Laboratory Report Strut Buckling

Introduction Buckling is a mathematical instability, leading to a failure mode. It is caused by a bifurcation in the solution to the equations of static equilibrium. At a certain stage under an increasing load, further load is able to be sustained in one of two states of equilibrium: an undeformed state, or a laterally-deformed state. In practice, buckling is characterized by a sudden failure of a structural member subjected to high compressive stress, where the actual compressive stress at the point of failure is less than the ultimate compressive stresses that the material is capable of withstanding. For example, during earthquakes, reinforced concrete members may experience lateral deformation of the longitudinal reinforcing bars. This mode of failure is also described as failure due to elastic instability. Mathematical analysis of buckling makes use of an axial load eccentricity that introduces a moment, which does not form part of the primary forces to which the member is subjected. When load is constantly being applied on a member, such as column, it will ultimately become large enough to cause the member to become unstable. Further load will cause significant and somewhat unpredictable deformations, possibly leading to complete loss of load-carrying capacity. The member is said to have buckled. Objective To determine the buckling load for a: 1. Pinned and Strut 2. Fixed end Strut Required Equipment and Components Name Strut Buckling Micro Meter Digital Indicator Pinned-end Specimen Fixed-end Specimen Quantity 1 1 1 1 1 Remarks Apply Compress Load to Specimen Record The Gauge of the Length which been Bended. Record Apply Load

Strut Buckling

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Micro Meter

Digital Indicator
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Pinned-end Specimen

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Fixed-end Specimen

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Procedures 1. We fix the pinned ended specimen to the strut apparatus. 2. Note the reading on the digital indicator. 3. We required checking the position of the dial gauge to ensure that is at midspan. Beside, set the dial gauge reading to zero. 4. The specimen should be load at suitable increments by moving the screw jack slowly in the up wards direction. 5. For each load increment, we required to record the load and the corresponding mid-span deflection. 6. Well all were done, unload the specimen. 7. Fix the fixed end specimen to the strut apparatus and repeat step 2 to 6. The following is the step to be taken toward performing the experiment: 1) To increase the clear height between the platen: a) Unscrew the top nuts upwards to the desired position, approximately the height of the specimen. b) Turned the bottom nut so that it moves upwards with the platen. c) When the top surface of the platen touches the top nuts tighten all the nuts and insert the specimen. 2) To decrease the clear height between the platen a) Unscrew the bottom nuts downwards to the desired position, approximately the height of the specimen. b) Turned the top nut so that it moves downwards to the top surface of the platen. c) When it touches the platen tightened all the nuts and inserts the specimen.

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3%1)To mount a fixed end specimen. a) Lower the screw jack shaft. b) Position the top platen such that the clear distance between the platen is slightly longer than the length of the specimen. c) Slide the specimen into the top and bottom groove at the fixture for the end condition. d) At the top end, push the specimen so that its end touches the base of the groove. i) Tighten the screw at the side of the fixture. ii) Base of the groove iii) End of specimen iv) Correct position of knife-edge placed v) Knife edge being wrongly e) At the bottom end, raise the shaft of the screw jack so that the base of the specimen just touches the base of the groove. Check that the specimen is straight. If the specimen is slightly bent, lower the screw jack shaft. f) Tightened the screw at the side of the fixture. The specimen is now ready for testing. 4) To mount a pinned end specimen. a) Lower the screw jack shaft. b) Position the top platen such that the clear distance between the platen is slightly longer than the length of the specimen. c) Slide the knife edge attachment into the top and bottom groove at the fixture for the end condition. d) Push the knife edge attachment so that its end touches the base of the groove. Tighten the screw at the side of the fixture. Fixed the V groove on each end of the specimen. f. Place one end of the specimen on the lower knife edge. e) Raise the screw jack shaft so that the top end of the specimen just touches the knife edge. Check that the specimen is straight. If the specimen is slightly bent, lower the screw jack shaft slightly. f) The specimen is now ready for testing. Result Buckling of a Pinned-Ended Strut Length = 600 mm Width = 25 mm Thickness = 3 mm

Elastic Modulus = 200000 N/mm2 K=1.0

Moment of Inertia = 56.25 mm4

Pinned-End Condition Load, P N 30 60 90 120 Mid-Span Deflection, d div mm 24 0.24 58.5 0.585 107 1.07 171.2 1.712
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d/P mm/N 0.008 0.00975 0.011889 0.014267

150 180 210 223

269.5 448 915 1520

2.695 4.48 9.15 15.2

0.017967 0.024889 0.043571 0.068161

From the experimental plot the Euler load = slope of the graph Therefore Pcr (experimental) = 250.43N Theoretical Euler Load = 2EI(KL)2 = 2 200000Nmm2 56.25 mm4 (1 600mm)2 = 308.43N Percentage error = 308.43-250.43N308.43N 100% = 18.80%

Comment: There was a high percentage error in this pinned-ended structure experiment. Because the specimen had been test a lot of times, the internal bond of the specimen would be weak.

Buckling of a Fixed-Ended Strut Length = 600 mm Width = 25 mm Thickness = 3 mm

Elastic Modulus = 200000 N/mm2 K=0.5

Moment of Inertia = 56.25 mm4

Fixed-End Condition Load, P N Mid-Span Deflection, d d/P div mm mm/N 100 15 0.15 0.0015 200 30.5 0.305 0.001525
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300 400 500 600 700 800 900 970

53.5 82 124 182 279 428.5 725.5 1458.2

0.535 0.82 1.24 1.82 2.79 4.285 7.255 14.582

0.001783 0.00205 0.00248 0.003033 0.003986 0.005356 0.008061 0.015033

From the experimental plot the Euler load = slope of the graph Therefore Pcr (experimental) = 1063.1N Theoretical Euler Load = 2EI(KL)2 = 2 200000Nmm2 56.25 mm4 (0.5 600mm)2 = 1233.70N Percentage error = 1233.70-1063.1N1233.70N 100% = 13.83%

Comment: There was a high percentage error in this fixed-ended structure experiment but less than the pinned-ended structure experiment. Except the reason from pinnedended structure experiment, it also because the fixed-ended structure can lead the specimen more strength to resist the deform.

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From above diagram we observed that the slope of fixed-end is more than the slope of pinned-end which mean that fixed-end can apply more load than the pinned-end to deform.
Fixed End

Conclusion

The lab has given the main understanding of measuring the deform of pinned-ended strut and fixed-ended strut. But the experiment has not indeed been successful due to the specimens had been test a lot of times, the Elastic Modulus of the specimens maybe not as high as the new specimen. If we try to find out the actual elastic modulus of the specimen which been test by tensile test, the theoretical Euler load would be calculated accuracy, then the percentage would decrease.

Pinned End

References Analysis of Structures book written by V.N Vazirani (M.Sc.Structures) and M.M.Ratwani (Ph.D.Structures) from page 217 272 and page 368 399. http://www.wikipedia.com Theory In 1757, mathematician Leonhard Euler derived a formula that gives the maximum axial load that a long, slender, ideal column can carry without buckling. An ideal column is one that is perfectly straight, homogeneous, and free from initial stress. The maximum load, sometimes called the critical load, causes the column to be in a state of unstable equilibrium. Any increase in the load, or the introduction of the slightest lateral force, will cause the column to fail by buckling. The formula derived by Euler for columns with no consideration for lateral forces is given below. However, if lateral forces are taken into consideration the value of critical load remains approximately the same.
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where F = maximum or critical force (vertical load on column), E = modulus of elasticity, I = area moment of inertia, L = unsupported length of column, K = column effective length factor, whose value depends on the conditions of end support of the column, as follows. For both ends pinned (hinged, free to rotate), K = 1.0. For both ends fixed, K = 0.50. For one end fixed and the other end pinned, K = 0.699.... For one end fixed and the other end free to move laterally, K = 2.0. KL is the effective length of the column. Examination of this formula reveals the following interesting facts with regard to the load-bearing ability of slender columns.
1. Elasticity and not compressive strength of the materials of the column

determines the critical load.

2. The critical load is directly proportional to the second moment of area of the

cross section. 3. The boundary conditions have a considerable effect on the critical load of slender columns. The boundary conditions determine the mode of bending and the distance between inflection points on the deflected column. The closer together the inflection points are, the higher the resulting capacity of the column.

A demonstration model illustrating the different "Euler" buckling modes. The model shows how the boundary conditions affect the critical load of a slender column. Notice that each of the columns is identical, apart from the boundary conditions. The strength of a column may therefore be increased by distributing the material so as to increase the moment of inertia. This can be done without increasing the weight of the column by distributing the material as far from the principal axes of the cross section as possible, while keeping the material thick enough to prevent local buckling.
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This bears out the well-known fact that a tubular section is much more efficient than a solid section for column service. Another bit of information that may be gleaned from this equation is the effect of length on critical load. For a given size column, doubling the unsupported length quarters the allowable load. The restraint offered by the end connections of a column also affects the critical load. If the connections are perfectly rigid, the critical load will be four times that for a similar column where there is no resistance to rotation (hinged at the ends). Since the moment of inertia of a surface is its area multiplied by the square of a length called the radius of gyration, the above formula may be rearranged as follows. Using the Euler formula for hinged ends, and substituting Ar2 for I, the following formula results.

where F / A is the allowable stress of the column, and l / r is the slenderness ratio. Since structural columns are commonly of intermediate length, and it is impossible to obtain an ideal column, the Euler formula on its own has little practical application for ordinary design. Issues that cause deviation from the pure Euler strut behaviour include imperfections in geometry in combination with plasticity/non-linear stress strain behaviour of the column's material. Consequently, a number of empirical column formulae have been developed to agree with test data, all of which embody the slenderness ratio. For design, appropriate safety factors are introduced into these formulae. Limit point vs bifurcation buckling Bifurcation buckling is sometimes called Euler buckling even when applied to structures other than Euler columns. As the applied load is increased by a small amount beyond the critical load, the structure deforms into a buckled configuration which is adjacent to the original configuration. For example, the Euler column pictured will start to bow when loaded slightly above its critical load, but will not suddenly collapse.

In structures experiencing limit point instability, if the load is increased infinitesimally beyond the critical load, the structure undergoes a large deformation
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into a different stable configuration which is not adjacent to the original configuration. An example of this type of buckling is a toggle frame (pictured) which 'snaps' into its buckled configuration.

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