Indira Gandhi National Open University Scfiool of Education

ES-332 Psychology of Development and Learning

Block

UNDERSTANDING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEARNER

UNIT 1 Concept and Principles of Growth and Development UNIT 2 Physical, Socio-Emotional and Moral Development
--

UNIT 3 Cognitive and Language Development UNIT 4

35

Fi~ctorsInfluencing Development of Personality

47

EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. R.N. Mehroua Retd. Professor Department of Education (CE) University of Delhi. Delhi Prof. P.R. Nair Retd. Professor. Mysore University Mysore Prof. M e s h Koul H.P. University Shimla Prof. B.K. Passi Indore University Indore Prof. M.S. Yadav CASE. M.S. University Baroda Prot. Malla Reddy Vice-chancellor Osmania University, Hyderabad Prof. M.S. Padma NEHU. Shillong Prof. A.N. Joghi YCMOU. Nasik Dr. K. Ayyakkannu Director. Correspondence Courses Annarnalai University, Annamalai Prof. A.K. Sharma Director, KCERT New .Delhi Prof. V.K. Sabharwal Deptt. of Education (ClE) Delhi University Delhi Prof. M. Miyan Jarnia Millia Islamia New Delhi Prof. C.I.. Anand En - PVC. IGNOU New Delhi

Prof. L.C. Singh IGNOU New Delhi Dr. M.C. Sharma Programme Coordinator - Theory IGNOU. New Delhi Dr. Sohanvir S. Chaudhary Programme Coordinator - Practicals IGNOU, New Delhi

COURSE TEAM
Course Contribution Prof. P.C Sanena Allahabad University Allahabad Dr. Vibha Joshi IGNOU New Delhi Dr. (Mrs.) Lakshmi R a v i k a n ~ Anna Nagar East Madras Dr. I.D. Gupta Regional Institute of Education Bhopal (M.P.) Dr. (Mrs.) Kanchan Bala Consultant (SOE) IGNOU, New Delhi Language Editing Dr. A.K Varma SOH. IGNOU. New Delhi - -- - -

Course Coordination Dr. L.C. Singh En-Consultant (Academic) IGNOU. New Delhi Dr. Sohanvir S. Chaudhary IGNOU. New Delhi Content Editing Prof. M.K. Raina NCERT, New Delhi Prof. D. Joshi Jamia Millia Islamia New Delhi Dr. ( r . M s Namita Rangnalhan ) Department of Education (CIE) Delhi University, Delhi Secretarial Support Virander Kumar Sharma IGNOU. New Delhi

PRODUCTION
Prof Mallesh Chand Sharma Director School of Education IGNOU, New Delhi
July, 2005 (Reprint)

K.G. Sasi Kumar Section Off~cer(Publication) School of Education IGNOU, New Delhi

O Indira Garrdhi National open University, 2000

All rights reserved. No part ofthis work may he reproduced in any fornr, by mimeograph or any other nreans, wifliout permission in writing j-om the Indira Gandhi Nalional Open University. Further information on lhe Indira Gandhi Notional Open Universig courses, may be obtained from the Univcrsi&'s O p c e at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068.
Prrnted and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, N e w Delhi by I)ircclor, School of Educatton, IGNOU IJrmted .I\ c ~ ~ O l il s ~ .l'rlntcr>, C-90, Okhla Industrial Area. Phasc-I. N e w Delhi-110 020 ~ i ~

ES-332 PSYCHOLOGY OF DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING

Blt~k 1

Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4

Bklek 2

Understanding the Development of the Learner Concept and Principles of Growth and Development Physical, Socio-Emotional and Moral Development Cognitive and Language Development Fiictors Influencing Development of Personality understanding the Learner as a Unique Individual Individual Differences :Cognitive Domain Individual Differences : Affective Domain Gender Issues Factors Producing Individual Differences Understanding the Learning Process Thc Nature of Lcaming Process Approaches to Learning Domains of Learning Factors Influencing Learning Facilitating Learning and Development Pcrsond Adjustment and Emotional Maturity Social Adjustment Children with Special Needs Guiding Students

Unit 5 Unit 6 Unit 7 Unit 8

Block 3

Unit 9 Unit 10 Unit 11 Unit 12

Block 4

Unit 13 Unit 14 Ul~it15 Unit 16

DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING

Course Introduction
Thc course is aimed at developing undersmding of basic concepts and principles of human development and learning, and their implications for the teacher. To achieve this goal, you will study various aspects of human development: cognitive, psychomotor and affective. You will also study thc factors influencing developinent and learning. The learning process, approachcs to and domains of learning are discussed in this course in detail. The strategies to facilitate learning and adjustment, and develop healthy personality in students have been, highlighted in this course. To cnrich your expcricnce, as a teacher, concepts and principles of learning and dcveloprnent have been discussed in the Indian context. This course consists of four blocks. They are : Understanding the development of the learner Undcrshnding the learner as a unique individual
Understanding the learning process

Facilitating learning and development. Block 1 deals with the concept, stages and principles of growth and development. Physical, socio-emo~ional,moral, cognitive and language development have been discussed in dctail. Factors inllucncing development of personality of the school-going children have also been cliscussecl. Thc role of the teacher in facilitating growth and development has been highlightcd so that, as a teacher, you can help your students for their fullest development. There are Sour units in this Block. Block 2 clcals with individual differences. The discussion is aimed at understanding the child (studcnt) as a unique individual. Individual differences in cognitive and affective domains (with rcl'erence to intelligence, aptitudes, achievement, creativity, attitudes, interests, values. sclf-conccpt, no ti vat ion and so on) have been dealt in detail. Factors producing individual diSferences duc to hereditary and environmental influences are discussed critically. Gender issucs i.c. group dirfercnces in terms of sex, age, caste and socio-cconomic status (SES) are d~scusscci irr brick The implications of individual differences for a teacher have been highliahtcd In this Block. This Block also consists of four units. Block 3 1s devotcd to the process of learning. The nature and approachcs to lcarning (i.e. bchaviourist, cognitive and humanistic approachcs) have been discussed to hclp you untlcrs~and Icarning proccss. Domains of learning (cognitive, affective and psychomotor) and have bccn iiiscusscd with the view to develop overall pcrsonalily of the students. Factors inllucricinp lcarning havc been given extended ueatment in this Block. This Block also consists of four units. Block 3 is aimcd at facilitating, guiding and helping students in their development, lcarning and atljusttnent to school and home. The approaches to and strategies of helping students in pcrsonal, emotional and social adjustment have been discussed in this Block. The acijusunent of children with spccial needs and the role of thc teacher have been highlightcd so that you undcrstanci thcir spccific adjustment and learning requirements. A brief discussion on school guidance and counselling services has been presented in the last unit of this Block. The role of school in gcneral and the teacher in particular in guiding students in their adjusuncnt and lcaming has becn highlighted in this Block. This Block also consists of four uni~s.

BLOCK 1 UNDERSTANDING THE

DEVELOPMENT OF THE
LEARNER
Introduction During their lives, humanbeings change in size, proportions, appearance, psychological make up and so on. The way these changes takes place differs from individual to individual. In this Block, we shall discuss the concept and principles of growth and development: physical. socio-emotional, moral, cognitive and language development. We shall also discuss the factors influencing development of personality. This Block consists of four units. In Unit 1, we discuss the concept of growth and development of humanbeings at the various suycs. The fundamental underlying patterns of growth and development remain more or less same in all humanbeings and take place in an orderly way. The child attains the size, shape, capacities and development at each stage of lire. Every child goes through Lhe various stages of infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age. The teacher should have thorough knowledge of the pattern of growth and development of the child so that he can contribute to the development of child's personality. In Unit 2, we discuss how physical, socio-emotional and moral development take place in the child. This unit focusses on the various aspects of development of students studying at upper primary, secondary and senior secondary levels. At the upper primary level students have less problems as compared to the senior secondary levels i.e., adolescents. A teacher should be aware of the crucial period of adolescence which have a lot of problems. In Unit 3, you will study the development of certain intellectual processes viz.. cognition, crea~ivity language. The discussion in this unit will help the teacher understand children's and development of cognition. Divergent thinking deals with the dimensions of creativity. Language development helps the students for better communication.

I n Unit 4, we discuss the nature and concept of personality. The discussion in this unit is focussed on the important factors which influence the personality of the children. Tcrlchers should realise and visualise the problems of the students. They should take keen interest in undcrstanding the factors influencing studcnts's personality and help them dcvelop their personality.

UNIT 1 CONCEPT AND PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Structure
1.1 1.2 1.3 Introduction Objectives Human Development
1.3.1 1.3.2 The Concept Need and Importance of Studying Principles of Growth and Developnent Infancy Early Childhood Later Childhood Adolescence Young Adulthood Mature Adulthood Aged Adulthood Continuity Sequentiality General~tyto Specificity D~fferentiality

1.4

Stages of Development
1.4.1 1.4.2 1.4.3 1.4.4 1.4.5 1.4.6 1.4.7

1.S

Principles of Development
1S . 1 1S.2 1 .5.3 1.5.4

1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10

Role of the Teacher in Facilitating Growth and Development Let Us Sum Up Unit-end Exercises Suggested Readings Answers to Check Your Progress

1 .

INTRODUCTION

Humanbeings keep changing. During their lives, they change in size, appearance and psychological make up. The way they change differs from individual to individual. But the fundamental underlying patterns of growth and developement remain more or less the same and take place in an orderly way. Each individual, with his unique heredity and the way he is nurtured, determines the way he traverses the broad highway of his life at his rate of progress. Hc will attain the sire, shape, capacities and developmental status in a way which is peculiar to him at each shge of life. Growth is sometimes used to designate all the quantitative changes brought about in the structure and functions of the human anatomy and physiology. The term development means a progressive series of qualitative changes that occur as a result of maturity and experience. Thus a1 each stage certain developmental processes bring changes in the individual in different aspccts of life: physical, social, psychological and emotional. The speed of change varies from onc individual to another but it follows a definite and predictable pattern. Every individual has to go through the various stages of childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age. Both growth and developemnt, at every stage, follow certain principles. This is the first unit of this course. In this unit we shall chscuss the concept and principles of human growth and developement, why their systematic study is needed and how the teacher can facililate growth and development during adolescence. We shall also discuss, in brief, various slages of development. You will also study the role of the teacher in facilitating the growth and development of school-going children. You Lan observe the growth of your students over a period of a few years.

Lndcrsf~ndmg Devdo)>ment the of thr lwrncr

1.2

OBJECTIVES

This unit is meant to help you learn the concept, the broad principles and the stages of growth and development. Afkr going through this unit, you should be able to : a a a differentiate between growth and development; describe the stages of human growth and development; describe the characteristics of each stage of human growth and development; explain the principles of growth and development; discuss the educational implications of the principles of growth and development; explain the role of the teacher in the facilitation of growth and development during adolescence.
-

a a a

1.3

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Can you recall events from your early childhood, say the second or third year? You might have a few vague and blurred memories about your childhood. The experiences of that period form the basis of the type of person you are today. How humanbeings grow, change and adjust themselves to their environment is the focus of development and behaviour as also the concepts, principles and theories of growth of development. The humadbeing is never static. From conception to death he undergoes changes. There are progressive changes in response to environmend conditions. His body organs and psychological functions show the curves of capacity and achievement as well as slow erosion and decay. Cognitive abilities development and then degenerate; basic metabolism reaches a peak and then declines, the endocrine function flourishesand then fades.There is a rise and Eall of physical energy in terms of both the force and speed of action with age. In fact no organ or function of humanbeings has yet been found which is indc~endent age determinants. At the time of conception a child has of genetic pollentialitics that are partly predictable and partly unpredctable. These genetic potentialities are determined by the nature of his biological inheritance. Still there is room for a mmendou$ range in the ways he uses the genetic potentialities, depending upon the environment which may help or hinder the development of those potentialities.

1.3.1 The Concept

The terms growth and development are often used interchangeably. Actually they are conceptually different. Neither growth nor development takes place all by itself. Growth refers to quantitaGve changes in size which include physical changes in height, weight, size, internal organs, etc. As an individual develops, old features like baby fat, hair and tccth, etc., disappear and new features like facial hair etc.. are acquired. When maturity comes, the second set of teeth, primary and secondary sex characteristics, etc., appear. Similar changes occur in all aspects of the personality. During infancy and chidhood, the body steadily becomes larger, taller and heavier . To designate this change the term growth is used. Growth involves changes in body proportions as well as in overall stature and weight. The term growth thus indicates an incrcase in bodily dimensions. But the rate of growth differs from one part of the body to the other. Development, by comuast, refers to qualitative changes taking place simultaneously with quantitative changes of growth. It may be defined as a ptogwssive series of ordedy, coherent changes. The term progressive signifies that changes are directional, that they lead forward rather than backward. Ordely and coherent suggest that there is a definite relationship between the changes taking place and those that precede or will follow them. Development represents changes in an organism from its origin to its death, but more particularly the progressive changes which take place from origin to maturity. Thus, dcvelopment may be explained as the series of overall changes in an individual dut*LOthe emergence of modified structures and functions that are the outcome of the interactions and exchanges between the organism and its environment.

Check Your Progress 1 in Notes : a) Give your answer as instruc~ed each question. b) Comparc your answer with those given at the end of the unit. i) Indicate 'G' for 'growth' and 'D' for 'development' for each of the following statements.
a) A six month old bady shows signs of teething. b) A thrcc month old bady begins to trun over and lie on its stomach. c) An infant begins to focus its eyes on an object dangling before it. d) A thirteen.year old boy begins to have hair on his face. li) Write 'T' for 'true' and 'F' for 'false' for the following statements. a) A child talking full sentences is part of development. b) The difference in height between two children is due to the diffcrent rates of their development. iii) Observe two children of the same sex who are at least five years different in age. Note five points of growth and five points of develoment for each of them. Discuss your answer with your academic counsellor.

Concept and Prl~iciples of Growth and Developmerlt

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................................................
1.3.2 Need and Importance of Studying Principles of Growth and Development
A knowledge of development patterns, what these are like and what causes variations in the dcvclopment of children, is essential for both scientific and practical reasons. A knowledge of the pattern of human development, will help you know, for example, what to expect of children. It will also help you know approximately at what age behavioural changes take place, and when these patterns are generally replaced by more mature pattcms. This is significant since, if too much is cxpected from children, thcy develop a feeling of inadequacy. On the othcr hand if too little is expected of them, they do not have an incentive to realise their potcntial. Knowing exactly what to expect from children enables developmemt psychologists, teachers and parents to set guidelines in the form of hcight-weight scales, age-weight scalcs, age-hcight scalcs, mental age scales, and social or emotional development scales. Deviations Crom normal developmcnt might be investigatcd in causal tcrms and appropriatc intcrvcntion might be planncd to ucat those who vary considerably in personal, social and emotional adjustment or development.
A knowledge of dcvclopmcnt patterns helps tcachcrs and parents guide the child's learning propcrly. A child must be hclped to acquire skills of walking whcn he is of an age appropriate Lor this skill. Not providing learning opportunities at the appropriate time would delay the norrnal dcvclopmcnt of the child. In social development children are expected to adjust socially to thcir age-mates. If they are deprived of the necessary learning opportunity, thcy will not bc rcady to acquirc thc neccssary skills characteristic or latcr childhood. When the development pattern is normal, one period prepares children for, and leads them effectively into, thc ncxt.

Understanding the Development of the Learner

A knowledge of dcvclopmcnt patterns helps teachers and parcnts prepxe the child psychologically for the physical and bchavioural changes that would occur as they grow up. In fact, in this matter, the role of the school is crucial.

1.4

STAGES OF DEVELOPRJENT

Any development process proceeds through some stages and each development stagc diffcrs from thc other. Ebch stage of development has its characteristic;. Psychologists, for the sake of convenience, have separated human life span into stagcs or periods and identified specific changes that may be expected during each stage. The transition from one stagc to ~c next is. gradual rather than suddcn. Thc agc groups assigned to each stage of thc developmcnt are gereral as shown in Table 1.0.

Table 1.0 : Stages of Development

Age groups Stage of development Schooling stage

Birth to 2 years

Infancy Early childhood Later childhood Adolescence Young adulthood Mature adulthood Aged adullhood Prc-primary Primary Secondary and senior secondary

2 years to 6 years

6 years to 12 years
12 years to 18 years

18 years to 40 years 40 years to 65 years

over 65 years

Each stage of dcvelopment is characterised by a set of unique, cohcrcnt and distinguishing features. Each period in life has its own problems cf adjustment. Throughout the life span people, develop techniques of handling each of their difficulties. Somc of these techniques are suilable and others are not. Similarly, a method may be suitable for one age period and not for anothcr. Thc focus should be on stressing continuity, no sudden changes, no abrupt reversibility, development being an ongoing process, etc.

1.4.1 Infancy
Development is an ongoing process. It starts from the birth of the child and gocs up to death. At birth, the proportions of the body are very different from those of the adult. Infants, during the first two weeks, are called neonates. They usually have wrinkled, blotchy red s k i and a large hcad. Thcy slecp for about 18 to 22 hours a day, wake up when hungry and sleep again as soon as they are fed. Crying neonatcs can bc made comfortable with humming in low tones and rocking-gently.Within a few days they begin rccognising thcir mother's voice. They dcvclop a parents. As the nconatcs move towards infancy, their need for affection relationship wi~h develops. Accepted and loved babies dcvelop a sense of trust too. They investigate their cnvironment. The ninth and tcnth months sce jmlousy aroused in the baby and bctwccn the tcnlh and twclfh months anger, love, sympalhy and friendliness are distinguishable. From three months onwards they star1 babbling. By the sixth month the slow and awkward grasping of early months gives way to well-coordinated movements. The baby begins centering its attention on its own body. By the age of nine months a normal baby can creep. When they begin to crawl thcir curiosity becomes heightened. Motor ability develops from the head down to the toes. Thc neonate's head is closer to eventual adult size than is the rest of the body. Also, the infant has more motor control of the head than of the muscles lowcr down the body. The progression of motor control follows this pattern first the hcad, then shoulders. arms and abdomen and finally the legs and feet. The growdl and motor ability develop from the c e n ~ d axis of the body outwards. Trunk and shoulder

movements occur earlier than separate arm movements. Control over the hands and fingers comes last. The baby's first actions an:global and undifferentialed. Slowly, the infant's ability to make specific respnses emerges. Refined activity of the fingers and thumb usilally doesn't occur until the baby is about a year old. Motor development is thus heavily influenced by biological maturity. Practice is certainly necessary for full development of the biological potential. In activities like walking, early practice is a key ingredient in maintenance and furlhcr development. Newborn babies have been shown to be capable of discriminating between sweet and sour tastes. Taste is the most highly developed of all the senses at birth. A response to different smclls has been observed within two hours of birth. Some babies respond to sound almost immediately after birth, whereas others may take a few days to gain this sense. This difference is a result of the time it may take for the amniotic fluid to drain out the newborn's hearing mcchanisrn. However, neonates not only show the ability to respond to sound, but can even tliscriminate among certain sounds. Even when threc days old, neonates show a marked prcferencc for the mother's voice over the voices of others. Vision develops more slowly than many of the other senses. Responses to light and darkness are functional. Within two days of birth and by thc time they are tcn days old infants can follow moving objects with their eyes. Neonates can focus their eyes to a distance of eight to ten inches. The nursing newborn can cerlainly see the mother's face. By six months of age infants can discriminate between colours, bclwcen such shapes as circles and triangles and between the faces of parents and strangers. Some infants as young as one month old can distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar faces. Six-month-old infants have the ability to perceive depth and thus to avoid situations in which they might fall. An innate link between the visual and motor systems tends to emerge when the infant is about six months of agc. By about one year of age, babies can associate the sounds they make with specific objects and thus they begin to utter their first words such as dada, mama or bye-byc. The baby at 12 months is ablc to produce approximatcly 30 to 50 words and by 18 months is typically producing at l a s t 400 words. During the first two years babies play alonc. They cxplorc their surroundings, handle toys and start uttering some word combinations. From birth, infants demonstate their uniqueness and thcir variability. They havc differences in their personalities and tempenmcnt. Howevcr, the basis of newborn individuality is not cntirely understood. Reswchcrs agrce gcncrally that babics have different personality styles and these differences increase over the first few months of life. Parents have a profound influencc in shaping their children's personality.
7'hc child's

Concept and Prindples of

Growth and Development

development of manual skills proceeds through a scries of ordcrly stagcs Iiom thc cerltc of the body towards the periphery. On the whole large-muscle contol precedes finc-muscle conlrol. Right or left-handedness develops gradually rathcr than appearing in an immcdiale manner. Over the first year of life infants typically undcrgo a patterned sequence of changes in their mcthod of focusing on or organising visual cvcnts.
Check Your Progress 2

Notes : a)

Tick mark (4) right answcr. the

b) Compare your answer with thosc given at the cnd of thcunit. i) What is a neonate? a) A newborn baby b) An irrilablc baby c) An unloved baby.
d) ,4n abnormal baby.

ii) What are the main chmcteristics of a baby under the agc of two or three years?

............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................................

Understanding Ule Devdopment of the Learner

1.4.2 Early Childhood

Early childhood is generally referred to as the preschool period. During the period between two and six years, children enlarge the scope of their bchaviour. They refine their previously learned skills and evolve new ones for relating themselves with other people. Thus the child progressively develops as a social being in his own right. By the time a child is three years old, positive emotions likes love and affection are shown. Mimicking social practices while playing games are also displayed. Their love for dolls and stuffed animals and showering affection on them is common. Their emotions get an outlet through play. Their need for socialisation grows. In the pre-school period mental/intellectual development is characterised by the rapid expansion of cognitive abilities. Children become more curious and eager to seek information, keep it in order and use it. Whereas sensory motor processes largely dominate deve:opment during infancy, a significant transition occurs (after two years of age) towards more abstract. processes of reasoning, drawing inferences and problcm-solving. By the time children are six years old they have developed a set of cognitive skills. Language, development takes place during this period. Language development begins with howling, babbling and iteration. According to Piaget, language emerges only at the end of the sensory motor period of intellectual development. Chomsky bclieves that the language acquisition device is an inborn mental structure that enables children to induce grammatical rules and to form their own language from those rules. The inborn language acquisition device directs the children's ability to learn. A major development task for a child during the first six years of life is to acquire a gender identification. Besides biological factors, social factors also influence the gender behaviour of children. The environment is the most powcrful factor in shaping the gender identity among children. The cognitive development theory claims that children first come to categorise themselves as male or female and then attempt to acquire those patterns of behaviour that fit their gender category.

1.4.3 Later Childhood

During this period (6-12 years of age), physical growth is initially slow. There is vast intellectual, moral and social development. Around seven years of age major advances in intellectual development take place. During the later childhood period, the memory and the problcm-solving ability improves and children become aware of their achievements. They become capable of comparing themselves with others with respect to intellectual, athletic and social skills. The generally sclcct playmates of their own sex and play togethcr in groups. This period is often referred to as gangage. By the time the children reach puberty, they restrict their friendship to a few friends one or two close companions. They develop an understanding of the meaning of rules. Their moral development takes place as they accept the rules and standards of their friends and teachers. This is the primary school stage. An important feature of this stage is the children's ability to learn about themselves and their environment. They develop their intellectual capabilities through information processing. Piaget calls it the period of concrete operations. He refers to it as concrete because children are bound by immediate physical reality-they develop the power to reason simultaneouslyby the whole and by the part at this stage. Children acquire the ability to order objects in a series according to some abstract dimension, such as size, weight, brightness or smell. The primary school years are a time of rapid growth in children's knowledge of the social world and of the requirements for social interaction. They assess the status of the people they encounter from their behaviour (walking, eating, reading, playing), their emotional state (happy, sad, angry), their roles (teacher, parents) and their social context (religious place, school, home). In other words, children form a perception of and about people. They describe people largely in terms of external, readily available characteristics. Children conlinue to grow in the strength,speed and coordination needed for motor skills. They climb trecs, walls, etc. They develop precision in athletic ability. Being active and participating 12

'

in games helps them develop a concept of themselves. They get feedback regarding their desirability, worth and status from other people. The function and role of schools become important for children's growth and development : physical, in~ellectual motor. Schools teach specific cognitive skills, primarily the 3 Rs. and and general skills associated with effective participation in the classroom setting. Peer group interaction plays an important role in shaping the children's personality. At this stage, they entcr the school context peer group interaction. They compare themselves and play dominant or submissive roles in the group.

Concept and Principles of Growth and Development

1.4.4 Adolescence
The period of transition from childhood to adulthoc-0 is called adolescence. Adolescence is

: very crucial stage of development. All types of chang~sbiological, physical, social, cognitive, etc., take place during the adolescence stage. The major changes that take place at this stage of development are discussed below.

Pttysical development :The physical changcs an adolescent undergoes are as follows : Growth spurt : During the wrly adolescent years, most children experience the adolescent growth spurt, a rapid increase in height and weight. Usually, this spurt occurs in girls two years earlicr than in boys. The spurt usually lasts about two years and du~ing time gir!s sain 6 to this 7 inches and boys 8 to 9 inches in height. By the age of seventeen in girls and eightcen in boys, the majority of them have reachcd 98 per cent of their final height. Puberty : During adolescence changes in growth and development are truly rcvolutionary. After a life time of inferiority, they suddenly catch up wilh adults in physical size and strength. Accompanying these changes is the rapid dcvelopment of the reproductive organs that signals sexual maturity. Sexual and reproductive maturity becomes evident at this stage of development. Adolescents are often extremely sensitive and perceptive about their own physical appearance and that of their friends. The discrepancies bctween heir less than pcrfcct sclf-images and the glossy ideals that they are supposcd to emulate can bc a real source of anxiety. Sexual identity and relationships: Directly related to biological changcs is sexual identity. This includcs the expression of scxual needs and feclings and the acceptance or rcjcction of sex roles. With the attainment of pubcrty and adolescence, all the biological changes of physical maturity bring a new interest in sexuality. This accentuates the problem of integrating the sexual drive with other aspects of the personality. Early adolescents don't usually have to deal with problems of sexual intimacy at a very sophisticated level. Early adolescents necd to bc likcd and have a sense of self-esteem. They fecl strong pressures to conform to the peer group. In early adolescence, most relationships with the opposite sex take place in groups. It is known as the trial period for adolescents to collect the ideas and experiences with which to form the basic attitudes about sex roles and sexual behaviour. They can examine their own and others stereotyped images of the opposite sex. Adolescents tend to select friends who are from a s~rllilar social class, interests, moral values and social maturity. Identity is composed of the weight an individual gives to the question "who am I?" ldentity is a person's sense of placement within the world, the meaning that one atlaches to oneself in the broader context of life. In their everyday lives individuals interact with one anolhcr not so much on the basis of what they actually are as of what conceptions they have of themselves and of othcrs. Accordingly, their identity leaves its signature on everything thcy do. Identities are not fixed. They undergo continual shaping and reshaping over thc course of the life span. Adolesccnce poses identity tasks that seem play an important part in successful transition to adulthood. Cognitive development : Important cognitive developments occur during this time. An expansion in capacity and style of thought broadens adolescenls awareness, imagination, judgement and insight. These enhanced abilities also lead to a rapid accumulation of knowledge that opens up a range of issues and problems that can complicate and enrich the adolescent's life.

Adolescents also show an increasing ability to plan and think ahcad. Cognitive skills continue

Understanding the Development of the Learner

to expand ti-iioughout the adolescenceperiod. The development of thiiing ability also takcs place during adolescence. Adolescents learn to examine objects, events or phenomena and consciously develop their thinking ability. For example, they may silently warn themselves net to jump to conclusionswilhout convincing proof, they also k o m e extremely introspectiveand self-absorbed. At the same time, they begin to challenge everything, to reject old boundaries and categories. In so doing, they question old attitudes and become more creative and thinkers.
Check Your Progress 3 Notes : a) Write your answer in the space given below. b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of the unil. List h e main points of physical development in adolescents.

................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................................... .....................................................................................................................................................

1.4.5 Young Adulthood
There is no fixed age when adolescence is complete. The responsibilities of adulthood include important decisions like choosing a career, a life p a l e r , etc. Young adulthood begins with setting goals and aspirations. Sheehy (1976) and Gould (1975) observe that individuals in their twenties are ambitious and striving. Sheehy labels this stage as "the tying twenties". They describe the early thirties as the time of re-assessing. Childless couples begin to think of raising children. Women who have been at home so far may begin a career. By the late thirties adults settle down and become more satisfied, Sheehy labels this contentment as rooting. The early twenties are marked by immaturities but by the completion of young adulthood a mature person is expected to emerge.

1.4.6 Mature Adulthood

After settling down in thirties and having lived through with rooting phase, the individual starts feeling sense of uprooting and dissatisfaction during the forties. A physical decline in the form of wrinkles, thickening waistlines, and greying and thinning hair start appearing. The changes are often termed middle life transition, middle-age revolt, mid-career crisis or middle-age slump. These terms point U, the loss of youth and the coming of old age. In women hormonal changes of menopause (endiqg of menstruation) generate anxiety and depression.

1.4.7 Aged Adulthood

Aging is a process which causes loss of vitality. Aged adults are more concerned about their health and death. Their visit to doctors is more frequent. Retirement has the worst impact on aged adults. They gradually lose their sense of meaningfulness in life. Some develop interests in social service and spend their time in financial planning, reading, traveling, visiting religious places and enjoying nature.

Check'YourProgress 4 Notes : a) Write your answers in the space given below. b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
n ~ standards of morality'? i) ~ k i which stage do most children learn to accept the rules ar~d

..............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
14
.

..............................................................................................................................................

Concept and Rlndplm of

............................................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................................

Gnpvtb and Development

............................................................................................................................................
iii) Outline three cominon problems encountered during young adulthood.

............................................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................................. ............................................................................................................................................

1.5

PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT

Human development involves change. This change occurs at various stages of development and the development pattern at each stage has predictable characteristics. You might have observed that development is a product of maturity and learning. Maturity is mtre or less automatic, unfolding biological potential. It is an irreversible sequence and entails biological changes. Such changes are relatively independent of environmental factors as long as environmental factors remain normal. There is a more or less permanent change in human bchaviour from the individual's experience in the environment Learning occurs a c r y the entire life span. It differs from maturity. However, learning depends on the process of maturing i.e. individual readiness (mental and physical) for certain activities. As human development is based on certain principles, we shall discuss them in this section.

1.5.1 Continuity
Development is a continuous process from conception to death. In the early years of life, development consists of changes that lead the child to maturity not only of body size and functioning, but also of behaviour. Even after maturity has been attained, development does not end. Changes continue which lead to the period of life known as senescence or old age. These changes continue until death ends the life cycle. Development depends on the growth and maturity of individuals who interact with the environment. Indeed many studies have shown that development demonstrates some stage -like properties and some consistency across doqains : cognitive, affective and psycho motor^

1.5.2 Sequentiality
Most psychologists agree h t development is sequential or orderly. Every species, whether animal or human, follows a pauern of development peculiar to it. This pattern in general is the same for all individuals. In prenatal development there is a genetic sequence, appearing at fixed intervals with certain characteristics.

Social and behavioural scientists increasingly have come to see development as a relationship bctwwn organism and environmeni in a transaction or collaboration. Individuals work with and affect their environment, and in turn the environment works with and affects them.
Thc directional sequence of development during both prenatal and postnatal stages may either be (i) from head to foot, or (ii) from the central axis to the extremities of the M y . All children follow a development pattern with one stage leading to the next. Infants stand before they walk; draw circles before they make squares. Even though development is continuous, there is evidence that at different ages certain characteristics stand out more conspicuously than others. Since development is continuous;what happens at one stage influences the following stages.

1.5.3 Generality to Specificity

Development proceeds from general to specific. In all areas of development, general activitj always precedes specific activity. For example, the foetus moves its whole body but is

Understanding t b e ~ v d o P m ~ t
of the Learner

incapable of makiag specific responses. In early postnatal life, infants wave their arms randomly. They can make such specific responses as reaching out for an object near them. In language, from genetic sounds emerge words and then specific sentences with meaning. With respect to emotional behaviour infants approach strange and unusual objects with some sort of a general fear response. Later, their fears become more specific and elicit different kinds of behaviour, such as crying, turning away and hiding or pretending to be not afraid.

1.5.4 Dlfferentiality
The tempo of development is not even. Individuals differ in the rate of growth and development. Boys and girls have different development rates. Each part of the body has its own particular rate of growth. Development does not occur at an even pace. There are periods of great intensity and equilibrium and there are periods of imbalance. Development achieves a plateau and this may occur at any level or between levels. Developmental changes do not always go forward in a straight line. While the development of different physical and mental traits is continuous, it is never uniform. Since the body has to attain its adult proportions, inequalities in rates occur. The feet, hands and nose, for example, reach maximum development early in adolescence, while the lower part of the face and the shoulders develop more slowly. Mental abilities like verbal, numerical, spatial, etc., develop at different ages. Creative imagination develops'rapidly in childhood and reaches its peak in early adolecsence. Reasoning develops slowly. Rote memory and memory for concrete objects and facts develop more quickly than memory for the abstract. The point that you 3ould remember here is that all these changes in individuals are not uniform. These changes occur at different rates.

1.6

ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN FACLLITATING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

What we know about the child is vast and impressive. However, what we do not know is even more vast and overwhelming. Every new insight opens up new questions. Therefore, you need to update your knowledge of the problems of children in the context of the media explosion, of economic smvings and resultant social, cultural and value changes so that you are able to make a reliable diagnosis and apply the knowledge of child psychology to better their adjustment with themselves and with the world around them. You, as a teacher, should know what to expect from the child (student), and what he needs physically, socially and emotionally. You need not know your student only in a formal teacher-taught relationship when he (the student) is found to be a member of a drug sub-culture group or is heading in a socially undesirable direction. The routine teacher-taught relationship would not benefit him unless he is dealt with empathatically as a social being, as an individual self, and as a biological organism. You should accept and make your students accept the reality of physical and biological changes so that the transition takes a smooth course without causing any psychological disadvantage. You need to create such challenging conditions which may lead to the effective coordination of physical, mcntal and other functions in order to ensure adequate adujstment to probable life situations. Yet another task that you should ensure is to secure effective and desirable responses, and prevent or eliminate ineffective or undesirable ones. One way is to arrange conditions in a way that make desirable responses satisfying and not annoying. Punishment should be administered judiciously lest it generates negative reactions. Positive training in self-direction and self-control should be given to students. Some of the' following points can be kept in mind while guiding them : Control and guidance must come from the student himself under the teacher's supervision. Student should not be punished lest it interferes with his developing leadership. Harsh, strict and unsympathetic control, and prescription of every detail of conduct leaving no place for self-control and self-direction are not conducive to students mental health and adjustment to life's events.

e
16

Proper guidance, rational shifts of treatment, and principles of autonomy should be judiciously applied to ensure smooth passage through the turbulent period of student$.

It is around the adolescence stage that students reach the higher levels of their school education. You need to receive adequate knowledge and skills with due preparedness in order to handle their emotional and social needs. You need to appreciate the fact that students at this srage are prone to revolt against established norms, rules, and authority. You should keep yourself ready to provide explanations and rationale for the beliefs and values which your students would question. Students at this time need proper guidance to decide on the right course of action. They need supportive judgments to do things which provide them self-confidence and self- assurance. Thc range of individual differences in mental ability among adolescents is wide. You need to use some plan of classification to secure homogeneous groups in respect of significant abilities and achievements so that curricular and instructional needs can be suitably met. Studies have indicated that in certain tasks a student's performance would imporove when othcrs (teachers) are around. This phenomenon is called social facilitation. However, this is not a universal phenomenon. Still other studies have shown that when a student is first trying to lcarn something new, the presence of others is detrimental. In such a situation the teacher has to assess the situation (considering the class as a social unit) and the personality traits of his students and accordingly he should facilitate their growth and development.

Concept and Prlndpler of Growth nnd Development

1.7

LET US SUM UP

In this unit you have studied the concept of human growth and development. The stages of development and the characteristics of each stage have also been discussed. The principles of development, their importance and need to study them scientifically have been discussed. As you have seen, adolescence is a period of transition between childhood and adulthood. Accompanying it are a number of problems. During this period, adolescents are considered ncither as children nor as adults. Their status remains ambiguous. They are prone to rebel against authority. What bearing thesc characteristics of adolescents have upon the instructional process and for dealing with their particular problems have also been discussed. What you, as a tcachcr, can do to attcnd to these problems and how you can help the development of a balanccd personality of your students havc also been dealt with in order to crcare a better understanding of students needs and problems.

1.8
1.
2.

UNIT-END EXERCISES
Trace those events from your own childhood and adolescence stages that reflect the characteristics of these periods. "Adolcscence is a period of storm and stress". Discuss with convincing arguments. Teachers can do a lot to help adolescents develops a balanced personality. How? Discuss your experiences in this regard.

3.

1.9

SUGGESTED READINGS

Craig J Grace (1983) : Human Development, Prentice Hall, INC, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Levinson, D.J., Darrow, C.N., Klein, E.B., Levinson, M.H. & Mckee, B. (1978) : The Seasons
of a Man's Lijk, New York, Knopg.

Sanden Vandcr W. James (1989) : Human Development, Refred A Knopg, INC. New York. Shcchy, G. (1974) : Parsages :Predictable Crisis ofAdult Life, New York, Dutton. Sprinthall, C., Richard and Sprinthall A. Norman (1990) : Educational Psychology, A Dcvelopmental Approach. McGraw Hill Publishing Company, New York. Wolrnan, B.B. (Ed), (1982) : tiandbook of Developmental Psychology, Prentice Hall : Englcwood,Cliffs, N.J.

Understanding Ule Development of the Learner

1 . 1 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. i) ii) Growth means quantitative changes in size which includes physical changes. Development means a qualitative change at physical as well as mental levels. Points of comparison are Ageltime in the life span Physical Mental Quantitative Qualitative

2.

i) ii)

a Babies have some unique features such as Weight : Approximately 2 kg - Appearance : Wrinkled and blotcky skin, large heads Interaction with environment
:

Recognise their mother's voice, slow awakward grasping movement, crawing, uttering some combinations of words. A rapid increase in height and weight. Rapid development of the reproductive organs that signals sexual maturity. i) Critically appraising their body and self-image. .ii) Extremely sensitive and perceptive about their own physical appearance. Adolescence poses identity tasks that seem to play an important part in a successful transition to adulthood. i) Independent behaviour, strong feelings of insecurity. ii) Three main needs of early childhood are

3.

The characteristics of an adolescent are as follows : Growth spurt Puberty Body images and adjustment Identity
.

: :

4.

i)

Later childhood. Psychological development Parental attention Need for socialization Displaying love and affection through games

iii) The common problems could be heightened emotionality revolt against authority feelings of insecurity identity crisis

UNIT 2 PHYSICAL, SOCIO-EMOTIONAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Structure 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Objectives 2.3 Physical Development
2.3.1 2.3.2 Upper Primary School Children Secondary and Senior Secondary School Students

2.4

Socio-Emotional Development
2.4.1 2.4.2 Upper Primary School Children Secondary and Senior Secondary School Students

2.5 2.6 2.7

Moral Development Role of Teacher in Facilitating Development of Children Let Us Sum Up

2.8 Unit-end Exercises 2.9 Suggested Readings 2.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

2.1

INTRODUCTION

In thc previous unit we discussed the concept of human growth and development We discussed various stages of human development. Human development is predictable to some extent and as such is based on certain principles that are discussed in Unit 1 in brief. Wc also discussed the role of the teacher in facilitating the growth and development of students. Physical, socio-emotional and moral development are important factors that learning. The discussion in Unit 1 was mainly related to the individual's experience of growth and development within the physical parameters. Now, we discuss more about how these changes affect the socio-emotional and moral development of a student. This unit focuses on the various aspects of the development of students studying at the upper primary, secondary and senior secondary levels, i. e., in the age-group 10 years to 17 years. By and large, students in the upper primary levels have fewer problems compared to students who are at the adolescence stage. This is due to many factors which will be explained in this unit. Briefly, the unit's emphasis is on various aspects of the physical, socio-emotional and moral development of students in the age group of 10 years to 17 years. The problems faced by such students will also be discussed in brief. The educational implications of physical, socio-emotional and moral development have been highlighted to make you aware of the need to facilitate students development in the desired direction at a satisfactory rate.

2.2

OBJECTIVES
discuss the need and importance of studying the physical, socio-emotional and moral development of students; differentiatebetween the physical characteristics of boys and girls, especially of early and late maturers;

Afer going through this unit, you should be able to :

e e

identify and discuss the problems of adolescents (secondary school students) in India; and explain the characteristics and implications of various types of development for the teaching-learning process.

Understanding the Development of the Learner

2.3

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Physical growth and development describe the physical as well as psychomotor changes in an individual. You have studied physical development of children at various stages in Unit 1. In this section we shall further elaborate on the physical development of children studying at the uppcr primary and secondary school levels. Children entering the first grade are in a transitional period that marks the end of early childhood -a time of rapid growth and development in all areas. Thereafter a phase of gradual development starts, when children reach the upper primary grades. This is the stage when they cross childhood and enter the pre-adolescence age. To learn the implications of physical growth and development for the teaching-learning prccess, children have been categorised into two groups : upper primary school children (10-13 years) and secondrylsenior secondary school children (13-17 years). We shall discuss each age group in the following sub-sections.

2.3.1 Upper Primary School Children

Children in the lower elementary period, i.e. from 5 to 819 years, show relatively slow physical development. A typical child in the primary grades reflects certain physical characteristics. For instance, the girls tend to be slightly shorter and lighter than the boys until around the age of nine, when the height and weight tcn to be approximately cqual for boys and girls. Upper primary students are, on the average, healthier than those younger to them. They tend to have better resistance to fatigue and disease. Their motor-coordination is better than that of seven or eight years old children. During the latter part of the fourtll grade, however, many girls bcgin a sudden growth that tends to continue till puberty. The arms and legs grow rapidly though there is not a proportionate growth in the Uunk size. The result is a gangly or all-arms-and-legs appearance. Bone growth occurs before the growth of associated muscles and cartilages. Children at this growth stage temporarily lose the efficiency of motor-coordination and strength. They appear to be clumsy and sometimes confused as compared to seven and eight years old children. Girls of this age-group experience pre-puberty developments like breast budding and traces of public hair. In addition to muscles and cartilages, the limbs grow in early maturing females and they tend to regain thcir strength and efficiency of motor-coordination. Because of this most girls on the completion of their fifth gradc look taller, heavier and stronger than boys. Since boys remain twelve to eighteen months behind the girls in physical development, even thc early maturing boys do not start thcir growth spurt until the age of eleven. By the start of the twelfth/thirteenth year, most girls attain the peak of their growth spurt, while all including early maturing boys continue the slow and steady growth level of late childhood. The girls usually start their menstrual periods by the age of thirteen. For boys, the end of pre-adolescence and the onset of early adolescencc as idenlified by thc first ejaculation, occurs around the age of thirteen which may extcnd up to the age of sixteen in some cases.

2.3.2 Secondary and Senior Secondary School Students

The adolescence pcriod of devclopment begins with puberty. Early adolcscence is a time of rapid physical and intellcctual dcvclopment. Middle adolescence is a more stable period of T adjustment to and integration o thc behaviour patterns of early adolescence. Later adolescence is marked by preparations for the responsibilities, choices and opportunities of adulthood. The major changes during adolcscence are discussed below : i) Variability in onset and rate of puberty : Directly relatcd physical developmenilchange that adolescents must face is the consciousness of sexual identity. This includes the expression of sexual needs and feelings and the acceptance or rejection of sex roles. Pubcrty is a series of physiological changes that make the organism capable of reproduction. Nearly every organ and system of the body is affcctcd by these changes. The pre-puberty child and post-puberty adolescent changes in outward apparance because of the changes in the stature and proportion and the development of priinary and secondary sex characteristics. Although the sequencc of evcnts at puberty is generally the same for each person, the timing

and the rate of weight gain vary widely. The averare girl typically begins pubertal changes around eleven years, one and a half to two years before the average boy. In each sex, however. the normal range of getting sexual maturity is approximately six years. Llke the onset, the rate of change also varies widely. Some prsons take only one and a half to two years to go through the pubertal changes t reach reproductive maturity, while others may require six years to pass o through the same stage. These dillerences mean that some individuals may mature before others or the same age who may have just entered puberty. The children make comparison among themselves. The tcndency to hold maturity in high rcgard can be a problem for the less matured students. On the other hand, the early maturcrs are also likely to experience temporary discomfort because they stand out From the less matured majority.
ii) Reactions to puberty :One of the most importani challenges adolescents have to face is to adapt to the changes in their bodies. Coordinatii .l and physical activity must be adjusted rapidily as height, weight and skills change. The new developments in body must be integrated into the existing self-image. Ncw habits have to be developed. As adolescents become more like adults in appearance, they are expected U, behave more like adults. regardless or their crnotlonal, intellectual or social maturity.

Physical, soeio-emotional and Moral Development

The purpose of puberty is to make people able to reproduce. Thus the adolesccnt is faced with a ncw potential that includes increased intcrest in sexual activity, erotic fantasy and experimentation. Masturbation becomes a regular activity for many adolesce6ts md some adolcsccnts even indulge in sexual acts. The sexual activity necessitates facing the possibility of conflict with parents, pregenancy, sexually transmitted diseases, etc. iii) Early and late maturing : Researchers have long been interested in the possible d~rferences between the children who cntcr puberty early and those who enter it late. Peskin (1967) demonstrated hat early maturers have a harder time at puberty. Youth who mature earlier experience more anxiety and have more temper tantrums, more' conflict with their parcnts, and lower self-esteem at puberty than ~hosc mature later. But by the time the early who matures are in high school, long post puberty and having accommodated its changes, they are more at ease, popular, and maturc than are late maturers. The late maturers are still experiencing pubertal changes. If early maturity is an asset for teenage boys, it is a real liability for teenage girls. They dcvclops breasts. 'They have fewer changes to discuss with peers the physical and emotional chlrnges they are undergoing. Peskin's data suggest that the early maturcr may need more help in understanding pubertal changes, while the late maturer may need more help coping with being relatively immature and less able to compete in situations where maturity and size are important.

One clcar conclusion that can be drawn from research on puberty is that this period is a relatively difficult one for most children. Neither they nor their pcers nor adults find puberty eayy to cope with. Both self-esteem and pecr-esteem decline temporarily during puberty.
Check Your Progress 1

Note : Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit i)
Which of the following statements about adolescents are true ? Tick mark (4)the corrcct statements. a) b) c) Girls typically start thcir pubcrul growth spurt more than a ycar before boys. Although the age at which individual children bcgin to mature varies, the time required for pubertal changes is quite uniform. During adolescencc people bcgin lecling the need lor both intimacy and sexual gratification.

ii) Fill in the blank : The perception that peoplc have about thcir own abilities, sucnghs and weaknesses is called their .................... .

Undemtading the Dovdopment of the ~eprner

2.4

SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Children are not like machines with gradually developing abilities. The developmentof various aspects like physical, social, emotional, intellectual, etc., are simultaneous. Therefore, their developmeqt is inter-dependent and also inter-related with the development of cognitive skills. self-concepts, ways of interacting with others, social attitudes and values. Like cognitive developmeat, social development proceeds in stages. Let us discuss some of the issues related to the wio-emotional development students studying at the upper primary and secondary/senior secondary school levels.

2.4.1 Upper Primary School Children

A child's social development during the primary grades is shaped by three major influences. First are the parents and the family, the second is the peer group and the third is the school experience. During this stage children start trying to prove that they are really grown up. This is often. described as the "I can - do - it - myself' stage. Children's powers of concentration grow, they can spend more time on chosen tasks and often take pleasure in completing them. This stage also includes the growth of independent action, cooperation with groups, performing in socially acceptable ways, and a concern for fairplay.

By the sixth grade, students often form groups that include both boys and girls. Whatever the composition of peer groups, they serve important purposes to shape their social behaviour. The children compare their abilities and skills with those of other children. Members of peer groups also exchange notes with one another about their different worlds. Children leam to sort out and form their own attitudes and values. For both boys and girls in the upper primary grades, the membership of groups tends to promote feelings of self-worth. Not being accepted by the group can bring serious emotional problems. Herein lies the major cause of the pre-adolescent's changing relationship with parents. It is just that their friends are more important than ever and will continue to be throughout adolescence. This behaviow may be a result of their change in physical and cognitive structures. They want their parents t treat them differently, even though many parents are unwilling to see them o differently. Nine to twelve years old children still depend heavily on their families and generally affirm that they love their parents. They also a f f m that though they feel their parents love them, they do not think they understand them. Thornburg (1979) suggests that parents (and teachers) of pre-adolescents should remember two facts When these changes occur, pre-teens break up the well-defined, predictable behaviours and attitudes of childhood. They grow up and change the ways they do things, ways to which their parents have become accustomed. When changes occur, pre-teens need additional guidance. Parents must remember that many of their children's ways of acting are as new and as unpredictable to the children thanselves as they are a them. Therefore, parental direction and reassurance are important to their normal growth. School also affects the social development of children. Through school, children's public selves and social skills develop. The middle childhood years often bring changes in the relationship between children and their mchers. In the primary school years, children easily accept and depend on their teachers. During the upper primary years their relationship with teachers becomes more complex. Sometimes they discuss/share with their teachers their personal problems about which they may not tell their parents. Some pre-adolescents even choose teachers as role models. At the same time, however, some pre-teens behave with teachers in ways they would never have thought of several years earlier, and some openly challenge teachers.
Television as a socialising agent :Television is an important socialising agent that influences childran's behaviour and hence their development. Children leam both aggressive and pro-social behaviour from television. They also acquire knowledge about social relationships and w i a l behaviow h m television programmes. You will study the role of media in Unit 12 / Block 3.

Emotional development : It is common to have emotional problems related to the dcvclopment of upper primary children. Though pre-adolescents are generally happy and optimistic, they also may have many fears, such as : not being accepted into a peer group not having a best friend being punished by their parents not doing well at school getting hurt Other emotions in this age group include anger and fear of being unable to control it, guilt, frustration, and jealousy. Pre-adolescents need help in realising that these emotions are a natural part of their growth. Many children, for insknce, have fears that seem unrealistic to adults. They should be encouraged to discuss those fears. Feelings of guilt often drise when there is a conflict between children's actions (based on the values of the peer group) and their parents values. Angcr is another common emotion displayed by children at lhis age. It is displayed with more intcnsity than many other emotions. Just as parents often tell their children that they should not haveany &us, they have often to tell them they should not get angry. Unfortunately, this is an urlrealistic eXpecWonl%madults, including parents. Other emotional characteristics of upper primary children are : Thcy are impatient and want to get things done in a hurry. They have conflicting desires. They want freedom, yet fear the loss of security. They exhibit a wide range of behaviours and their moods can swing from one extreme to the other. Thcy need to feel successful and desire attention and recognition for their personal efforts and achievements. They seek adults approval and acceptance. They ahuery sensitive to criticism of their personal shortcomings. Thcy am anxious, doubtful and confused about their physical and intellectual development as well as their social relationships. For instance, boys and girls whose physical spurts erne early or late are geatly concerned and self-conscious. Harlocks also discusses the characteristics of this age group as follows : Emotions are intense : Young children respond with equal intensity to a trival event and to a serious situation. Even the pre-adolescent reacts with intense emotions to what appears to an adult, to be a trivial frustration. Emotions appear frequently :children display their emotions frequently. As they grow older and discover that disapproval or punishment often follows an emotional outbrust, . they lcarn to adjust to emotion arousing situations. They then curb their emotional outbrusts or react in a more acceptable way. Emotions are transitory : Young children's rapid shifts fiom laughter to tears, from anger to smiles, or from jealousy to affection are attributable to three factors: clearing the system of pent up emotions by unreserved expressions; lack of complete understanding of the situation because of intellectual immaturity and limited experience: and short attention span, which makes it possible for the child to be diverted easily. As children grow older, their emotions become moR persistent. Responses reflect individuality : In all newborns, the pattern of response is similar. Gradually, as the influences of learning and environment are felt, the behaviour accompanying the different emotions becomes individualised. One child will run out of the room when frightened, another will cry and still another will hide behind a piece of furniture or a person. Emotions change in strength : Emotions that are very strong at certain ages wane in strength as the child grows older, while others, former y weak, become stronger. These variations are due partly to changes in the strength of drives, partly to the child's and intellectual development, and partly to changes in inter ,,ts values.

Physicai, SoCl*emotlonnl and Moral Develo~ment

Understanding the Development of the Learner

Emotions can be detected by behaviour symptoms : Children may not show their emotional reactions directly. They show them indirectly by restlessness, day-beaming, crying, speech difficulties and nervous mannerisms such as nail-biting and thumb sucking.

2.4.2

Secondary and Senior Secondary School Students

One of the first signs of early adolescence is the apperance of reflectivity, or the tendency to think about what is going on in one's own mind and to study oneself. Adolescents begin to look more closely at themselves and to define themselves differently. They start to realise that there are ditkences betweent what they think and feel and how they behave. They are also prone to be dissatisfied with themselves. They critically examine their personal characteristics, compare themselves to others, and try to change the way they are. Adolescents may also ponder whether other people see and think about the world in the same way as they themselves do. They become more aware of their distinctiveness and uniqueness from other people. They learn that other people cannot know fully what they think and feel. The issues of "who" and "what" really dominate their personality development. Identity : The physical and intellectual changes during adolescence disrupt their sense of continuity and personal wholeness. The cognitive ability to relate the past to the present, and to think about the future, presents the young adolescents with the problem of understanding the continuity of experience across time and projecting that continuity into the future. To accompi:sh this, adolescents usually depend on several activities. The important activities are as follob. s : i) They pay great attention on how other people view them. They have sensitive antennas, tuned to receive subtle messages about themselves from other people. They listen carefully to their peers. parents, teachers and other adults for any hrformation that indicates how these people view them. Information obtained is chewedover, compared to other views, and inserted into their self-concept if it can be made coonpadble with the information already there. They search the past and often want to know about their ance&m,familytree, their own infancy and childhood experiences. Some learn basic genetics, and are concerned about the sources of their physical and psychological characteristics. All these contribute to their understanding of continuing across time and of their potential fhure.

ii)

iii) They experiment with roles. They attempt to find out what kind of persons they are and for this they adopt different ways. They adopt the characteristics of other people to see if the characteristics fit in them. They take on and quickly cast off the traits of peers, teachers and other acquaintances. They also watch carefully as to how other people respond to their experiments in order to see if they can fit them into their relationships with others. For example, you might have observed your students talking about the behaviour of a popular film star thereby gaining popularity among his peers. Similarly. you may find some studerits adopting the role model's most attractive behaviour patterns to be accepted by their role model. iv) They act on their feelings and express their beliefs and opinions accordingly. They place. a high value on being honest and behave in the ways that are m e to oneself. Some of them become distressed if they think they are not presenting their real feelings or if they are not being consistent in their behaviour. Gradually most of them come to realise that feelings, beliefs and people can change, and that consistency is less important than accurate representation of oneself. Erikson calls the experience of not having a sense of one's identity as identity diffusion. This is the unpleasant awareness of continual change in onsclf and of the difference between one's self-concept and how others see one to escape this troubling situation. Some adolescents adopt a sense of identity prematurely. Such a choice, which Erikson calls identity foreclosure, gives a person a self-concept around which feelings and behaviour are organised. The choices arc usually supported by the reactions of parents and other people, because they find it helpful to know how to relate to the adolescent. Often adolescents choose a role that they know will be socially desirable. Sometimes,however, their behaviour may draw disapproval, even though it may have been forecast by anxious parents.

Adolescents do experiments and remain flexible if they successfully find their own identity. By trying out various ways and then testing and modifying them, they can pick those characteristics that are most comfortable, and drop the others. To do this, the dolescent must have the self-confidenceto vary behaviour through experiment, and to dropcharac&erisbcs that don't fit, even if the characteristics are supported by others. It helps to have a stable and accepting set of parents, teachers and peers who will respond to the adolescent learner's experimentation in search of this hue identity. Adolescents need time and freedom to experiment. Erikson prescribes for the adolescent a psychosocial moratorium, a period when the adolescent is not forced to make lasting commitments and when adults refrain from harbouring lasting expectations from hisher identity. Autonomy : Another important personality development during the adolescence years is an increase in demands for autonomy, for self-determination. As adolescents' awareness of their increassing similarity to adults grows, and as their ability to analyse and plan their responsibilities improves, it becomes increasingly difficult for them to accept adult directions. Adolescents know that they will have to take responsibility for their actions as adults, and they need to practice that responsibility in more and mon: arcnas. Those adults who work with adolescents sometimes give more advice t a is necessary or than hn the adolescents can allow. Sensitivity to the need of adolescents to maintain their autonomy is a valuable characteristic for teachers to keep in mind while dealing with them. hoper guidance can be given, sometimes even firmly, without stopping them from exercising their choice. By allowing choices, you, as a teacher, can help them develop both responsibility and indcpendence. By expecting them to gradually take on more responsibility and to face the consequences of their choices, you can help prepare them for adulthood. Conformity :At the time when adolescents seek autonomy from their parents and other adults, thcy often seek to conform to their group. Adolescents are desperate to be accepted by their pecrs. To gain peers' acceptance they copy one another's style of dress, language and bchaviour. They may form a group that excludes all those who do not wear similarclothcs, use s~milar language, hold similar opinions and engage in similar activities. Interpersonal development :Peers are the focus of adolescence, much tothe dismay of their parenrs and teachers. Friendship, popularity, conflict with peers, dating and sexual relationshipsall take a tremendous amount of the adolescent's time and energy. The actions and opinions of peers may loom large as adolescents try to establish their own identity. Adolescents with similar interests and values form groups. Thc friendships made in adolescence may endure through life, on at least in nostalgia (sentimentality). Intimacy : In early adolescence, two new needs arise. First is the need for intimacy. for a relalionship, with a person to share their feelings and thoughts. The second and comparatively less important need is for sexual gratification.

~hysicnl, SocicwsnotbnnI and Mord Development

The skills of intimacy are not easily learned, and their practice occupies a large portion of the interactions among adolescents. Intimacy isifirst felt and needed by adolescents. They feel that therc should be someone with whom they can share their feelings and emotions. They attempt to have intimacy first with peers, usually drawn from the same sex, classmates, etc.
7i)communicate intimacy requires learning to talk about one's feelings and thoughts in ways that can be understood by other persons. Such communication requires trust in the partner's goodwill and tolerance.

Lcarning to develop intimate communication with peers of the other sex is one of the major interpersonal attributes of the adolescence stage. Intimacy with the same sex is easier to a th~evc because they go through similar changes and are more familiar. The other sex is lcss hmdiar for most adolescents. Intimacy with peers of the other sex is made more complicated by thc fact that such intimacy often involves concern for others' needs. Adolcsccnts who manage to develop relationships with the other sex without a major mishap are those who can separate their needs for intimacy and for sexual gratification. They give priority to developing friendships with pcers of both sexes. They do not confuse sexual intimacies with intimacy that does not include sex. Adolescents seem to know that mature adult rclationships are those in which intimacy is maintained and lasting sexual gratification is achicved with an intimate relationship.

Understanding the Development of the Learner

Peer relations :There may be gradual changes in peer interactions around the time of puberty. The playmaks, chosen mainly on the basis of proximity, begin to split up into pairs. Friends spend mope time talking than doing things. Young people seek privacy from adults and peers. Friendshios may shift rapidly as adolescents seek other friends at similar stages of development. Friendships are tested repeatedly. Exclusivity is sought - "We have to be the best of friends" - to protect the adolescents who want to share inner feelings. But, inevitably, confidences are broken, secrets are shared and the best of friends become untrustworthy' enemies. Concern, trustworthiness and loyalty characterise these early efforts at intimacy. For example, as a teacher you might have observed the students of a particular age group coming to you to sort out interpersonal problems, or displaying preference only to sit, play and study with a specific friend. Dating: Dating provides one of the most thrilling pastimes in adolescence and some of the most outstanding memories in later y e m of life. Dating provides adolescents with the opportunity to improve their interpersonal and social skills and to try out roles that characterise the m a i d relationship without having to commit themselves to h e responsibility of marriage. In addition to providing friendship, affection, and at times love, dating may be the means by which adolescents prove or maintain status in society. Dating also prepares the way for eventual mate selection. Cooperation with peers of the opposite sex is enhanced to some extent as a result of dating. At the same time, some adolescents have also used dating as a means of sexual experimentation. Although dating has proved to be quite beneficial in orienting the adolescent towards mamage and helping him or her to develop more intimate relatioships with the opposite sex. Some adolescents have been hurt or even exploited by their dating partner. Then, too, some dates are so superficial and circumscribed that couples never transcend the pattern of their respective lives. Many youngsters embark on their first rcal date with some apprehension and shyness but usually this wears off in time. Dating includes a vast range of activities beyond formal arrangements for calling or going out to the movies or a party or dance. Some youngsters date by means of long private telephone conversations long before they start to get together in public. Often, by prior understanding or an unspoken arrangement, boys and girls meet or seemingly just happen to meet in the halls or library at school, on the street, a community fair, a school dance, or elsewhere. Emotional disorders : Emotional disorders frequently arise during adolescence. Such disorders range from simple depression to being over anxious about health to suicidal thoughts or attempts (Masterson, 1967). Many adolescents who engage in delinquent, bizarre, or self-abusive bcl~aviourdo so as a call for help during a difficult period. Some adolescents use drugs, alcohol, or sex as a response to emotional disorders. You, as a teacher, should be sensitive to the fact that adolescence is a difficult time for many students and that emotional disturbances are common. By saying so we mean that emotional disorders shpuld be detected and resolved, hopeless or unaccount?bly angry bchaviour is a clue to understand that the adolescent needs help. Such students should be given special attention by school counselIors or other experts.

Drug and alcohol abuse :Drug and alcohol abuse among adolescents has increased in recent years. It is pertinent to mention here that you may. sooner or later, encounter studcnts who come to schaol drunk.
Pregnancy : Pregnancy and child birth are increasing anlcng ell groups of female adolcxents, particularly iri the girls of lower income groups. Eady child bednrg makes it dificult for adolescent girls to continue their schooling. It is a primary cause +)fthe continuation of the cycle of poverly. Check Your Progress 2 Notes : a) Tlck mark (4the right answer(s). b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit. d i) Teachers should use which i thz following teaching stralegties to help' students develop a sense of industry? a) b) Mainlain a classroom environment that can be described as "unidimensional". Avoid applying labels to students such as "good", "bad, or "above average". "below average".

c)

Praise only ability, not effort.

Physkal, Socbo-emetlonal and Mord Development

d) Demonstrate to students that there are many paths to success. e) All of the avove can be used. ii) Teachers who want ot help adolescents develop a healthy sense of identity should do which of the following? a) b) c) d) e) State expectations from the students clearly and also set out the consequences of achieving or falling to meet the expectations. Expose students to various career opportunities. Give students responsibilities. Accept that adolescents will sometimes confront parents, teachers and other authority figures. Teachers should do all of the above.

2.5

MORAL DEVELOPMENT

You might be telling your childrenlstudents about socially desired behaviour, such as : "Obey your elders;", "Be honest". "Greet your visitors", "Don't tell a lie", "Speak politely". "Don't hurt animals". "Pray to God", "You are a girl, don't do this" and similar preaching. By telling such things you recognise the importance/need of rules in a society. In other words, you want to make them aware of socially desired behaviour. Generally, students at the middle and secondary school stage get confused when they find that people sometimes break the rules and that the rules that apply to some are not always applied to others. For example, we tell children not to tear pages from their exercise books. But many a time we take out one or two blank pages from their exercise books. Similarly we teach them not to tcll a lie. But at school and in the community as well, they observe many peoble telling a lie for petty things. Such experiences probably change the children's concept of rules. In this unit, considering the age-groups we are catering to, Kohlberg's theory of moral development is worthy of mention. Kohlberg (1969, 1981 and 1984) refined, extended and revised Piaget's basic theory of the development of moral values. Before talking about Kohlberg's theory of moral development, let us give an idea about Piaget's views of moral dcvclopment.

Piaget's v i e w s ~ n moral development Piagct (1932) used the interview method to find out the various stages of moral development of the child. According to him, there are four stages :
Anomy - the first five years, Hctcronomy - Authority (5 - 8 years), Hcteronomy - Reciprocity (9 - 13 ycars), and Autonomy - Adolescence (13 - 18 years). Let us discuss each stage of moral development in brief: i)

Anomy (first five years) :Piagct called the first stage anomy, the stage without the law. At this stage the behaviour of the child is neither mom1 nor immoral but is non-moral or amoral. That is, his behaviour is not guided by moral standards. The regulators of bchaviour are pain ahd pleasure. Heteronomy-Authority :This stage of moral development may be called the discipline of artificial consequences imposed by adults. Moral develoqment at this stage is controlled by external authority. Rewards and punishments regulatc moraldevelopment.

ii)

iii) Heteronomy-Reciprocity (9-13 years) : At this stage, there is the morality of coopention With peers or equals. This stage is regulated by reciprocity which implies, "We shMd not do to others what will be offensive to us." Conformity with the group bccomcs imperative at this stage.

UndcrsZand ing of the 1,earncr

iv)

Autonomy-Adolescence (13-18 years) :Piagct calls this stage the equity stage also. As Piagct puts it, while reciprocity demands strict equality, aulonomy demands equity, taking into account such factors as motive, circumstances, etc. The individual at this stage is lully responsible for his behaviour.

A word ol caution is necessary here. The different levels of moral development associated with dillercnt age levels should not be looked upon as fixed stages lor all children. Like Piagcl, Kohlberg focussed on thc dcvelopmcnt of moral judgcmcnt in children rather than their actions. He trcals the child as a moral philosopher. Kohlberg investigated how children (and adults) reason about rules that govern thcir behaviour in certain situations. He did not study children's game playing which is what Piaget did. He rather sccured lheir responses L a scrics o l structured situations or moral dilemmas. His mosl o favoured situation is presented bclow: In Ewope a woman was near death from cancer. One drug might save her, a form of radium that the druggist in the surne town had recently discovered. The druggist was charging $2,000, ten times what the drug cost him to make. The sick woman's husband, Ileinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked hirn to sell it cheaper or let hirn pay later. But the druggist said. "No". The husband aor desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug for his wife. Should the husband have done that ? Why? (Kohlberg, 1969 p. 379). On thc basis of thc responses hc received from children, he concluded that people pass through a scrics of six slages of moral judgcmcnt or reasoning. Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning :When people are confronted wilh moral dilemmas, it is thcir reasoning that is importanl, and not thcir final decision, Kohloberg thcroized that people progrcss through thrce levels (comprising six stages) as they dcvelop abilities of moral reasoning, They are: Kohlberg's stages of moral growth i) Prc-conventional lcvel : This level of moral reasoning includes the rules set down by othcrs and the children follow them. Thcre are two stages ol this level: Stage one - punishmcnt and obedience orientation : At thc first stage physical conscqucnccs ol an action determine whcthcr it is good or bad.
m

Stage two - instrumental relativist oricntation : What's right satislies one's own necds and occasionally the ntxds ol othcrs. Elcmenls ol fairness and reciprocity are prcsenl, but they arc mostly interpreted in a "you scratch my back, I scratch yours" fashion. Conventional level : At this level thc individual adopts rules, and somelimes subordinates his own necds to the needs o l the group. The expectations of the family, the group, or Lhc nation from adolescents arc sccn to be valuable in their own right, rcgardlcss of imrncdiate and obvious consequences. Stage three good boy-good girl oricntalion : Good bchaviour is what pleases others and is approved by them. One earns approval by being nice.

ii)

Stage four - law and order orientation : Law and ordcr orientation mcans performing one's own duty properly, showing rcspect for authority, and maintaining the given social ordcr for its own sake.

iii) Post-conventional level : People dclinc thcir own valucs in tcrms of cthical principles thcy have choscn to lollow. Stage five - social conlract oricntation : What's right is defined in terms of both the gencral individual rights and in terms of the standards that havc bcen agreed upon by thc whole society. In contrast to the stage lour, laws are no1 lro;r~n,they be changed lor can the good of society.
-

In Stage six - universal ethical principle orientation : What's right is defined by the decision of the conscience according to self-choscn cthical principles. Thcse principles are absmcl and ethical (such as the golden rule), not specific moral prescriptions.

AL he prc-conventional lcvcl of monl reasoning, children simply obey aulhorily figures to avoid bcing punished. For example, if a piece of chocolate/biscuit falls from the child's hand

28

and h e molhcr has seen it, the child usually will not eat it. Children's needs and desircs becomc important at thi\ slage, yet they arc aware or take carc of the interesls of other people. In a nutshell, thcy consider the interests of others when they make moral judgements. But they slill Itx)k out for ways to satisfy their needs.

Phyrksl, Sucbawlhnd and Moral Devdopmcnt

Fig. 2.1: Kohlberg's stages of moral growth. Source : Adaptcd from Kohlberg, 1969

Morality is defined in terms of cooperation with peers. This is the stage at which children have an unquestioning belief in the Golden Rule (Hogan & Emfer, 1978). Because of thc decrease in egocenuisism that accompanies concrete operations, children are cognitively capable of putting themselves in someones else's shoes. Thus they consider the feelings of others while making moral decisions. No longer do they simply do what will not get them punished. (stage 1) or what tnakes thcm feel good (stage 2). Socicty's rules and laws rcplace those of lhc pccr group. A dcsire for spccial approval by parcnty no longcr dacrmines moral judgements. Laws are followed without question, and brcahng thc law can never be justified. Most adolescents are probably at this stage. At this shgc, thc children realise that the laws and values of a society are somcwhat arbitrary and spccific to that society (Hogan and Emfer, 1978). Laws are seen as necessary to preserve thc social order and to ensure the basic rights of life and liberty.
In stagc 6 onc's ethical principles are self-chosen based on abstract concepts such as justice, cqual~ry the value of human rights. Laws that violate these principles can and should bc and disohcycd bccause justice is above the law.

I,imit;~tionsof Kohlberg's theory of moral development :One of the major limitations of this Lhcory is its focus on reasoning rather than on actual behaviour. It is a common observation that ch~ldrcn various ages exhibit undesirable behaviour while copying from peers answer of books on tallying answers (generally objective type of questions) during examinations while thc invigilator is not around or hclshe encouragcs those children who behaved honestly in cvcry cnsc, and discourages those very fcw who behaved dishonestly. It shows that children's moral reasoning and moral behaviour may bc quite weak. Childrcn may havc learned to say ccrciin thrngs about moral decisions at various ages but what they do is different.

Understonding theDevd0pment of the Learner

,

Indian philosophers and educationisls also believe that values should be a part of an individual, his reasonipg or decision-making,so that what heishe does (should be) is in harmony with his (thoughts) values.
-

2.6

ROLE OF TEACHER IN FACILITATING DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN

The teacher or the school has a major role in facilitating the overall development of childrcn once they are enrolled in the school. The purpose of discussing various levels and types of developmant in this course is to make you aware of the underlying principles of child development in the school environment. The knowledge thus gained will help you undcrstand the educational implications of the physical, social, emotional and moral development of children, While designing curricular and co-curricular activities of the school, you are expected to consider certain points which contribute towards the smooth development of childrcn's personality. Some of the important points are discussed in the following paragraphs.

Educational implications of physical development : It should. by now, be obvious that the physical health of children is indispcnsable for their success and efficiency in all fields of lifc. This aspect of development should, thcrcfore, be paid the attention it ~ C S ~ Nby all those ~ S dealing with the education and welfare of the children.
The school must have a regular programme of health education. Ample and adequate facilities o for liberal participation in sports and games and other physical exercises appropriate t the level of growth should be provided. Practical information concerning physical growth, personal hygiene, food habits, etc., should be imparted to children in an interesting manncr. You will agree that brief, interesting and easily understandable tasks, introducing them to various development stages, is bound to help them form a correct picture in their own minds' regarding their own changing selves and their roles in life. This may also scrve as safeguard against the possibility of their developing irrational worries regarding abrupt development taking place in their bodies. m u , as a teacher, can accomplish this task properly if you possess a sound knowledge of the physical development of children. With the increased rate of physical change consequent upon the transition from one phase of development to another, their behaviour and attitudes are also bound to change. You should, therefore, realise that varying treatment, suitable to the physical growth level, is needed by children. The upper primary, secondary and senior secondary students are very tendcr physically. They need as much affection and tender treatment in the classroom as possible. Developing children must not be rashly stuffed with bookish learning. Their educational programmes should include a combination of varied activities in and out of the classroom. Adolescents need sympathetic undcrstanding and friendliness. They are clumsy, awkward, aggressive and often violent. Intelligent guidance of their maturing physical energies can direct their vigour and enthusiasm to healthy and useful channels. In short, a differential treatment h adequate to L e developmental stage of children is needcd from your hands. A rigid and uniform treatment for all levels of children's growth are obviously bound to be ineffective as well as disastrous. The all-round and healthy development of children is exceedingly dependent upon hcalthy physical growth. Children who enjoy a feeling that they are physically fit are bound to be favourably affected by this internal picturing of themselves. They are most likely to devclop confidence and a will to improve further. They live gracefully and enjoy life. Convcrscly, children suffering from a feeling that thcre is something wrong somewhere in thcir bodies have less of a chance to approach life confidcntly and to make any substantial achievement. Thc physical condition of one is largely responsible for the devclopment of a number of habits, attitudes, views, etc., among children and adults. You as a teacher should, therefore, endeavour to promote a sense of well-being in the childrcn by developing an interest among them in thc physical culture programmes of the school. You should also promote the development of positive and healthy feelings in childrcn, regarding the present state of their physical health. A strongly optimistic approach towards their physical well-being is bound to have a dcsirablc effect on their general health as well as on social, cultural, emotional and intellectual growth. Taking cake of physical health of the children at the school leave is the primary function of the physical Health instructor and the gymnastics and sports teacher.

, ,

Check Your Progress 3 Notes : a) Write your answer in the space given below. b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
Why is physical education necessary in schools?

Physical, Soci*ernotiunal and Moral Development

..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................................. ..................................................................................................................................................
b

Educational implications of social development :~tmight have become evident by now that the social growth of children is a significant process which cannot be ignored by the teachers and thc parents. Children's social development affects their entire life, including their scholastic achievement. The school should, therefore, endeavour to provide adequate and ample opportunities favourable to the social growth of the children. It should aim at creating such a healthy atmosphere in and outside the classroom that children feel' it convenient, pleasant and desirable to develop satisfying social relations with all those with whom thcy come in contact.
The general attitude of a class teacher must aim to promote a feeling of security in the minds of children, Each student should be helped to develop healthy and desirable relations with classmates. He should be stimulated to participate in group activities in and out of the classroom. The aim of education is to develop in the student useful knowledge, skills, habits and attitudes that are fundamental to successlul and effective social living. The teacher should, therefore, lake care that he imparts knowledge in an interesting and stimulating manner so that the students do not develop the feeling of being inferior to others. Merely bookish stuff is not enough. Whenever possible you should endeavour to bring out the social and cultuml implications of the various subjects taught in the classroom. Similarly, the training of a student in a skill in a particular field is also socially very essential. Each student must be motivatcd to take interest in a practical scientilic, mechanical or technical subject. Such an early practical bias eventually enables him to develop a taste for mastering useful shlls in a particular practical subject. Such a mastery and the allied technical skills are not only economically paying but also socially very helpful. It also aids a student in making and maintaining desirable social rclations throughout adult life. School is the best place for a student to acquire socially desirable habits and attitudes. Different children react dilferently to the same classroom situation. Individual atkntion is needed in guiding children effectively. The aggressive children must be taught the art of submission. The shy children need opportunities lor self-assertion. The delinquent child needs to be introduced to thc desirability of respecting the law. Unless these opportunities are forthcoming the child has little chance to develop into a socially healthy adult. Adequate provision of wider socio-cultural activities is as fundamental duty o l the school as the imparting bf bookish instruction. Children must be stimulated to develop a keen interest in hobbles and in indoor and outdoor recreation. Group play and other organised recreational activit~es play a vital role in the child's developmcnl. It is mostly through these recreational activities that the child makes contacls with other children, student learns40 abide by the rules of the game. He receives training in the art of getting along with others cheerfully. The expericnccd teacher uses his own discretion in selecting the kinds of cultural and recreational programmes which are best suited to the developmental level of children he tmches. The organisation of clubs, camps, groups and societies is also very helpful in maintaining the social health of children. The establishment of small literary and social groups, screening of educational films, drama, clubs, boy scout groups, girl guide groups, camp fires, etc., provide extremely wholcsome social diet for school children. Participation in such groups at Lhc school !eve1 has an extremely desirable effect on the development of a child's character and pcr~onality. You should never leave the activities of these organisations entirely in the hands of children themselves. Judicious guidance, advice and direction of the programmes by the teacher is always hclplul in getting the maximum social gain out of these group activities. Nevertheless,

cndcrsbndingthe Development of thc 1,e;rrncr

sufficicnt libcrty and frcedom should bc entrusted to children to mange hcse group organisations. Besides yielding them irnrnensc pleasure, h i s will satisfy heir dcsire to dircct their own affairs.

Check Your Progress 4 Note : Comparc your answer with hose given at the end of the unit. Which is h c best place for a studcnl w acquire socially dcsirable habits and attitudcs'? Tick mark (4) e corrcct statements. h a) School b) Hornc c) Playground d) Groups 0 camps e) Clubs Educational implications of emoticinal development : There may bc several situations in the homc and the school which make a child unhappy and dislurbcd. Usually childrcn exprcss many emotions like anger, lear, jcalousy, affcction, joy, plcasurc, ctc. Positive c~nolions hclp the child develop a positive oullook about lifc. It is also truc ha1 the expcricnce of positive emotions in lile is not always possible for evcryonc. One docs comc across a numbcr o l boh p l c a m t and unplcasant situations. This means hat a child should lcarn to acccpl unpleasant cmotional cxpericnces in such a way as he docs not show unduc conccrn and disturbancc. Hc must I c x n to adjust himsclf to such cxpericnces, situations, cvcnls, idcas and pcrsons h a t causc ~nnoyance. The home and h e school should create such situations in which plcasanl expcricnces predominalc. The lollowing methods are ofcred to help childrcn maintain crnolior~al balancc. Fatigue : Tircd childrcn are dilficull to handle. Therefore, elorts may bc made not lo causc unduc fatiguc to hem. Poor health : Childrcn in poor hcalh arc irrilablc. Hcnce h c hcalh of childrcn should be propcrl y lookcd alter. Association with emotional people : Childrcn imitalc thc bchaviour of their elders parcnls, ~eachcrs olhcr adults and pecr groups. S u i ~ b l examples of cmotional stability should bc and c prescnlcd by Lhc eldcrs. Thwarted desires : Thc rnorc rcstriclions arc imposcd on h e child, thc morc rcvolling he bccorncs. This rncans that a suilablc disciplinary mechanism should bc evolvcd. Unpreparedness : Achild shows clnotional outbursls when hc is laccd wih a slrangc situnlion or lor which hc is not prcparcd. Propcr training to lace such situations nccds to bc given gradually. Expression of feelings :Childrcn should bc hclpcd to cxprcss ~hcir crnolions in a natural way. Thcy should bc hclped to dcvclop a rcalistic undcrstanding of silualions that arousc unplcasantncss. Self-control : Childrcn should bc hclpcd 10 lcam how 10 conlrol thcir leclings which may olfcnd olhcrs. Thcy should bc gradually dircctcd to cxcrcise more of self-control. Counselling : Couhsclling may bc usclul in cascs of a highly dislurbcd crnotional stalc o the C mind. Check Your Prc%ress5 Notes : a) Wrilc your answcr in Lhc spacc givcn bclow. your answcr wi~h onc given at the cnd o l Lhc unit. thc b) Co~nparc Which mclhod do you hink is bcsl lor hclping childrcn in mainbining emotional balance?

...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
Educational implications of n~oral development : Schools should havc an activity-oricnted programme for Lhc moral devclopmcnl of childrcn. The school plays a very important rolc in

L e moral development of the students. Through the organisation of various cumcular arid h co-curricular activities, the teacher can foster among students various moral qualities. In tcaching of different subjects like languages and social studies, etc., the teacher may stress moral qualities like love, sacrifice, self-control, truthfulness, uprightness, eu;. A list of some suggested activities for the moral development of students is given below: Organising group projects, camps, social service programmes and games Organising school panchayats Addressing daily morning school assembly Celebrating festivals including national days Showing appropriate films, stage dramas and plays Highlighting the teachings of saints and seers Encouraging them to clean the school campus, playgrounds, public places etc., Looking after the school garden Organising girl guide and boy scout groups Celebra~ing festivals of different communities religions Organisiag dnr2Gnnal excursions and trips Domesticating and rearing animal pets Visiting backward and slum areas and rendering some son of service to the people living in such areas Arranging community and school get-togethers Organising a comprehensive programme of guidance and counselling for bringing about moral changes.
Check Your Progress 6

Physical, Sucio-emotional and Moral Development

Notes : a)

Write your answer in the space given bclow.

b) Compare your answer wilh the one given at the end of the unit. Which moral qualities a teacher uses in tcaching languages and social studies?

.................................................................................................................................................. .................................................................................................................................................. .................................................................................................................................................. ..................................................................................................................................................

2.7

LET US SUM UP

Thc major influences on a child's social development during the uppcr.prirnary grades are parents, thc family, the peer group and the school where the child develops social skills. Girls and boys tend to value different attitudes and behaviour. Boys become more aggressive and develop skills in sports. Attractiveness and popularity becomes more important for girls. Puberty is a series of physiological changes that make individuals able to reproduce. One of the most important challenges adolescents face during this period is to accommodate the changes in their physical self. Early maturers may need help in coping with their physical maturity. Some of the signs 01adolescents socio-emotional development are reilectivity and thinking about whcther others see the world in the same way as they do. To create a sense of identity, adolesccnts pay a great deal of attention to how others view them, search their past, experiment with rules, act on feelings and express beliefs and opinions. Identity foreclosure occurs when an adolescent chooses a role prematurely.

L rtderstmding the Detelopment of the Learner

Kohlberg's theory or moral development is based on children's responses to moral dilemmas. The three main stages of moral dcvclopmcnt arc : Pre-conventional level : whcn children simply obey aulhority figurcs to avoid bcing punished, Conventional levcl : whcn childrcn consider the Scelings of others in making moral decisions, and Post-conventional lcvcl : when children realise that values are somcwhat arbiuary and relativc to cach socicly. Adults can help children advancc w the next stagc of moral development by allowing them to freely explore problems. At Lhc same timc they can challcnge their (childrcn) reasoning by introducing conccpls from the next highcr stage.

1.

Select any Ln adolescents studying at secondary/senior secondary schools. Interview e them on the various problcms pertaining to their physical, socio-emotional or moral dcvelopmcnt. Preparc a rcport. Select any siluation relatcd to moral dcvclopmcnt. Explain that situation to a group of school students and collcct their responses. Try to classify those responses in different stages according to Kohlbcg's lhcory of moral reasoning.

2.

2.9

SUGGESTED READINGS

Dutt, N. K (1974) : Psychological Foundations of Education, Doaba House, Delhi Shah, A.B (Ed.) (1978) : Social Context of Education : Essays in honour of Prof. J. P. Naik, Allied Publishers, Bombay Thornburgy D. Hcrshcl (1984) : Introduction of Educational Psychology, West Publishing Company, New York.

2.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1.
1)

a) Self-concept b) & d) e)

2.

ii) i)
ii)

3.
4.

Physical education is necessary for dcvcloping physical growth, pcrsonal hygiene and good food habits among childrcn. a) School Counselling Love, sacrifice, self-conuol, uuthfulncss and uprightness.

5. 6.

UNIT 3 COGNITIVE AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Structure
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Introduction Objectives Cognitive Development : The Concept Piaget's Concept of Cognitive Development
3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 3.4.4 Underlying Mental Process Stages of Cognitive Development and Accomplishments Methodology of Studying Cognitive Developments Factors Facilitating Cognitive Devebpment

3.5

Divergent Thinking
3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5.3 3.5.4 Concep of Divergent Thinking Dimensions of Creativity Identification of a Creative Child Implication for Classroom Teachers

3.6

Language Development
3.6.1 3.6.2 3.6.3 3.6.4 3.6.5 Specific Nature and Characteristics of Language Development Functions of Language Inter-personal Communication Problems of Language Developnent lmplications for Teachers

3.7

Implications for Classroom Teachers

3.7.1 Organisation of Teaching-Learning

Environment

3.7.2 Problems Related to Cognitive Development

Identification of and Providing Remedies of Cognitive Development Problems 3.8 Let Us Sum Up 3.9 Unit-end Exercises 3.10 Suggested Readings
3.7.3

3.1 1 Answers to Check Your Progress

3.1

INTRODUCTION
- -

In Unit 2 you have gained insights into various developmental aspects viz., physical, social, emotional and moral. As a teacher you are aware that those aspects are crucial indicators of a child's growth and development. In this unit you will study the development of certain intellectual processes viz. cognition, creativity and language. A discussion on cognitive development will help you understand children's comprehension, underlying mechanisms and methods to facilitate the development of cognition. Divergent thinking deals with the dimensions of creativity and its processes, and the characteristics of creative children. Similarly language development of children will acquaint you with the specific nature and characteristics of language, inter-personal communication and implications of language development for teachers teaching at the secondary school level. Besides, we discuss the implications of cognitive development for teachers so that they facilitate cognitive development of their students.

C~~dcrstanding Development the of the Learner

3.2

OBJECTIVES
discuss the concept and factors facilitating cognitive development; discuss the various stages of cognitive development and related accomplishments at each stage; define divergent thinking and its demensions; discuss various dimensions of the creativity process;

After going through this unit, you will be able to :

describe the nature, characteristicsand problems of language developmcnt; discuss d i f k n t types of inter-personal communication mechanisms; and discuss the organisation of a teaching-learning environment in accordance with the cognitive needs of children.

3.3

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT :THE CONCEPT

Development, as you have studied in Unit 2, is the process of quantitative and qualitative growth of Ihe child and the emergence and differentiation of capabilities over time. It is the function of maturity as well as inwrdction with the environment. Cognition means to perceive, comprehend, conceive or simply to know. Cognitive development would then mean the growth and capability of knowing, comprehending, or understanding over time, facilitatcd both by maturity and interaction with the environment. Cognition involves the ability to construct mental images involving thought, reasoning, memory and language. Mental images are constructed by an individual as the surroundings (the world around) are observed, understood and internalised as a mental process. Thus every individual has a unique model based on a unique process of observation. This is how a leaner learns about the world around himher. According to Burner, cognitive developmcnt occurs in three phases-enactive (doing), ikonic (object modcls of pictures) and symbolic (signs and symbols). For instance, for a young child cognising what an apple means would be touching or holding or tasting it (enactive mode), later as he grows up seeing pictures of it or a model of it (lkonic model), and still later gradually dcciphering the word "apple" (symbolic mode).

3.4

PIAGET'S CONCEPT OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Jean Piaget offers a rich framework for conceptualising the development of the child's thinking and cognition during the span of his growing/development to an adult. To him, cognitive development means how knowldge is acquired and developed through successive stages and at various age levels. Hence his theory of cognition is sometimes callcd genetic epistemology. It focuses attention on the interaction between his biological inheritance and his environment for cognitive development.

3.4.1 Underlying Mental Process

In order to progress further into Piaget's cognitive development processes, we could cognisize or understand the fact that all cognition takes place due to two processes : Assimilation which means taking in or absorbing stimulilinformation from the environment, and
0

Accommodation which means making room for or adjusting to incoming stimuli/information.

These twin processes together facilitate adaptation. Adaptation is an ongoing process which helps the individual internalise or store in all that one comprehends. This then, forms schemes or mental representations or maps of the world. All learning is adaptive as an infant learns to cry when hungry, or an adult learns to speak a

nalive language in a foreign land. All these have adaptive value. In Unit 10, Section 10.5.3, you will read about the schema, equilibration, assimilation, adaptation and accommodation.
Check Your Progress 1 Notes : a) Write your answer in the space given below. bj Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unil.

Cognitive and Language Development

i) Fill in the blanks: a) b) c) Cognition means ................................................................................... Accommodation which means ............................................................... Cognitive development is a product of interaction between .................................... and .............................................

ii) Cognitive development according to Burner occurs in three phases. List them.

............................................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................................

3.4.2 Stages of Cognitive Development and Accomplishmer~ts
You will read the stages of cognitive development in detail in Unit 10, Sub-section 10.5.3.The table below shows the major accomplishments at each stage of development
Stage-age Sensori-motor stage (0 - 2 years) Type of thinking Sensori-motor Major accomplishments Pre-verbal Repetition of movements Triba-r behaviour. Emergence of goal directed behaviour. Object permanence. Animism. Egocentrism. Imitation. Perceptual reasoning. Imaginary play. Centration. Inconsistent casual reasoning. Decentration Diminished ego-ccnuism, Explanation Conserves, Seriates etc. Makes, Transformations. Classifies. Fantasizes, etc. Applies logic. Infers. Verbal hypothesis. Idealistic thinking. Collaboration with others. Proportionality probabilistic and cornbinamrial reasoning. Casual relations.

Pre-operational stage (2 - 7 years)

Transductive thought Intuitive thought

Concrete operations stage (7 - 11 years)

Inductive thought

Formal operations stage (1 1 onwards)

Deductive thought

Early in life (0 - 2 years) the child learns by touching and scnsing. You must have observed lillle babies holding the objects of their attention and putting it in their mouth. This is a stage called sensori-motor stage. As the child grows he develops some amount of rcasoning. He tends to imitate in order to learn, though he himself is the centre of all attention. This is the pre-operational stage.

Understanding the Development of the Learner

At the concrete operational stage the child learns enough to make transformations in what he observes. His imagination power moves to propel him to the formal operational stage. At this stage he can apply logic to hypothesize to build relationships and to infer fromthe relationship.

3.4.3 Methodology of Studying Cognitive Development

Piaget's method of studying cognition is a one-to-one verbal interactive, inquiry-oriented method, popularly known as the clinical method. Certain mental-operation tasks, in accordance with age and stage of development with supporting material, are prepared. For example, a typical Piaget task on probabilistic reasoning for a 14-year-old student is given below:
Purpose of the task : To assess the child's comprehension of probability. Materials : 96 one-inch wooden blocks of 4 different colours (36 red, 36 blue, 20 yellow and 4 green), a paper bag, a box. Procedure : Separate blocks into four colour groups, divide each colour group into half. Give one half to the child and instruct him to put them in the paper bag or box. Keep the other half in front of the child as a reference set.

The teacher says, "I will pull out two blocks out of the bag without looking at them. Could you guess the colour that will come out?" The procedure is continued till all the blocks are pulled out and the teacher keeps asking, "Why do you think'it will be red?" and so on in order to assess the reasoning of the child. Note the justifications given and also note the strategy the child uses for predicting. Intermittently, the teacher uses counter-suggestions such as, "I think the next two would be yellow and blue (low probability colours), what do you think? Transfer of tasks related to probabilistic reasoning we taken up If the teacher is sure that the existence of cognition is based on logic and one could further as$ess its wider application through transfer.
Criteria for assessment In order to assess a specific level of reasoning, the student should be able to :

make the correct judgement logically justify that judgement successfully resist a counter-suggestion, provide a successful performance on a related task (Strauss, 1972).

3.4.4 Factors Facilitat~ng Cognitive Development

Factors facilitating cognition are internal readiness, environmental experiences, social experience and equilibration. For Piaget andother cognitivists such as Wadsworth, Flavell, Sullivan,etc., the important thing is interactions and equilibration. The key to cognitive development as it relates to educational practice is the activity of the students, their apions on objects, events and other people. While interaction refers to internal organismic readiness, environmental experience is obtained through physical experiences or repetition reinforcement, manipulation of things in the environment and logic-mathematical experiences. Social interaction relates to cognition through interactive modes with people where one learns about relationships, concepts, namely cooperation, competition, cultural mores and practices, etc. Language IS the medium of social experiences (verbal and non-verbal). Equilibration refers to a self-regulatory process and assimilation and adaptation where a balance is struck and a new cognition takes place or a new schema comes into being.
Check Your Progress 2 Notes : a)

Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit. i) List four factors that facilitate cognitive development.
"... .............................................................................................................................................
. .

............................................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................
ii) Fill in the blanks: a) A fifteen years old student is said to be at the ..........................stage of thinking. t b) ........................................... e of reasoning characterises a fourteen years old child.
c)

..

Cognitive ahd L.awuagc

LiQvelopmMt

Some of the mental operation tasks are

..................................

.......................................................and

d)

............................................. method is one to one, and an interactive process.

DIVERGENT THINKING

3.5

Divergent thinking or lateral thinking is the essence of cognitive development. In Section 3.4 you have read about the concept of cognitive development. Take this example: what is the opposite of the word bright? Dark is an acceptable answer. Now consider another situation. what is the opposite of a cupboard? Or what ideas come to your mind when you think of sunset? The answers to these questions are not straight jacketed. They may be unlimited, with varying degrees of acceptability. This is the essence of divergent or lateral thinking which means to think in unusual, novel and unique ways.

3.5.1 Concept of Divergent Thinking

In divergent thinking. we think in different directions, sometimes searching what, and sometimes seeking variety. Lateral thinking is another expression used for divergent thinking. it means an original line of enquiry. Creativity or divergent thinking can be identified with openness in expressing feelings, receptivity to ideas, concern for others, desire to grow as a person and actualise one's potentials. Hence creativity is the playful exploration of thoughts by a person who is open, curious and imaginative.

3.5.2 Dimensions of Creativity

Creativity is related to divergent thinking. Therefore,creativity is a multi-dimensional concept. W discuss here the main dimensions of the creative behaviour of a student. This will help you e understandcreativity better by developing an insight into the nature of creativity and divergent thinking. You will study about creativity in Section 5.6 of Unit 5 of Block 2 also. A child with the following characteristic dimensions gives more evidence of divergent or crcative thinking than others :
I)

Fluency

Ability to manage successfully when a number of ideas are sought. It is the total number of relevant responses given by an individual to a given stimulus. In how many ways can you use a brick, a chair, a toothbrush, etc.? In how many ways can you earn money? Count the number of ideas produced in each case; their total is your fluency score. The ability to shift your f m e of reference and thlnk of varying alternatives. It is the capacity of an individual to use different approaches in responding to a stimulus. List five different factors you would bear in mind when you opt for a career. Each new multiple criterion gets a score. The more the alternative criteria, the more the flexibility score.

Example Scoring
ii)

:
:

Flexibility

Example Scoring

:
:

L,nderslanding the Development of the Learner

ui) Originality

The production of novel, unsual ideas which are also useful, relevant and apt. It is the capacity of an individual to give original responses to a stimulus. Form a figure using these lines o r m e the words rough, smooth. fault, and vault and make a poem. The idea which is novel, unique and relevant gets a score. The ability to generate various alternatives (details) that implement or spell out an idea. Sarah put her foot on the 10 foot long snake. Varied details that have facilitated or elaborated get a score.

Example Scoring iv) Elaboration Example Scoring

: : :
:

3.5.3 Identification of a Creative Child

To some extent every child has the capacity of creative behaviour but some have specific creativity in some areas such as science, artistic contribution, etc. It is, however, a difficult task to identify a creative child. For this, you have to identify the characteristics of creativity or divergent thinking. The following are the major characteristics you may like to look for in your students : original thought, expression, action and behaviour

ask uncomfortable questions at times persistdargues for his or her point of view proposes alternatives to solutions
displays a high degree of risk-taking behaviour self-concept is high, tends to be more anxious and possesses a greater degree of need for achievement more tolerant of ambiguity, and curiousity/independent judgement and exhibits more automony.

3.5.4 Implication for Classroom Teachers

The teacher can provide certain conditions which will increase the fluency, flexibility, originality and exploration of the students thinkingkhaviour. The following are the important conditions which can foster students' creativity.
Pose open-cndcd, divergent questions with the focus on alternativeresponses and novclty, and not on right or wrong. Excessive discipline, reliance on text books, emphasis on rote learning or criticising students for wrong answers reduce their creative potential. Encourage childrcn to experiment, innovate, discover, hypothesise or imagine possible solutions to any pressing issue. Develop a spirit of inquiry, tolerate uncertainty; help to speculate, cultivate a deliberate pace of thinking, etc. Adopt a multi-disciplinary approach to teaching.
a

Create a supportive environment. Appreciate students' creative efforts. Assign/suggest activities of an inter-disciplinary nature. Use teaching aids that stimulate imagination. Resist from premature evaluation.

Cognitive and Language Development

Notes : a)
b)

Write your answer in the space given below. Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.

i)

What is divergent thinking ?

............................................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................................

ii) List four dimensions of creativity.

............................................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................................

iii) Identify the characteristics of students who you think have a creative mind.

............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................................
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
It is assumed that every living being has its language. But all of them cannot communicate like humanbeings. The language of humanbeings has certain characteristics which give a definite meaning to their communication. We can talk about the past, the present and the future with the help of language. Language development and its usage both verbal and non-verbal is universal and central to human existance. Language functions as a means of communication, as a means of reflecting on and reorganising experience, and as a way to receive and transform the accurnulatcd knowledge and values of the community.

3.6.1 Specific Nature and Characteristics of Language Development

All cxcept those who are severely impaired develop their language in similar ways, though at varying rates. In such cases the maturity of the child plays an important role. Details of language and how it is used is influenced to a large extent by experience (the role of the environment). Much of language is learned through socialisation. Bernsteium (1971) differentiates varying language development and communication systems between children belonging to positional families where communication is closed and children are seen and not heard so much, and those belonging to personcentred families who have more open communication and their language develops with ease. According to Chomsky (1968). language development is the result of the progressive gain of maturity - the unfolding of the child's genetic capability for language. Chomsky's (1976) model of language development attributed an innate understanding of fundamental rules, which get activated by the language the child hears and accounts for the speed and regularity of development. Weil (1985) presents a universal sequence of developing language. His finding is that infrequent use of certain language items emerge in the sequence in a delayed manner. For example, Mother-Ma-Amma is uuered early in the sequence than Master, etc.

Underbmding the Devdopmcnt of the Learner

Imitation and contingent conversation seems to develop children linguistically and cognitively as well (Wood, 1980; Tissard and Huges, 1984).

Characteristics of language development :The following are the characteristics of language development :
a a a a

Semanticity : The quality of language in which words are used as symbols for objects, events or ideas. Syntax :The rules in a language for placing words in proper order to form meaningful sentences. Productivity : The capacity to combine words into original sentences. Displacement : The quality of language that makes one communicate information about objects and events in another time and place. Language makes possible the efficient transmission of large amounts of complex knowledge from one person to another, and from one generation to another. Displacement permits parents to warn children of their own mistakes. Displacement allows children to tell their parents what the) did in school.

3.6.2 Functions of Language

Language performs a number of functions based on the purpose of its use. Language with a functional plsrpose is illustrated by Michael Halliday as follows : Instrumental :Language performs'an instrumental function the way an individual satisfies the need by asking for something (May I drink some water?). Regulatory : It performs a regulatory function controlling another's behaviour (e.g. Teacher asks the student, "Stay quiet, please"). Interactional : It performs an interactional function-used for maintaining interpersonal (eg. wishing a friend a happy birthday). Personal : Language performs a personal function - where one talks about oneself (e.g. I am feeling very elated today). (e.g. Heuristic : It performs a heuristic function to find out about the world in~general Is there a drug to cure AIDS?) Imaginative : It performs an imaginative function where one talks about one's imagination (e.g. write an essay on the topic "you are on the clouds"). Informational : It also performs an informational function - to seek and give varied types of information (e.g. What is the current rate of population growth in our country ?).

Language and culture Language helps children learn habits, trdditions, religions and customs of their culture. It is a carrier of one's culture. Every culture defines what to say, when and to whom, just as it dictates pronunciation, syntax and vocabulary. In culture where politeness is valued, for example, children learn polite forms of expression at a very early age. Sometimes children have to cope with the demands of two different cultures at the same time. Children whose sole language has been the mother tongue are at a great disadvantage in those public schools which do not recognise the mother tongue as a legitimate dialect and teach classes in the standard language. These children may have difficulties in school. At home their speech is monitored by their parents for the proper expression of respect and familarity. but at school it is monitored by their teachers for its analytical and problem solving qualities.

3.6.3 Interpersonal Communication

In the preceding sub-section, you read that one of the functions of language is to maintain interaction with people. This would mean an interface of one to one, or one to many, as between a teacher and students or a teacher with parents, etc. Interpersonal communication is the basis for developing interpersonal relationships. They may involve mutual exchange of information based on mutual contact either directly through speech or indirectly through the written medium. Various Schools of Psychology have explained interpersonal communication with different emphasis.

The following conversation between the teacher and the student illustrates interpersonal communication. Student : What is the time ? complementary transaction Teacher : It is 9 a.m. Student : What is the time? crossed transaction Teacher : Can't you read it? Student : What is the time?

Cognitive and Language , Development

Look ! Who is aksing ulterior transaction for the time? As indicated, interpersonal communication breaks down when there is t o much of crossed or o ultcrior type of transaction. For positive/healthy interpersonal communication, the teacher nwds to use and also facilitate. in the student the development of complementary transactions.

Teacher

3.6.4 Problems of Language Development

Children develop language skills through socialisation. School is a socialising agency where children learn their language. But all children are not in equal their language ability. Some children face problems in this regard. The main problems of language development faced by children are presented as follows : Lack of initial listening and speaking opportunities. Inability to express through the spcken or written medium. Blocks due to genetic impairment of emotional problems of an impoverished environment. Ambiguities in comprehension such as phonological, lexical or deep structural ambiguities, etc. Inadequate cognition of word meanings. Poor concept development. Over emphasis on writing prematurely.

3.6.5 implications for Teachers

The eMective teacher should be aware of the problems faced by students in the classroom. He shauld create a homely environment in his class where students feel free to express and share theic feelings, opinions and viewpoints with their teacher. Such an environment will facilite the acquisition of language competency. Language is learned and developed in a social context for functional purposes.
'e

For older children, one should provide ample scope to develop listening, speaking, reading and writing skills. One should create settings where language may be used for various purposes. One should be cognisant of multilingual interferences,identify them and provide remedies. One should encourage students creative efforts. One should de-emphasise excessive writing or rote repetition, provide a relaxed environment for free expression of ideas, thoughts and feelings, provide structural and semi-structural setting to express verbal and non-verbal ideas, organise debates, class discussions and displays, etc. One should help students develop early reading habits and enable them to do book reviews.

Uldcrstilnding the Development of the Learner

Notes : a)

b) a) List the four charactelistics of language development.

Write your answers in the space given below. Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

............................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................
b) Whal are the functions of language development? Wrile two functions in detail.

............................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................

3.7

IMPLICATIONS FOR CLASSROOM TEACHERS

In Wpreceding section, we have discussed cognitive development in detail. You, as a Leacher, shquld now be able to discuss how to apply this knowledge in your classroom. The following points shall help you implement what you have leaned already. Logical thought precedes language. Language is an expression or vehicle of thought. Hence a teacher nceds to listen and interpret students' thinking coherently and facilitate apt articulalion.
e e
8

Learning is an active process because knowledge is constructed.with learner's support. Social interactions mong students are vital. Hcnce more group activities, debates, deliberations, etc., are to be organised. The teacher's emphasis should be on the developmental process such as classification, hypothesising, predicting. etc.. and not on rote mastering of content.

3.7.1 Organisation of Teaching-Learning Environment

The responsibilily of children's failure 10 learn lies with the ~eacher not with the contenl. and Curriculum orgainsation and planning is based on appropriateness to the studying of cognitive development and its accomplishments. To make the curriculum rclcvant to the learner the Leacher necds to consider the inlegration of various aspects of cognitive development. The learning malerial should be selected in order to project varied meaning to the material, e.g., scales, measuring tapes, containers, chemicals, floatindsinking objects, etc.

3.7.2 Problem Related to Cognitive Development

Cognitive development may be adversely affected or retarded due to the following factors :
e e

Deficiency in the learner characteristics (genetic or poor environmcnlal stimulation). This may be expressed in the ability to comprehend, poor skills, lack of persistence, etc. Cognitive problems would arise due to poor attention, assimilation. observalion, inference, discovery, lack of opportunity for relational work, etc. The nature of the matcrial used in tcrms of their physical structure and composition, inappropriateness, conceptual difficulty, sequencing, etc., may pose problems. The nature of the student may lack in imitation, recall, recognition, problem solving and crealivily.

3.7.3 Identification of and Providing Remedies of Cognitive Development Problem

The identification of problems related to cognitive development needs careful observation on the repeated performance of the students' verbal and non-verbal output. The behaviour of oldcr

ch~ldrcn seeking interaction verbally would enable a teacher to exactly identify the nature of in the problem of their cognitive development Typically a teacher could ask, "Why do you say so? How do you justify that? If you do this, then what do you think will happcn?" On the basis of diagnosis, you can suggest remedial measures. You can provide ample scope for questioning,justifying and reasoning give adequate verbal and non-verbal cues to facilitatecognition support cognition by giving a number of examples and transfer of learning tasks facilitate peer and social interactions encourage minor' cognitive efforts.

Cognitive and Language

Development

.
3.8

LET US SUM UP

In this unit you have studied the concept of cognition and the contribution of Piaget t o understanding cognition and cognitive development. The age/stage cognitive development processes with their underlined mental abilities and accomplishment are critical indicators for teacher-practitioners. The complex nature of cognitive development and 'application of the Piagetian concept to educational practice have been delineated with examples. Creativity in terms of dwergent and lateral thinking has been discussed. Varied creative dimensions such as fluency, flixibility, originality, elaboration, etc., have been discussed with examples. Some characteristics which are manifest in a creative child such as curiosity, persistence, original thinking, etc., are indicators of creative potential. The reasons why a child gets blocked in creative processes are also presented. We have also discussed the issues related to language development. Language is a means of communication and a preserver and transmitter of culture. It serves various functions, such as personal, regulatory, heuristic, imaginalive,etc. Interpersonalcommunication with reference to the types of transactions has been explained with the help of illustrative examples. Lastly, the problems of language development and implications of language development for teachers havc also been covered.

3.9
1.

UNIT-END EXERCISES
Construct a cognitive development task for a 14-year-old child on the classification concept of metallic and non-metallic materials. Some materials you may use (choose your own criteria) are erasers, pieces of chalk, wooden blocks, bottle caps, iron fdlings, plastic lids, paper clips, mica, limestone, etc. Devise exercises to develop the following creativity dimensions in y6ur class children. Establish a scoring criteria fluency, originality, flexibility, originality which reflect the characteristics of these periods.

2.

3.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

Elliott, A.J. (1981) : ChildLanguage, Cambridge University Press. Joyce, Bruce and Weil, Marsha (1985) :Model of Teaching, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Khandwala, P. (1984) :N Eye, A. H . Wheeler & Co. Pvt. Ltd. Piaget J. (1958) : The Growfh of Logical Thinking From Childhood ro Adolescence, Basic Books, New York. Sprinthall, C. Richard and Sprinthall, A. Norman (1990) : Educational Psychology : A Development Approach, McGraw Hill Publishing Company, New York. Weils, C. G. (1982) :Language Learning and Education, Centre for Shdy of Language and Communication,University of Bristol, U.S.A.

Understanding the Development of the Learner

3.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1.

i)

a) b) c)

Enactive (doing) Ikonic (object, models or pictures) Symbolic (signs and symbols) to perceive, apprehend, comprehend, conceive or simply to know. making room for or adjusting to incoming stimuli/infromation.

ii)

a)

b)
2.
i)

c) maturation and environment. a) internal readiness

b)
c) environmental experiences social experience equilibration Formal operation stage. probabilistic age and stage of development inquiry-oriented method

d)
ii)

a)
b) c) d)

3.

i)

Divergent thinking can be identified with .openness in expressing feelings, receptivity to ideas, concern for others, desire to grow as a person and actualise one's potential. a) Fluency Flexibility Originality Elaboration Original thought, expression, action and behaviour;

ii)

b)
c) d) iii)
8

e asks uncomfortable question at times ; persisrslargues for his or her point of view; proposes alternatives to solutions; displays a high degree or risk-taking behaviour; self-concept is high, tend? to be more anxious and possesses a greater degree of the need for achievement; m more tolerant of ambiguity; and curiositylindependentjudgement and exhibits more autonomy.

4.

a) b)

semanticity, syntax, productivity, displacement. instrumental regulatory, interactional, personal, heuristic, imaginative, informational. Personal : Language performs personal functions where one talks about oneself. Heuristic : It performs heuristic function to find out about the world in general.

UNIT 4 FACTORS INFLUENCING DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY

Structure
4.1 4.2
4.3

Introduction Objectives Concept and Nature of~personality

4.3.1 4.3.2 Concept of Personality Nature of Personality BiePhysical Approaches Bio-Social Approaches Psychoanalytical Approaches Psycho-SocialApproaches Social Learning Approaches Personological Aproaches Spiritual Approaches Some Concepts of Significance Heredity Environmental Factors

4.4

Approaches to Personality
4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3 4.4.4 4.4.5 4.4.6 4.4.7 4.4.8 4.5.1 4.5.2

4.5

Factors Influencing Development of Personality

4.6
4.7

Impact of Mass Media on Personality

Role of Teacher in Development of Adolescent Personality 4.8 Let Us Sum Up 4.9 Unit-end Exercises 4.10 Suggested Readings 4.11 Answers to Check Your Progress

4.1

INTRODUCTION

Education aims at the development of the human personality. In the earlier units of this course you have studied various aspects of human development : physical, socio-emotional. moral, cognitive and linguistic. All these contribute to the formation of the individual personality. Thc present unit share; with you information regarding the na&'and concept of personality as well as a discussion of the factors influencing its development. W also discuss the various e approaches to understand personality development. Your role as a teacher in the development of learner personality, especially during the period of adolescence, has been highlighted in this unlt.

'hfter going through this unit, you should be able to :

r
r

explain the concept and nature of personality; describe various approaches to understand personality; describe and illustrate various factors affecting the development of personality; discuss the impact of the mass media on personality, especially during adolescence; and discuss your role as a teacher in facilitaing the development of children's personality.

r
r

4.3

CONCEPT AND NATURE OF PERSONALITY

Personality is not a simple amalgamated view of various aspects. The process of its

Understanding the Development o the Learner f

and'define the humanbeing and hisher personality timc a long history h t h in Indian and western traditions of philosophy. The psychological explanations suggest a host of biological and socio-cultural factors which contribute to personality development

4.3.1 Concept of Personality

The term "personality" is derived from the Latin word "persona" which means a mask worn by an actor while he plays a particular character on the stage. It suggests that the personality should mean the characteristicpattern or style of behaviour of the person as is revealed through his external and intemal properties. The external properties of a person include his dress, speech, bodily actions, postures, habits and expressions. The internal properties are his motives, emotions, precepts, intentions, etc. Personality is an all-inclusive concept. It is the sum total of an individual's properties as a distinct and unique humanbeing. The extemal properties are directly observed while the intemal are only inferred from the pattern of overt responses. Thus, the image of an individual's personality is only created from observations and/or inferences regarding his response patterns. T3e concnept of personality is a derived concept In other words, the concept of personality is derived from the pattern of response characteristic of the individual. The derivation is possible in three ways : The first is subjective, popular derivation based on subjective impressions formed by the individual's response pattern. It results in popular evaluative expressions like charming. dominating, weak or bold personality. The second kind of conceptualisation of personality is based on an objective description of the overt responses of the individual. This view is held by behavioural psychologists and is best amenable to empirical research. However, it poses the difficulty that an overt response may occur in different individuals for different meanings. It seems to evade in-depth interpretations. The third way is the organismic view which conceives personality as the inner pattern of a person's characterisiics. An off-quoted definition of personality calls it "dynamic organisation within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment" (Allport, 1961). It means that personality "resides" within the individual
a

these systems are woven into an organisation the organisation of personality is not static but dynamic the organisational pattern delemines the kind and degree of adjustment of the individual to his environment, and

this adjustment-pattern is unique to the individual person.

Comprehensively conceived. Allport's definition of personality is therefore widely accepted.

4.3.2 Nature of Personality

Four fundamental qualities of personality have been identified from the organismic concept. These are consistency, the development of personality structure, potentiality for change and integration. Let us discuss each quality in brief. Consistency :Consistency or stability is the hallmark of personality. A person is recognisat ~e from situation to situation by the consistent characteristics that are reflected in his bchavi ~ur. Not that he behaves exactly the same way in every situation but his styles of actioh can certainly be identified. Development of personality structure : Personality development is a natural quality of a growing organism. The path is from simple to increasingly complex. According to Heniz Werner, at birth the menal organization of the infant spreads slowly. Through his interactions with the environment, the parts of the mental structure become progressively crystallized and differentiated from each other. The analytical stage is followed synthesis or integration when the differentiated parts become functionally organised. From a diffused mass through progressive differentiation to an integrated whole is, then. the course of development of personality structure.
48 --

Potentiality for change :Potentiality for change is another characteristic of personality. The
-

earlier psychoanalytical view did hold personality as a rigid structure. However, modem psychological, humanistic theories have demonstrated not only the human capacity for reorganisation but also the conditions that foster change. Integration or organisation is the quality of the human personality, i.e., it occurs to humanbeings naturally and normally. It is the normal development outcome of personality structure. Disorganisation, i.e.. the isolation of the functions of the individual parts from the tolal system is a pathological condition (Goldstein) of a psychological disorder. Check Your Progress 1 Notes : a) Write your answer in the space given below. b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of the unit. Briefly define the concept of personality.

Factors ~nfluencing Development of Personality

.................................................................................................................................................. ..................................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................................. ..................................................................................................................................................
4.4

APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY

The field of personality has been approached in a wide variety of ways. Certainly, any theory of personality would require to e x p h both, its structure and its dynamics. But explanations can be categorised on the focus, whether the chief target is structure or dynamics. In this manner, the following approaches are identified in understanding personality. i) Explanation of structure Biephysical approach Bio-social apporoach ii) Explanation of the dynamics Psychoanalytical Psychosocial Social learning Personological Spiritual Some concepts of significance Within each of these approaches, different theorists have forwarded different explanations (built inm systems which would require, for their understanding, readings of detailed texts). For our purpose, it would be sufficient tq be cognizant of major propsitons regarding personality and its development. Let us discuss each approach in detail.

4.4.1 Bio-Physical Approaches

The bio-physical approaches to personality assume that an individual's personality is determined by his biological and constitutional characteristics. This is done by popular wisdom. Popular wisdom relates joviality with fat people and impulsive anger with the lean and thin. Three propositions can be gathered from the literature as stated below : HippocratudGalen's proposition : Personality is determined by "humours" (secretions of glands) blood (red, sanguine), phlegm, yellow (choleric) bile and black (melmhclic) bile. Kretschmer's proposition :Personality can be explained by reference to the body-buld ~f the individual : short and thick (ppknik), slender and weak (aesthenic) and balanced physiqu~ (athletic). Sheldon's proposition :Personality is determined by the nature of embryonic development which results in and is identified by overdevelopment of the stomach (endomorph), or of the muscles (mesomorph) or of the head (ectomorph). Obviously all the propositions above relegate the psychic systems within the individual.

Undermnding Ihe Developme11t of the Learner

4.4.2

Bio-Social Approache

Bio-social approaches assume that personality is formed by the interplay between the individual's and biological di~psitions the socialcultural farces impinging upon him. However, with their eyes set upon the derivation of structure, they studied personal chanckristics and/or personality ratings of b e samples of persons and subjected the data to statistical analysis. Two prominent names in this category are Eyesenck and Cattell. Interested in a classificatory structure, Eyesenck derived a 2 x 2 structure formed by two polarities. Interested in an elaborate description of structure, Cattell dcrivcd a set of 16 factors, called "source-traits". Their propesitions can be stated as below.

Eyesenck's proposition :The ~lrdividual's personality can be explained by his position on two independent polarities, namely, extroversion - inhoversion and neuroticism - stability, which generate by their inkraclion the four types in the bio-physical Hippocrams - Galen's proposition as figured below. UNSTABLE moody touchy anxiolls restless rigid aggressive sobber excitable pessimistic changeable reserved impulsive i unsociable 3 optimistic quiet melancholic[ choleric aclive INTROVERED ......-.. -..,-.,. ..... ,. -...-... -. .... EXTROVERTED ......... sanguine sociable passive phlegmatic outgoing thoughtful peaceful easygoing lively conmUed I reliable carefree leadership even-tcq& calm I STABLE (From Eyesenck (1965), Fact and Fiction in Psychology, 'Ifinnondsworth, Penquin, p. 54).

i
1

'

ID

Catell's proposition : The individual's personality structure ean be explained by a psychograph or profile showing his positions on bipolar "source-traits" or "pmary factors" (16 in adults, 14 in adolescents, 12 in children), each shaped by the interplay of heredity and environment differently, and described as below :

--

Low Score Description Reserved, detached, critical Less intelligent, concrete thinking Affected by feelings, easily upset Humble, mild, accommodating Sobcr, prudent, serious Expedient, disregards rules Shy, restrained, timid Tough-minded, self-reliant Trusting, adaptable Practical, careful Forthright, natural Self-assured,confident Conservative Group-dependent Undisciplined self-conflict Relaxed, tranquil

Factor

High Score Description

Outgoing, warmhearted More intelligent, abstract thinking Emotionally stable, faces reality Assertive, aggressive, stubborn Happy-go-lucky, impulsive, lively Conscientious, perserving Venturesome, socially bold Tender-minded,clinging Suspicious, self-opinionated Imaginative Shrewd, calculating Apprehensive, self-repraaching Experimenting, liberdl Self-sufficient Cnntrolled, socially precise Tense. frustrated

From the 16 PF Questionnaire, (O 1956-1967by the Institute for Personalily and Ability Testing, Champaign, Ill.... USA) An individual's psychographs or 16 PF profiles constructed on different occasions may vary for reasons of change in mental state or social role.

Factors Innuenchg Development of Personality

4.4.3 Psychoanalytical Approaches

The psychoanalytical approach was posited by Freud to diagnose and treat the root psychic causes of palhological behaviours of psychic patients. For diagnosis, Freud looked at the pas! history of the patient, and genented a lot of theory which may be stated in the prapositions as follows. i) personality can be studied by digging up the long-forgotten memories of An in&vidua17s childhood, especially pertaining to breast-weaning, toilet-training and relationships with the parent of the opposite sex and the p a n t of the same sex. Personality-formation can be explained by reference to the battle between the natural "id" of pleasure-seeking impulses and the individual's "superego" formed by internalisation of the external social-moral demands.

ii)

iii) An individual's personality is determined by the furnishing of his "ego" (reality-self) trying to resolve the conflicts between the id and the super-ego by using a variety of techniques called "defence-mechanisms".

4.4.4 Psycho-Social Approaches

Psycho-social approaches are an outgrowth of the psychoanalytical approach. Adler, for example, started as a co-worker with Freud but came w differ with him asserting that human life is not a battle between the id and super-ego but a conscious struggle to achieve superiority which can be facilitatedby social factors. Later, Eriion forwarded his theory of psycho-social development through the entire life-span, including the (first) five stages analysed by Freud. thcir propositions are presented below. Adler's propositions : An individual's personality can be explained by reference to the o conscious struggle of his "creative power" of the instinct of self-realization t "compensate" for his inferiority in one area by gaining superiority in other areas or ways. Personality-formation of an individual can be supported by developmental guidance. Erikson's propositions :The development of personality can be explained by reference to a series of crises emerging in the eight developmental stages of life, each preparing for the next in anhcipation, as described below : Stage 1. Oral-sensory Crisis Basic rrust vs. mistrust Autonomy vs. shame, doubt Characteristics Infant totally dependent -mother's inconsistency generates suspicion and doubt through the rest of life. Toilet training and control, and through it asserting individuality. Success results in automony, failure in shame and doubt about its own abilities, persisting lam.

2.

Muscular-anal

3. Locomotorgenital

Initiative vs. guilt Urge to possess opposite-sex parent and rival same-sexparent. Channeling of sexual needs into socially accepted behaviours results in initiative; failure in guilt, which persist. Industry vs. inferiority Identity vs. role confusion Qpical primary school years, testing the competence of the child. Success leads to success; fzilure to inferiority. Return of sexual interest, heterosexuality. Concern for future roles and status, Clarity helps form identity; otherwjse confusion persists and frustrates.
51

4.

Latency

5. Puberty and
adolescence

---

U~ldersland thc Dcvelopmcnt ing (11' the Learner

6. Young adullhood
7. Adulthood

Intimacy vs. isolalion Gcncralivily vs. stagnalion Ego-inlcgrily vs. dcspair

lf, and whcn, idcnlily is found, one seeks KI "find" somu~ne clse w sharc inlimacies; failure Rcproduclion and produclive membership of socicly. 1,alcr cornplaccncy scls in and stagnation occurs. Rcflccling upon Lhc lifc lived, inlcgraling cvcn dcah inlo ~ h apaucrn; bilurc lcads to despair and l Pu ti l i LV.

Malurily

4.4.5 Social Learning Approaches

Social lcaming approachcs arc anlilhclical to the psycho-analytical and psycho-social c approaches. Thc social learning approach of pcrbonality is rtmlcd in ~ h bchaviourislic sti~nulus rcsponsc (S-K) psychology and asscrls lhal man, like any olhcr animal, Icarns, lo makc rcsponscs LO stimuli prcscnl or conslruclcd in thc cnvironmcnl. Thcsc ~hcorisls disregard lhc inlcrprcta~ions bascd on "psychc" bccausc such inlcrprckllons are no1 empirical bul Pabricalcd only. Two propos~lionsof his lypc are prcscnlcd bclow lor ~hcirsignificanl impon on Lllc thcory of pcrsonalily. Couley's proposition : Pcrsonalily can bc explained by rcfcrcnce to thc "looking glass self' of Lhc indiv~dual,hisher sclf-conccpl Lhal dcvclops on 1he basis of how olhcr pcoplc of significance in lhc cnvironmcnl dcfinc him. Skinner's proposition : An ind~vidual'spersonality is/can bc shapcd by manipulalion of slirnuli in small slcps and provision of approprialc rcinforccmcnts.

4.4.6

Personological Approaches

Pcrsonological approaches disapprove of bolh ~ h cpsychoanalytical and psycho-social cxplanalions, staling Lhat human bchaviour is dclennincd ncithcr by Lhc inslincls nor by social forccs. Thcy belicvc Lhal lhc humanbcing is an aclivc crcalor of his/hcr pcrsonalily, imbibd wilh a "forcc for growlh" wilhin him/hcr. This characlcristic lnakcs hu~nanbcing dilTeren1 from Lhc rcsl ofthe animal kingdom. Assuming a basic nccd for "self-ac~ualiza~ior~", group is his also refcrred as "humanislic". Rogcrs and Maslow are Lhc bcsl known in lhis group. o Roger's proposition : Thc human pcrsonalily is dcicrmincd by the striving of the pcrson L dcfinc, aclualiz, niainkin and enhance his/hcr own growing "sclf' which maintains ilsclP by the use of Freudian dcfcncc-mechanisms and which dcvclops nalurally whcn its "nccd for posilivc regard" by lhose significanl around is Pulfillcd. Maslow's proposition : Individual's pcrsonalily can bc explained and helped by making a rcfcrence lo lhc fullilmcnl of his/hcr basic dcficicncy nccds (D-nccrls) and mcta-needs (B-nccds) of Lhc growth o l his bcing as stalcd bclow : Basic dcficicncy nccds (D. nccds) Physiological nceds Safc'cty nccds Love and bclongingness necds Eslcem ncds Mela-ncds (B. needs) Nccd for sclP-aclualisation Desire lo know and undcrshnd Acsbclic nccds

4.4.7

Spiritual Approaches

The spiritual dcvclop~ncnl an individual that has been the typical philosophic theme ol of Indian cullure can bc scen lo come ncxl W the concepl of "selC-aclualisatior" referred above. Thc spiritual dcvclopmcnl oP pcnonalily is relerrd to in terms ol "sclf-rcalisa~ion", which requircd t be differcntialcd from 'sclP-rcalisalion'. SclP-aclualisalion is lhe idcal of realism o which poslulales lhal an individual possesses a self which is a polentialily wailing to become acluality. Sclf-realisation is, on the contrary, [he ultimate goal of the spirilual philosophy of

idealism which postulates that the real-self of an individual is the divine or spiritual self which waits to be discovered, uncovered and realised. Indian thought has described the ultimate spirit as "sacchidananda" comprising "sat" (existence), "chit" (consciousness) and "ananda" (bliss). This divine spirit exists in man covered under fine kosha (sheaths), namely matter (annarnaya), viral (pranamaya), psyche (manomaya), intellect (vijnanamaya) and bliss (anandamaya). Three model paths to realize the spirit (atman) are the intellectual Cjnana yoga), the emotionall (bhakti yoga) and the actional (karma yoga), which represent the dominance of the three domains of mind cognitive, affective and psychomotor. These age-old explanations provide the base for modem Indian philosophy. Cenkner has identified, for example, ananda yoga (akin to bhakti yoga) in Tagore, karma yoga in Gandhi and internal yoga in Sri Aurobindo. Their propositions are stated below :

Factors Influencing Development of Personality

Tagore's proposition :Human personality can be explained by reference to the development of the "physical man" into a "personal man" through sub-conscious experiencing of rhythm and harmony between man and nature (universe) resulting in the expression of "surplus" energy in man, his limitless potentiality. Gandhi's proposition : Personality can be explained by reference to the strivings or experiments of man in search of truth and "ahimsa" (universal love and concern) through actions charactcrised by selflessness and attachment (anasakti) which lead him to the divine state of "steady wisdom" (sthita-prajna).

Sri Aurobindo's proposition : The individual's personalily can be explained by reference to his/hcr "evolution" from the biogenic matter-state to the supermind stale which is achievable ~hrough integral yoga and which leads to the ultimate, divine "sacchidananda" state.

4.4.8 Some Concepts of Significance

Bcsidcs h e above-stated approaches and propositions regarding personality ranging from the bio-physical classification to the spiritual proposition of integral yoga, some concepts have a signicicant relationship with personality. The important concepts are as follows : Achievement motivation
0 0
0

Locus of control Cognitive style Sensation seeking

Achievement motivation : Individuals can be differentiated as high and low on achievement motivation (n-ach). They differ in terms of (i) degree or achievement motivation, (ii) fear of failurc (FF), and (iii) the value they attach to their achievement^. Children who are reinforced for heir successes, howsoever small, tend to become high n-ach whereas those who are punished for failures tend to become high FF or low n-ach. Locus of control : Individuals can be differentiated as "externals" or "internals" on locus of con~rol. Externals believe that life situations are controlled by chance, luck or authorities and tcnd lo lack in motivation. Intemals, on the contrary, believe that situations are within the conlrol of lhc person and tend to become independent, dominant, initiative-takerand achiever. Cognitive style : Individuals can be differentiated as "field-independent" and "fielddcpcndenl" in their cognitive style. "Field-independents" perceive easily the part and the whole scparately and are found to be independent. Field-dependents fail to perceive parts hiddcn in the whole and became prone to social influences, what others say. Sensation seeking : Individuals can be differentiated as high or low sensation-seekers (SS). High SS seek adventure, thrill, unusual experiences (may be musical or drugs) and dislike routine while low SS prefer simplicity and quietude. High SS have been found more creative and intelligent, independent and adjusted than the law SS. Sensory-deprivation has also been found 10 result in hallucinations, and for that reason the technique of deprivation of visual, auditory and tactile sensory experiences is used for brain washing.

Understanding the Development of the Learner

Check Your Progres 2 Notes : a) Rrrileyour answer in thc space given bclow. b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of the unit. List various approaches to personality. Discuss the approach that you find the most suitable to your own personality.

............................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................

4.5

FACTORS INFLUENCING DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY

Really speaking, a humanbeing's personality is a product of hisher genetic endowment and cultural environment. As Cole and Bruce described, "from the moment of conception it grows . 'whole', having within itself possibilities of developing into a dynamic, active, walking, talking, thinking, feeling humanbeing, provided that the evnironrnent furnishes the raw materials and the appropriate conditions of stimulation." Differences in individual personalities are caused because (i) the possibilities within itself are different, and (ii) the provision of raw materials and appropriate conditions of stimulation by the environment vary widely. Guilford, for example charted the magnitude of similarity of pairs of children with respects of intelligence (IQ). simil&ity in heredity varied from the same child (tested twice), to identical twins to only chance similarity in a pair of unrelated children. The difference in commonality bctwccn the second and third pairs stated above demonstrates the role of the environment (rearing-practice) while the trend from pair one to pair seven shows the role of heredity. You will read about heredity and environmcnt in Unit 8, Section 8.3 in detail. If we look back at the propositions of personality presented in Section 4.4. there are a number of factors which influence the development of personality. The following are the main factors:

4.5.1

Heredity

Genetics, or the science of heredity. is a discipline contributing specific details of the impact of heredity on living beings. Ballcr and Charles have compiles some general statements about the inheritance of character that are relevant to behaviour of pcrsonality. Basically, we inhcrit "a tendency toward a certain structure" and "a tcndency to function in certain ways". Specially these include the following. Tendency towards a certain structure includes h e following behaviours.

A tendency to achieve a certain body-weight. A tendency towards a general body-typc (i.e. skelctal structure, proportion of fat and muscle-tissue, and the length of limbs).
Sex

Appearance, i.e., skin, hair texture and colour, eye shape and colour, nose shape, ear shape, head shape. Internal structure, for example the size of the heart and lungs in proportion to the body, determining the capacity for prolonged physical effort.

Tendency to function in ccrtain ways includes the following behaviours : Natural response i.e. functioning of the nervous system, intelligence, predisposition to react slow or quickly. Sensory efficiency i.e. keenness of vision, range of hearing, sensitivity of touch and smell, Operation of the "vegetative system" i.e., heart and circulatory system, digestive system, reproduclory system, elc. Functioning of the endocrine syslem, is., glandular secretions, e.g., the thyroids control

54

thc metabolic rate, the pituitary controlling growth, gonads controlling the sex-drive and sex characteristics and the adrenals controlling emotional "stir-ups".
9 9

Factors Influencing Development of Personality

Rate of physical growth .Predisposition to certain characteristics.

Finally a note must be added that thc cffects of heredity on temperamental quality arc not fatalistic as these are on the structural tendency. Medical and surgical intcrvcntions are being invented continuously to bring the functioning of heredikvy systems and mechanisms undcr control. Plastic surgery, for example, brings change in the bihcrited appcannce while hormonal trcatment changes the functioning of endocrinc glands.

4.5.2

Environmental Factors

Technically, environmental factors start cxerting thcir influence through thc uterine environment during the prenatal stage. Thc dictary habits, thc health of the mothcr, etc., may cause prenaul "insult" or damage to the developing organism. Somc disabilitics arc inflicted upon the child by uterine cnvironmental factors. During the first month or so, varying cultural patterns can be seen to shapc thc physical appearance of thc child. For example, tough-shaping by a strong massagc of the infant's body in the northern states of India and tender-shaping of the nosc of thc girl-child by strongprcssing in the southern states of India. As thc child grows, he faces and deals with several environment factors. The child gradually grows in complcxity, supporting or contracting various factors as the cnvironmcnt may bc varying kinds. Lct us discuss some of he environmental factors to see how they affect the growing personality o f an individual.

Rearing patterns : Interactions bctwcen the infant and mothcr for satisfaction of biological nccds play a significant role in personality development. Care and affection dcvclop a scnsc of sccurity. Over-indulgence or under-indulgence of Lhc mothcr in breast-fccding would detcrrninc the "oral" personality and severity in toilet-training is the "anal" personality. Regularity in fceding practiccs would develop in the child "basic trust" in thc world, irrcgulrity would yield "mistrust". Similarly, toilct-mining severity may cause thc child to grow into a doubting and shameful person, training "at ease" develops autonomy. Parent-child interaction : Once the child grows frcc of the needs of the mothcr, parcnt-child interactions assume social dimensions. Through the interactions, both thc individual psyche and thc social psyche are communicated to the child and Lhe child develops in himher "individuous" (individuzl sclfj and "socius" (social self). Thc effect of parents bchaviour on the child's bchaviour is summariscd in the following table : Table 4.1: Relationship between 5 p e of Home and Child Behaviour
-

Type of Home

Type of Associated Child Behaviour

Submissivc, aggressive, adjustmcnt difficulties, fcclings of insccurity, sadistic, nervous, shy, stubborn, noncompliant.

Ovcr-protective, "babying" Dominating parcnts Submissive parents Harmonious, wcll-adjustcd Child acccpted Logical, scientific approach

Infantile and withdrawing, submissive, feelings or insccurity, aggressive, jcalous, difficult adjustmcnt. Dcpcndablc, shy, submissive, politc, sclf-conscious, uncooperative, tense, bold, qum-clsome, disintcrcstcd. : Aggressive, careless, disobcdient, indcpendcnt, self-confident, forward in making fricnds, ncurotic. Submissive, good adjustmcnt, calm, happy, compatible, coopcrativc, superior adjustment, independent. Socially acceptable, faces future confidently. Self-reliant, cooperalivc responsible.

Parcnts play with child : Sccurity feelings, sclf-rcliant.

Understandingthe Development of the Learner

Consistent strict discipline Giving child responsibility

Good adjustment.

: Good adjustment, self-reliant, security feelings.

The process of homo-formation of "socius" can be u n d c r s d if we just look at the differences in children in a nuclear and a joint family. Generally a nuclear family is over indulging, self-centred, introvert and isolated while a joint family is social, extrovert, and accommodating. Much of the child's personality seems to be determined by the social class of the family. Generally, middle-class parents tend to develop in their children a sense of self-dircction, the power of decision-making and an attitude that the situations or environment can be changed by manipulative efforts. Parents in lower-class homes do not have experience of building independence and controlling the behaviour of the child. The children of such families develop an attitude that the situations or environment are given and cannot be changed, thus a kind of external locus of conuol is built. The two classes of homes also inllucnce thc kind and lcvel of achievement motivation in children.

At the broad sociwultural level, the genderqolcs are learnt by boys to become "boys" and girls to become "girls" as desired by culture. Every child loves to play with toys but we provide dolls or kitchen toys to girls, and trucks, cars or aeroplanes to boys. And just think of a situation when a child returns home complaining that it has been beatcn by some omcr child of thc neighbourhood. If it is a girl child beaten by a boy, how do wc advise? If it is a boy child beatcn by a boy how do we advise? And X we come across a girl child beating a boy child how do we react? The answers to these questions will reveal the way pcrsonalitics are shapcd unknowingly.
Sibling relations : Another environment is built in homes by brothcrs and sisters, callcd siblings, supporting and frustrating each othcr. Rcsearch studics have revealed that a sibling-less only child tends to become overprotected and self-centred unless the parents deal with the child differently. The eldest child happens to be an only child till the second is born when the first is "dethroned from the function of solitary affection. It gcncrally develops jcalousy in himher. Olherwise, the eldest child happens to be overtaxed by thc aspirations and the dcmands of the parents.
Children in intermediate positions have mixed experiences and vary in thcir personalities more. However, they may tend to suffer more from inferiority feelings gcncrated by comparisons. The youngest child is never deprived of the affection of parents and may turn into a spoilt if "babied" child. Somc studies suggest that the first born children have contributed more geniuses while the last-born children tend to contribute some creative, expressive persons. These, however, remain unsettled issues.

Neighbou~hood: The neighbourhood provides the first exposure of the larger cultural environment to the child. Since birds of the same feather flock togcthcr, neighbourhood families are not different in their social class, etc., and provide a smooth transition from home to culture. They share almost similar valucs and rearing patterns but expose the child to different family styles, and the child learns how to deal with the varicty. Thc characteristics of neighbourhoods are that they are more objective than the parents, Lrcat the child as a pcrson and thercfore thcy are both lcss approving and less critical, and with different emphasis in child-behaviour. You may recall your own childhood experiences of home and ncighbourhood and describe the differences as well as how some neighbours contributed to the development of your personality. Peer group : From the ncighbourhood emerges the peer-groups. The first group of indiv~duals of the same/similar age may be unrelated biologically but are related socially. Interacting with this group the child learns that he/she should give up a little of individuality to be accepted h socially in the peer group. With L e peer group, the child learns to take turns, to suppress hisher wish in favour of the decision of the group, to dovetail hisher activities with the activities of the group. And with the desire to be accepted, helshe moulds hisher bchaviour to the standards set by the group which suggests to him continually what would please the group members.
Recall the actions that you did in your childhood to impress yourself upon your peer group
56

Why childhood alone, in adolcsccnce and even latcr also this happens. The peer group persists as a factor ot' cnvironmcnt throughout lifc, of course changing with time and maturity, but forcing thc individual to live up to hisher "reputation" in the group.

Factors lnnucneing Development of Personnlity

Schcrol : The first peer group of childhood is characterised by play and then the child is admittcd to thc first formal instituation of the society, the school. The school is aimed to inculcate in him or her the behaviour patterns required in adulthood. The school environmcnt lnakcs him/hcr learn punctuality, regularity and scheduling by conditioning through the bcll whcn to arrive, when to study various subjects, whcn to play and when to leave for home. Acadcmic icarning is the major cause of schooling. But a lot is learnt through the school cnvironmcnt in its hidden curriculum. You come to learn the authority (of teachers and monitors), to rcspcct rules and regulations, and also to doubt even the home. Just think when onc lcarns the need to use clean drinking water for health and returns home to find the unhygienic practices of drinking water. What happens to a Uibal child whcn the school insists on thc use of standard language while he speaks to his parents in the tribal dialcct? The same is thc h~tc thc child going to an English-medium school demanding not to use thc moher of tonguc. Whcn the teachings and demands of the school conflict with the family respect, the child lcarns to conceal facts or to speak half-truths. Besides, each school also has its personality or stylc and dcvelops in children the Waits it holds important. These may be achievement no ti vat ion, creative expression, easy going happy-go-lucky or "who cares" (chalta hai) attitude.
hlass media : While school is the direct and responsible authority to communicate and train

thc child to the dcsires and dcmands of thc standard form of culture, the mass mcdia radio, tclcviqion, the newspaper and the magazinc or the comic, etc., communicate to the child the stylcs of the various sub-cultures in the total culture. Certainly the variety would make the child awarc of othcr forms, objects and styles and creative tensions in him. The manncr ego reacts and ac!just~ to resolve these tensions determines his children and adolescents is fast-increasing anci crcatlng cvcn social challenges, we may discuss it at length.
In .gcncra'dl,it may be stated that heredity seems to be more important than environment in dctcrmining the individual's ability lcvcls and physical characteristics whilc the other psychological, especially affective traits, are influenced more by thc cnvironment.

Check Your Progress 3 Notes : a)

b)

Write your answer in the space given below. Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.

Writc down the name of the environmental factors affecting the growing personality of an inclividual.

.................................................................................................................................................. .................................................................................................................................................. ..................................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................................

IMPACT OF MASS MEDIA ON PERSONALITY

Films, tclcvision, radio, newspapers and magazincs are thc most promincnt forms of the mass mcdia anti cach influcnccs the behaviour pattern of pcrsons in a diffcrcnt manner. So, let us Itxk at cach apart.
Films : Films create an environmcnt in which one cxpcricnces a ncar r a l life situation cmpathicall y for about two hours and a half. Together they sct a mcnd of lifc -some of love, olhcrs of social action and still others of religious life. The presentation may be "commercial" which attcmpw to attract a mass audicncc or "artistic" which attcmpls to paint subtlc rcality. q ~ ~ v w , wtiat thc growing personality of childhood and adolcsccnce finds in thc films is ~y, por~rayals rality (which they believe are true), glamour of appearancc, role models and of villains, and varying patterns and stylcs of bchaviour, how and whom to rcspcct or fight. Basically Indian films have providcd avenucs or oullcts inhibited by [he culturc, specially sex

Underdanding thCI)evdOpment

of the Learner

and aggrcssion. The impact of films is also on the increase since the trcnd of hero-por~ayal has shown a shift from the mythological, historical, national and social to a matured individual, to a frustrated post-adolescent and to loving and tormented adolescent. Anyway, the films stir and motivate those more who are sensation-seekers.

Television :Television creates an entirely different sort of environment :

One, through its serial presentations it encompasses one's thought by continual and prolonged discussion of the role-models and patterns of behaviour. Two, it forces you to tune in on time. Three, if onc docs not discriminate in viewing television, shehe simply gets engrossed by the visual stimuli only to find that time has been spent for nothing. Four, it turns the constant viewer into a passive person permitting no time and imagination to express oneself in one's own way: in other words, it tcnds to cnslave.
\

Five, it may so engross the school going children and adolcscents that they start neglccting their education, if parents do not intervene. And finally, thc long arrays of advertisements inidate the child and the adolcscent into exploring market products and change or dcvelop food habils, bathing habits, clothing habits and the like. It may, in certain cases, build in some inferiority complexcs.

Radio :Prior to the emcrgcnce of television, radio was the major mass medium, which in India has continued to be under the full control of the statc. It, therefore, permits an environment which is controlled by the standard culture. The impact of radio relatcs therefore to social besides entertainment. awareness, knowlcdge and role models and person,l ~ipbringing, Newspaper :Unlike the non-print media discussed above, the mass medium of newspapers has two basic characteristics:
it is restricted t those who can read, and o it reports and discusses reality. Like films, it is a privatcly owned medium, so that each mewspaper reflects and builds a particular ideology of thought or reality. It also motivates the development of regularity so that generally newspaper-reading becomes a habit of the individual. It dcvelops in readcrs awareness and knowledge of the events across the world. The social cvents which suggest how valucs are changing fast, of heroes and villains, in the various arenas of human enterprise. It further tends to drivc persons towards a critical analysis of the events, sharing views with others.

Magazines : The magazines differ from the newspaper in that it presents a collection of readings in a selcctive area. A magazine creates a selcctive environmcnt whclhcr it is of animal and nature, of fairies, of kings, of politics, of religion, o l films or anything else. It, therefore, is an indicator and promoter of specific interests. Consistent and persistent interest in a magazinc gradually builds in the individual typical attitudes and valucs communicatcd through the magazine. Check Your Progress 4 Notes : a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of the unit. Discuss the impact of TV on the adolcscent personality.

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................

4.7

ROLE OF TEACHER IN DEVELOPMENT OF ADOLESCENT PERSONALITY

Factors Influencing Development of Personality

With all these mass-media cropping up to engross the mind and time of the growing pcrsonality, especially during adolescence when the person is the most susceptible to being influcnccd, the rolc of the teacher in the school has to be redefined. By designation a teacher for this ~voup a subject-teacher, teaching Hindi, English, Kannada. Mathematics, Physics, is History and the like. School systems in the west provide a psychologist to deal with the problcms of development. The Secondary Education Commission (Mudaliar, 1953) provided for a guidancc worker in the secondary school but the scheme was discontinued. Wilh no provision for specialised services, the responsibility of guiding the development of the adolescent personality smoothly has to be shared by every teacher of the school. To do so, we rcquirc to understand the nature and needs of adolescents which are described and will be discussed in various units in this course. A short discussion follows in view of the personality construct.
Adolescence, basically, is a bio-social happening, it., a social creation on the basis of h e biological stagc of physical maturation, charactcrised by muscular and gcnital development. Sincc muscular strength develops, entry to the world of work is desired; and since geni~al dcvclopment takes place, raising a family is desired. Both, the vocation and the family corruibutc, rathcr make, the idcntity of the person. For that reason alone, thc period of adolcsccnt personality is tormented by the crisis of identity vs. role confusion, according to Erikson.

If we look sociologically, adolescence does not happen to many in Indian context. Tr~rditionally, lamilies inheriting a vocation from the father, a smooth transition occurs in whcrc thc child lcams his or her adult role from the parent of the same sex, gels married, trades and raiscs a family. Otherwise, the same happens in destitute homes where the condition of living lorces thc child to take over the adult rolc at the earliest. A significant reference sets the lirnit of agc for the world of work at fourteen years. To those who are forced to work at or bcforc this agc, adolescence almost does not occur. Most of them also drop out of school prcrnaturcly for their "adulthood" is acccpted by the Samily.
I I I lllc mcntality of the middle class wl~ich cvolvcd with industrialisation and technology, and tt is this group which I'orms h e has bulk o l secondary school swdcnts. These chilaen are rcI'u\~.d .'childhood" by thcir parcnts and yct "adulthood" is not granted to them. They are persons in waiting, in formation, prcparing to carvc out individual adult personalities. As has been stated earlier, middle class families force tlicir childrcn to dcvclop initiative and independence, their behaviour towards the adolescent bcco~ncs erratic and inconsistent somctimcs very affectionate, at othcr timcs vcry demanding. Tormcntcd by this, the basic identity-question sprouts - "Who am 1 child or adult, small or , his'!"

'Tire problcms associatcd with adolescene rest basicall!

C'onsciousncss of the biological changes in the appearance, another question starls pcrplex~ng atlolcsccnts : "How am I viewed by others?'. Cognitively, formal logic is devclopcd in atlolcsca~cc the logic raiscs another question of identity - there are hundreds of pattcms and of 11v1ng thc socicty, "Which am I to bccomc?". He explorcs the world around him for role in ~uotlcls arrct if, and whcn, comes to lzarn thcir failings and the grim reality of thc obnoxious socicty tllc most agitating qucstion is raised, "Why should I b&ome what thc socicty dcsires
nlk.

to Ix?".

The problcms associatcd with adolcscencc, thcn, are that scxual maturation takes place but the sex rolc is dcnicd, cvcn its cxploration and play is strictly prohibited and inhibited; muscular maturation lakes place but work rolc is dcnicd. The demand lor indcpcndcncc from parental control turns thcm to pccrs, all facing similar problcms. Thc tom1 group of pccrs functions likc a crowtt for thcm providirrg opportunities for exploration -vicwing movics, cnjoying picnics, danccs or dramas, and watching matchcs. Among these emcrgcs a sct of those sharing intcrcsls or aspirations in common. From the set, Lhe individual finds a "confidantc", the bcst fricnd, moslly ol' drc same sex, with whom one can sharc all roubles and pleasures.
I f wc. as tcachcrs, rcalisc and visualise thc problems and anxieties of these adolescents, which arc growlng largcr day by day, thcn wc would ccrlainly fecl likc hclping ~hcm. Basically, it will mcan I'ulS~lliny thcir "nccd for positivc rcgard, as Rogers p u ~ it. To hclp them sclf-actualisc, s ir lcachcr can scrve, if possible, as a "friend, philosophcr and guide". As a fricnd, you have to

w Unde~ d b g t h e D e v d o p m e n t of the Learner

accept his blowing hot and cold; as a philosopher, you have to present yourself to him as a role model as a person; as a guide, you have to provide him informations which parents refuse ID give and which in society is not easily available to him. Specifically, it means providing sex education and career education which requires to be in-built in every subject of study to the extent possible. Interest clubs, hobby clubs, subject clubs or activity clubs, all provitie opportunities for exploration of reality and role models. Every teacher, to his or her interest, can choose t work with adolescents in a club and guide. For their blowing hot and cold, Baller o and Charles have compiled from studies communicative indicators of emotional stress and strain. The* are listed below.
Communication att tern Emotional state

Baby-like speech Large variations in speech

Stuttering/Stammering

Over-protection Emotional deprivation Emotion(s) throttled down Insecure, anxious Insecure, demoralised, convinced of inferiority Emotional instability
'

High verbal output Low verbal output High verb-adjective ratio Word "salad", using new

Schizophrenic

The indicators may help you in identifying the problem of the adolescent to help in turn. In that humanistia way, human personalities help develop each other.

4.8

LET US SUM UP

In this unit, you have studied the concept of personality and its nature that it grows "whole" and integration is its norm, disintegration only a pathological condition. Several approaches have emerged to study personality, of which some have been referred to, namely :bio-physical approaches (Hippocratus/Galen, Kretschmer and Sheldon), bio-social approaches (Freud), psycho-social approaches (Adller and Erikson), social learning approaches (Eyesenck and. Cattell), psychoanalytical approach (Cooley and Skinner), pcrsonological approaches (Rogcrs and Maslow), and spiritual approaches (Gandhi, Tagore and Sri Aurobindo). Besides, personality can be studied through some specific traits of significance (achievements motivation, locus of control, cognitive style and sensation seeking). A glimpse over all the theoretical propositions revealed that personality-formation is affected by heredity and a host of environmental factors, which chiefly include rearing pattern, farlily culture, sibling relations, neighbourhd, peer group, etc. The school and the mass media hive emerged as strong effects. We have also discussed the impact of films, television, radio, newspapers and magazines separately. Finally, the phenomenon of adolcscencc itself has k e n discussed to identify our role as teachers in helping the growth of the adolescent personality.

4.9

UNIT-END EXERCISES

Attempt lo answer the following questions and self-check your answers wilh the contents of the related sections. i) ii) Intetpret the organismic view of personality. Exphin the function of "ego" and state some mechanisms used by ego to defend itself against the pressure of "id" and "superego".

iii) State the stages of personality growth according to Erikson and describe the crisis of the stages during school-years from age 5 to age 18. .iv) Interpret the structure of psychological needs for personal development as suggested by Abraham Maslow. v) Compare the views of Tagore, Gandhi and Sri Aurobindo regarding the development of "Atman" or personality.

VI)

Describe some new concepts that have emerged in the personality theory.

Factors Lnfluenclng Development of Pernonpllty

vii) Compare the effect of heredity and home upon personality development. viii) Discuss the role of school and teachers in personality development during adolescence. ix) Discuss the statement "Thc mass media today excercise greater influence on the adolescent personality than school teachers."

4.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

Baller, W.B. and Charles, D.C. (1%1) : The Psychology of Human Growth and Development, Ncw York : Hotd, Rinehart and Winston. Faw, Terry and Gary, S. Belkin (1989) : Child Psychology, New York : McGraw Hill.
Mc Connell, James V. (1977) : Understanding Human Behaviour. New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Spinglcr, D. Michael and Lieber, M. Robert (1989) : Personality Strategies and Issues. Books/Cole Publishing Company Pacific Grove, California.

4.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. The term "personality" derives from the Latin word "persona" which means a mask worn by an actor. Personality means the characteristic pattern or style of behaviour of the pcrson as is revealed through his external and internal properties. Bio-physical approach, bio-social approach, psychoanalytical. psycho-social. social learning, spiritual and personalogical. We think the most suitable approach in our personality is the spiritual approach which raises the concept of self-actualisation and self-realisation. This is our approach. You may differ in your approach.

2.

3.
r

Rcaring patterns Parent-child interaction Sibling relations Neighbourhood Peer group School
r

Mass media

4.

Adolescents start neglecting their education and develop changes in food habits clothing habits and bathing habits. Inferiority complexes may build up among adolescents.