierarchy, it is known as STM-1. Figure 2 shows the format of this frame. It is made up from a byte matrix of 9 rows and 270 columns. Transmission is row by row, starting with the byte in the upper left corner and ending with the byte in the lower right corner. The frame repetition rate is 125 ms., each byte in the payload represents a 64 kbit/s channel. The STM-1 frame is capable of transporting any PDH tributary signal. The first 9 bytes in each of the 9 rows are called the overhead. G.707 makes a distinction between the regenerator section overhead (RSOH) and the multiplex section overhead (MSOH). The reason for this is to be able to couple the functions of certain overhead bytes to the network architecture. The table below describes the individual functions of the bytes.
7.0
The heterogeneous nature of modern network structures has made it necessary that all PDH and ATM signals are transported over the SDH network. The process of matching the signals to the network is called mapping. The container is the basic package unit for tributary channels. A special container (C-n) is provided for each PDH tributary signal. These containers are always much larger than the payload to be transported. The remaining capacity is used partly for justification (stuffing) in order to equalize out timing inaccuracies in the PDH signals. Where synchronous tributaries are mapped, fixed fill bytes are inserted instead of justification bytes. A virtual container (VC-n) is made up from the container thus formed together with the path overhead (POH). This is transmitted unchanged over a path through the network. The next step towards formation of a complete STM-N signal is the addition of a pointer indicating the start of the POH. The unit formed by the pointer and the virtual container is called an administrative unit (AU-n) or a tributary unit (TU-n). Several TUs taken together form a tributary unit group (TUGn); these are in turn collected together into a VC. One or more AUs form an administrative unit group (AUG). Finally, the AUG plus the section overhead (SOH) forms the STM-N. ATM signals can be transported in the SDH network in C11, C12, C3 and C4 containers. Since the container transport capacity does not meet the continually increasing ATM bandwidth requirement, methods have been developed for transmitting the ATM payload in a multiple (n) C-4 (virtual or contiguous concatenation). As an example, a quadruple C-4 can be transmitted in a STM-4 (see the section on Contiguous concatenation).
Fig.- Inserting a 140 Mbit/s tributary into an STM-1 Figure is a summary of the mappings that are currently possible according to ITU-T Recommendation G.707 and the ATM mapping recommendations. Of interest in this context is the so-called sub-STM or STM-0 signal. This interface is used in SDH/SONET links and in radio link and satellite connections. The STM-0 bit rate is 51.84 Mbit/s.
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8.0
. A wide range of standardized mechanisms is incorporated into synchronous networks in order to compensate for failures in network elements. Two basic types of protection architecture are distinguished in APS. One is the linear protection mechanism used for point-to-point connections. The other basic form is the so-called ring protection mechanism which can take on many different forms. Both mechanisms use spare circuits or components to provide the back-up path. Switching is controlled by the overhead bytes (K1 and K2 in MSOH).
8.1
Linear protection
The simplest form of back-up is the so-called 1 + 1 APS. Here, each working line is protected by one protection line. If a defect occurs, the protection agent in the network elements at both ends switch the circuit over to the protection line. The switchover is triggered by a defect such as LOS. Switching at the far end is initiated by the return of an acknowledgment in the backward channel. 1+1 architecture includes 100% redundancy, as there is a spare line for each working line. Economic considerations have led to the preferential use of 1:N architecture, particularly for long-distance paths. In this case, several working lines are protected by a single back-up line. If switching is necessary, the two ends of the affected path are switched over to the back-up line. The 1+1 and 1:N protection mechanisms are standardized in ITU-T Recommendation G.783. The reserve circuits can be used for lower-priority traffic, which is simply interrupted if the circuit is needed to replace a failed working line.
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8.2
Ring protection
The greater the communications bandwidth carried by optical fibers, the greater the cost advantages of ring structures as compared with linear structures. A ring is the simplest and most cost-effective way of linking a number of network elements. Various protection mechanisms are available for this type of network architecture, only some of which have been standardized in ITU-T Recommendation G.841. A basic distinction must be made between ring structures with unidirectional and bi-directional connections. 8.2.1 Unidirectional rings Figures given below show the basic principle of APS for unidirectional rings. Let us assume that there is an interruption in the circuit between the network elements A and B. Direction y is unaffected by this fault. An alternative path must, however, be found for direction x. The connection is therefore switched to the alternative path in network elements A and B. The other network elements (C and D) switch through the back-up path. This switching process is referred to as line switched. A simpler method is to use the so-called path switched ring (see figure 7). Traffic is transmitted simultaneously over both the working line and the protection line. If there is an interruption, the receiver (in this case A) switches to the protection line and immediately takes up the connection.
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8.2.2
Bi-directional rings
In this network structure, connections between network elements are bi-directional. This is indicated in figure 8 by the absence of arrows when compared with figure 8. The overall capacity of the network can be split up for several paths each with one bi-directional working line, while for unidirectional rings, an entire virtual ring is required for each path. If a fault occurs between neighboring elements A and B, network element B triggers protection switching and controls network element A by means of the K1 and K2 bytes in the SOH. Even greater protection is provided by bi-directional rings with 4 fibers. Each pair of fibers transports working and protection channels. This results in 1:1 protection, i.e. 100 % redundancy. This improved protection is coupled with relatively high costs.
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9.0.1
Merits of SDH (i) (ii) Simplified multiplexing/demultiplexing techniques. Direct access to lower speed tributaries, without need to multiplex/demultiplex the entire high speed signal. (iii) Enhanced capabilities. (iv) Easy growth to higher bit rates in step with evolution of transmission technology. (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) Capable of transporting existing PDH signals. Capable of transporting future broadband (ATM) channel bit rates. Capable of operating in a multi-vendor and multi-operator environment. Open ended towards future trends- NGSDH, RPR. operations, Administration, Maintenance and provisioning
9.0.2. Advantages (i) Multi-vendor environment (mid span meet) : Prior to 1988 international agreement on SDH all vendors used proprietary non-standard techniques for transporting information on fibre. The only way to interconnect was to convert to the copper transmission standards (G702/703/704). The cost and complexity levels were very high. (ii) Synchronous networking : SDH supports multi-point or hub configurations whereas, asynchronous networking only supports point-to-point configurations. (iii) Enhanced OAM&P : The telecoms need the ability to administer, surveil, provision, and control the network from a central location. (iv) Positioning the network for transport on new services : LAN to LAN, HDTV, interactive multimedia, video conferencing.
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(v)
HUB : A hub is an intermediate site from which traffic is distributed to 3 or more spur. It allows the nodes to communicate as an angle network, thus reducing the back-to-back multiplexing and demultiplexing.
9.0.3. S.D.H. Evolution S.D.H. evolution is possible because of the following factors : (i) Fibre Optic Bandwidth : The bandwidth in Optical Fibre can be increased and there is no limit for it. This gives a great advantage for using SDH. (ii) Technical Sophistication : Although, SDH circuitary is highly complicated, it is possible to have such circuitary because of VLSI technique which is also very cost effective. (iii) (iv) Intelligence : The availability of cheaper memory opens new possibilities. Customer Service Needs : The requirement of the customer with respect to different bandwidth requirements could be easily met without much additional equipment. The different services it supports are : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Low/High speed data. Voice Interconnection of LAN Computer links Feature services like H.D.T.V. Broadband ISDN transport (ATM transport)
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