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Stifuta,
l^tm Unrfc
THE
ar
TK 21S2.R98
A text-book of electrical machinery .v.
1
The
tine
original of
tiiis
book
is in
restrictions in
text.
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924004407536
A TEXT-BOOK
OF
Electrical Machinery.
VOLUME
I.
HARRIS
Member
the
J.
RYAN,
M.E.,
of
American Institute of Electrical Engineers and American Society of Mechanical Engineers, etc.
HENRY
H.
NORRIS, M.E.,
Professor of Electrical Engineering, Sib leyCollege, Cornell University; Member of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers and of the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education, etc.
GEORGE
Associate
L.
HOXIE, M.M.E.,
Ph.D.,
Member of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers and Member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
FIRST EDITION.
SECOND THOUSAND.
NEW YORK: JOHN WILEY & SONS. London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited.
Copyright, igo3,
BY
HARRIS
J.
RYAK.
PREFACE.
The
tions
and
is
characteristics
physical
phenomena.
His
next
task
to
leam
working principles
of engineering, both those underlying the design and operation of electrical machinery and those
With
these facts in
mind
it
desirable to produce a
purpose of communicating to
text,
At the same
in hand.
As a
it
and
and energy,
upon
nomena
naturally.
The
application
It
of these
laws
is
illustrated
IV
PREFACE.
1;o
make
this
and
home
trical
use.
Volume
tural
and
elec-
trostatic circuits in
and performance
of electrical machinery,
treated in
Volume
II,
may be
easily followed.
all
The
contributors to the
Whi
e the
has been followed, the aim has been to profit by the work of
and
to provide
an
in'.roductory text
wherewith
to
prepare the
pro-
of electrical-engineering personnel
and
The
material of
Volume
additional
thor-
may be
oughly covered in
fifty
recitations, the
The form
volume
is
years of experience in
in Cornell University.
Ithaca,
New
York,
Sept.
i,
1903.
COMTEISITS.
PAGB
Chapter
I.
Electricity
and
Electrical
Energy
Electromotive Force
z 5
Magnetism
Chapter
II.
Fundamental Units
Derived Units
of Electrical Units
20
Chapter
III.
Periodic Curves.
25 31 42 45
Combinations of Sine Curves The Fourier's Series for an Alternating Quantity Analysis of a General Periodic Curve
Chapter IV.
Complex Quantities.
60
65
Chapter V.
Circuit.
Consumption of e.m.f. in Single Circuits Problems in Single Series Circuits Problems in Simple Multiple Circuits Consumption of e.m.f. in Series-multiple Circuits
68
76
80
82
Chapter VI.
Electric Power.
92
Function of the Electric Circuit Power with Current and e.m.f. in phase Power with Current and e.m.f. in quadrature Power with Current and e.m.l neither in phase nor in quadrature Average Power with non-sine form e.m.f. and Current
93
95
96
99 100
The
Equivalent Sine
Wave
V
VI
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Chapter VII.
Circuit.
M.m.f. and the Magnetization Curve Matters Affecting Permeability Reluctance of the Magnetic Circuit Magnetic Hysteresis Ewing's Theory of Magnetism Illustrative Problems in Magnetic Circuits
125
132
13S
Chapter
VIII.
Components
150 162
Chapter IX.
The
Electrostatic Field.
Corona
173 180
General Characteristics
The
Electrostatic
Corona
189
ipS 196
198
Chapter X.
Inductance Skin Effect in Conductors Eddy Losses in Conductors Eddy Losses in Magnetic Circuits Capacity of Transmission Lines and Cables
Appendix
iiJ
B
C
E
e
F
f.
mechanical
force.
H
/
i
magnetomotive force
in gilberts.
/
L
pL
-t/"^^-
inductance in henrys.
magnetic permeability.
electric
. . . .
P
$
Q.
,
power.
flux.
total
magnetic induction or
quantity of electricity.
electric resistance.
r
(R t
magnetic reluctance.
time in seconds. angle of phase difference.
electric
W
X
z
energy or work.
reactance.
impedance.
used.
This table contains only those symbols and abbreviations which are frequently Those which are used locally only are explained when used.
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
CHAPTER
I.
1.
Electricity
and
electrical energy.
2.
Electromotive force.
Three methods
for maintaining
an e,m.
Measure-
ment
3.
of e.m.f.
Magnetism: a. Magnetomotive
b.
force.
4.
Magnetic flux. Water flow, t. Tension of the magnetic field. d. Other hydraulic analogies to magnetism. Magnetic tension and flux density.
I.
Electrical
pheare,
nomena
There
unfortunately,
no means available
Electricity
for
character of the
phenomena depend.
this
reason,
be
is,
by
its
effects.
By
observation of
in
can be gained.
As
is
a form
of energy.
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[2
plete
is
shown by the
fact that
it
may be It may
suitable
by the use of
it is
The
electrical
electrical
Electrical energy
may be
mag-
may
be recovered from
stored form.
when an
This
charge
is
is
energy
stored
is
by
compressing a spring.
phenomenon
also reversible.
These
illustrations point to
important points
in the
2.
initial
Electromotive Force.
Electromotive
force*
is
the
tion ^
This e.m.f.
follows
a.
i>'.
may
Thermo-electric.
Chemico-electric.
c.
Dynamo-electric.
the junction of two metals
is
a.
When
heated, an e.m.f.
is
heated.
This e.m.f.
may
electric current
by connecting
energy may be
utilized electrically.
is
of heat so transformed
used.
Fig.
Fig.
I.
known
b.
as the
Cox
generator.
in metallic contact, are placed
If
in a bath of
some
liquid
is
up between the metals, and by suitable connection outside the liquid an electric current may be
the other, an e.m.f.
set
produced.
its
prac-
which
c.
is
in
common
third
use.
for the generation of
The
is
method
an electromotive
it
force
consists
in
moved
magnetic
field in
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
flux
b
an electromotive
its
produced
in
it
which
will
Fig. 2
A Typical
Primary
Cell.
Fig. 3
velocity,
trates
cut
for
by
it.
Fig. 3 illus-
electro-mechanically
developing an e.m.f.
This principle
is
3]
ELECTRICITY
all
AND MAGNETISM.
of
Measurement of
cated and
its
e.in.f.
is'
The
indi-
presence
of an e.m.f.,
or
difference of potential,
amount may be
elec-
measured by means of an
trostatic voltmeter.
This instru-
ment, which
is
also
is
known
in
as
an electrometer,
commercial form
shown
a
It
is
in Fig. 4.
there
two
electrically
charged bodies
measurement of low
tion
may
In this form
Fig.
4..
the instrument
known
as a
multicellular voltmeter.
3.
net.
Magnetism.
It
is
In Fig.
5,
NS
is
a permanent bar
mag-
made
been placed
*
in a solenoid carrying
an
is
electric current.
often used for e.m.f.
When
The
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
this
bar
is
which emanates,
from
lines
by
physicists
in
this;
connection
KiG.
5.
Fig. 6.
netic Field of a
a.
the bar
magnet
is
due to a mag-
number
which consti-
3]
between the two ends of the bar, which causes magnetism or magnetic flux to be established from one end of the bar to the
other.
In Fig. 6
is
an
illustration of
an hydraulic model of a
of the
The model
represents
all
magnet proper
is
M,
water.
The
part
the
bar
sides with
rotating
shaft
carrying screw
propellers,' _/5!5!7")
to
When
S and go
out at N.
The
flux of this
water
The
lines
drawn
all
in the figure
points in the
show at once the direction of magnetic amount at any point in the region of the magnet.
Fig.
5
c.
flux
and
its
At
is
all
points within
The
nature of this
as follows
its
tension along
possesses a mechanical
a mechanical pressure
The
mag-
emanates or by which
established.
means, to be described
of magnetic
flux
is
at
any
The
it
lateral
pressure
of
magnetic flux
exists along
its
own
direction that
is
hardly necessary to
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
It is
[4
much
as
it is
mind the
difference
shown
further
that magnetic
flux
is
in the hydraulic
model flow
whatever
enters the
5 end
N end.
for the
An
Whatever amount
opposite pole.
of magnetic flux
same amount
is
This amount
everywhere
existence en
Of
is
magnetic body
little
known.
Researches,
body there
flux
tinuity of the
is
circuit of
such
body ceases
at this
circuit of
and through the magnetic body is called induction. In Fig. 7, 4. Magnetic Tension and Flux Density. AAA is a bar of soft wrought iron formed as shown, and
NS
is
mounted
with
in front
it
AAA
shown
and
in
in contact
much
of
the figure.
Under these
evidences
circumstances
Fig.
almost
all
7. Magnet and
^^^^'^^
surrounds
^5.
This
is
due to the
fact
that
4J
has
consumed
in
taneously with
the steel bar
its
through
NS.
Thus
results
it is
magnetic pressure
the
that the
exists at
any
cross-section of
as that
the
NSAAA
is
practically
the
same
which
exists at
any other
cross-section.
NS
is
mounted on a knife-edge
at
is
Fig.
8.Apparatus
The mounting ofiV5is with another knife-edge as shown. air-gap, ag, is formed separating so adjusted that a small
from
The
following facts
may be
observed experimentally
10
1,
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[+
The
existence
of induction
in
NS
and
AAA,
and a
N and S,
2
will at
the scale-beam.
The tension
is is
An
indication of the
amount of
flux
N into
given
AAA,
is
by the throw of the galvanometer needle when the turn of wire, T, is drawn away from the position showji in the figure
so as to cut the magnetic flux.
flux
is
The
Another
bar
is
now
Fig.
9.
Fig. 10.
measurement has
just
been made.
same
its
square in cross-section
horizontal thickness
one-half and
has
in
just
been removed.
That
is, it
is
set
on edge
is,
as
shown
Fig. 10,
therefore, one-half
is
illustrated in Fig. 9.
4j
ir
The m.m.f.
same
flux as before.
This
may be shown by
Upon weighing
we
to be 2F.
First experiment:
Total flux, ^.
Cross-section at air-gap,
A.
Flux
density,
B =
,
-r.
Second experiment:
Total flux, $.
Cross-section at air-gap,
\A.
Flux
density,
B"
-r-r-
= 2B'
A
instead oi^A,.s.nd
,
Had
had the magnetic density been maintained at B" = 2B' the magnetic pull would evidently have been 4F. Thus we find
when
remains constant,
Flux density = B' ; the magnetic pull " " " " =: 2B' ; "
If
= F. = 4.F.
'
ment to 3^' we should have found the magnetic pull to be gF. Thus we learn experimentally that the contractile tension of
the magnetic fluk
density.
is
of the flux
pull,'
The numerical
F,
is
XB'\ where
is
numerical
-^
07t
CHAPTER
II.
UNITS.
Fundamental
a.
i.
c.
units.
The unit of magnetic flux. The unit of current. The unit of electromotive force.
Through dynamo and simple conductor. Through dynamo, conductor, and condenser. Through dynamo, conductor, and electrolytic
units.
6.
The
electric circuit.
u.
b.
c.
cells,
7.
Derived
a.
b.
t
.
d.
c.
f.
8.
unit of resistance.
unit of inductance.
unit quantity of electricity.
unit of energy.
Power consumption in electric circuits. 1 Power consumed by resistance. 2. Power consumed by counter e.m.f.
Problems in the use of electrical
units.
9.
5.
Fundamental Units.
action
is
The
much
tromagnetic
so
accord with
common
a system of
centimeter-gram-
second
{c.g.s.) system.
This system
electrical
universally adopted
in electrophysics
and
in
engineering.
The
c.g.s.
practical units
is
necessary.
_
The
5] a.
UNITS.
13
flux.
unit,
is
its
own
directio7i
of
-H Stt dynes
when
cross-section.
The name of this unit of magnetic flux The density of magnetic flux is the number
unit cross-section.
b.
is
the maxwell.
of maxwells per
From experimental
fleld of
research
that
a uniform
tending to move
It
of the conductor in the flux, the current strength, and the flux
density.
These
facts
One
to
to
flux and
to the
conductor
One-tenth of
it
The name
of this
is
the ampere.
unit of electromotive force. Practical unit, the Volt: one hundred million
generated in a conductor moved across a
that
is
The
c.g.s. units.
is
of magnetic flux
On
determined by definition
as follows:
14
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[6-
is
per
and
at right
the flux
and
to
the length
of the conductor.
This
unit
tical
is
is is
The
pracsize,
determined by
the volt.
The name
is
electric
and magnetic
units.
They
are
flux.
The
Electric
In
no case
is
electric action
of an electric charge
may
by an external
In Fig.
circuit
is
1 1
the
dynamo forms
by
electric
in
generated.
The
current
established
circuit of the
Fig.
1 1.
Simple Conductor
Fig.
12
Circuit.
Fig. 12.
C^I3>
b.
In
the circuit
may
A,
is
As soon
7]
FUNDAMENTAL AND
DERII^ED UNITS.
all
15
current
will
cease.
Now
if
the
conductor
3,
by some such means as illustrated in a momentary current will be shown on the instrument
and applying
it
direction
going on.
Continued
mutator
in Fig.
^
Fig.
'I'I'I'I
1
c.
Again, as
the circuit
may
be established
electric conductor,
molecular changes
or
transfers.
Electrolytic
cells
do not
merely close an
electric circuit as
Derived Units.
in
Current
Control.
The
current
that
will
be set up
source
any
electric circuit
the
e.m.f.,
capacity,
mechanics.
a.
The unit of
resistance.
Ohm:
when
a current
is
established
in a
is
consumed
ELECTRICAL M/ICHINERY.
is
[7
called
electric
resistance.
fact,
as follows
The
ohm
is
is
called the
ohm.
It
con-
sumes one
per ampere.
On
is
a hundred
up magnetic
flux
In
the same
way
is
into existence
established.
is
In doing so an e.m.f
is
it.
As
is
is
changing, an e.m.f
direction
is
The
oppose
always such as
to
The
process of setting up
it
magnetic
flux
carries
is
called self-induction,
is
and the
ability to self-generate
an e.m.f.
given the
name
inductance.
The above
of change of current
Since this
is
at
7]
UNITS:
i7
unit.
thousand million
definition.
determined
byis
The name
the henry.
c.
electricity.
When
strain
is
produced.
is,
therefore, necessary.
is
electricity
equal
to
the quantity
of current
in one unit
of time.
Its corre-
This unit
is
sponding
practical value
it is
the ampere-second.
On
account
of the ampere
The
d.
The unit of
capacity.
^
c.g.s. unit,
and
the Micro-
farad,
If
an
electric circuit
or
all
be
Experiment
The
dielectric
quantity of electricity,
between
electric
its
faces.
As
changed, the
dielectric
is
correspondingly
is
changed.
The
the value
accomplished.
The
unit of capacity
is,
of current, pressure, and time, thus A dielectric in an electric circuit has a capacity of unity
l8
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
the transfer through
it
[7
when
The magnitude
of the
corresponding
practical
unit
making the
is
practical unit
capacity
the farad.
most
practical
purposes,
is
ordinarily
This sub-
The microfarad
therefore,
absolute unit.
e.
The
unit of
power
is
is
practical
unit of
power
is
the volt-
watt.
Being derived
one-tenth on
is,
therefore,
account of the ampere and one hundred million (lo^) times on account of the
unit.
i.e.,
volt,
or ten million
It
f.
Power
form to another.
The amount
8]
I9>
of energy
is
in unit
time.
The
8.
corresponding
practical
unit
is
is
the
watt-second
(lo'' c.g.s.').
The name
in
of this unit in
the joule.
Circuits.
Power Consumption
Electric
By
the
consumption of power
transformation
1.
an electric
circuit is
may
The
is
power that
IE, where /
isis-
of a conductor
By
ohms means
the
number of the
ampere
in
setting
up the current
in the conductor.
It follows, then,
that
E^ Ir.
The power consumed by the
resistance of the wire
is,
therefore,
W= 1E=
This power
is
Pr.
lost
from
The
electric
power
changed
to
to its resistance is
propor-
The
relation
E=
Ir, as
above determined,
may be
transr
posed so as to stand
^='
when
it
(O
states
In a closed
Force.
When
circuit or
energy
is
20
ELECTRICAL M/ICHINERY.
is
[9
an e.m.f.
produced
a direction opposed
to the current.
Such an
e.m.f.
is
called a counter-electro-
motive
forjned
force.
electrical
energy
is
stored or trans-
equal
to the
may be transformed into heat by and magnetic naolecular action in and about the
circuit
Prob.
A
in.,
i.
If
and
find
//
B, Fig. 15,
is
10 sq.
when
field is
sq.
cm.
One pound
Prob.
is
is
445,000 dynes.
Ans.
16 there
sq.
2.
shown
area
lbs..'
in Fig.
cm
{B
10.000).
()
What
should
be, the
of each pole in
((5)
sq. ins.:
To produce
a pull of 100
To produce
in.
a pull of 50 lbs..'
(a)
.8667 sq.
A7is.
Prob.
3.
If the
in
Fig. 16
lbs.,
exposes 10
cm.
50
lbs..'
(b)
100
lbs..'
(a)
(b)
(c)
sq.
'< <i
cm. <
11
Ans.
<i
Prob. 4.
The
wire
4266 shown in
<(
Fig. 17 carries
10 amperes.
9]
The
is
1,000,000 maxwells.
force,
The
poles
are 3
in.
square.
What
1
measured
in
field
Ans.
Fig. 16.
Fig- i7-
Prob.
5.
field
makes an
When 10 angle of 45 with a plane normal to the field. amperes flow through the wire and the induction density is
50,000 maxwells per
sq. in.,
what
force,
measured
it
in
pounds
?
.0313
Ans.
Fig. 18
Prob.
6.
in
ft.
-lbs. will
be done
in passing
field
shown
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
in Fig. 19,
[9
of flux exist
square.'
between
When the
square
poles are 10
.'
in.
{b)
When
5 in.
()
{l>)
7.373
fl.-lbs.
Ans.
Prob.
7.
What
e.m.f. in volts
is
"
sT"
^X
[Fig. 20.
N i^' s
/
field at
ft.
per minute
field.
.?
There are
i
(^=
,000,000.)
3.33 volts.
Ans.
Fig. 21.
Prob.
8.
The
Fig. 21
is
10
ohms.
If a
9]
UNITS.
25
through a uniform
netism
is
3 in.
magflow
?
725,000 maxwells:
What
current
will
second
In .005 second
(c)
of energy will be
(d) In
{i>) ?
() .0725 ampere.
(b)
{c)
Ans.
.1450
"
joule.
" "
" "
is
.0005256
{d) .0010512
Prob.
9.
circuit of 2
o volts
in
a
a
circuit is in
is
uniform
1,000,000
Fig. 22.
maxwells.
With what
force,
field
.'
measured
in
.1474
Prob.
10.
lb.
Ans.
condenser
The
23
is
e.m.f.
shown
in Fig.
positive to
1000
The capacity of the condenser volts negative in ^^ second. > {a) What average current flows for the time is 7 microfarads,
{b)
How much
energy
is
pressure.?
()
.84 ampere.
Ans. "
24
ELECTRIC/tL MACHINERY.
[9 in Fig. If .01
Prob. II.
The
3
shown
24
is
changed from
henrys
10 amperes in .2 second.
is
volt
.000285 henry.
Ans.
-E
o
Fig. 23.
^wsm^
^-o
Fig. 24.
Prob. 12.
The
24
rises
is
from 10 to 20 amperes
3 henrys.
two seconds.
The
inducif
tance
What
the
is
three
(6)
When
current has
60
volts.
Ans.
60
"
CHAPTER
III.
PERIODIC CURVES.
SYNOPSIS.
10. Properties of the sine curve.
a.
i.
c.
d.
c.
The alternating quantity. The sine curve in rectangular co-ordinates. Time as abscissae for sine curves. The sine curve in polar co-ordinates. The average value of a sine curve.
1.
Graphic determination.
Analytic determination. Analytic determination.
2.
f.
The
1.
2.
Graphic determination.
11.
Sum
d.
When When
c.
f.
Terminology of alternating
quantities.
10. Properties
of the
Sine Curve.
a.
An
alternating
quantity
tive
is
and negative.
The
may
plex.
more or
less
com-
The
is
am X
25
(2)
26
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
In this equation
;ir
[lO
is
is,
and negative.
Its
maximum
is
90, or
x and y
in the
above
equation
is
called
a curve of
sines, or often in
electrical
in
Rectangular Co-ordinates.
If suc-
of the form
shown
in Fig. 25.
convenient
Fig. 25.
method of plotting the curve is there given. If ^ be a constant radius vector which starts from a horizontal position and
rotates in a positive direction, counter-clockwise,
its
projection
on a
is
vertical line at
any instant
is
equal to
sin x,
where
ir
and the
origin.
Sine curves
will
be
yi sin X.
This
may be done by
expressing
it
in
terms of time.
As x
and
is
its
'
lo]
PERIODIC CURk^ES.
is
27
the
initial
position,
and
go
by the angular
Thus when
its
angular
(,
position
oot.
is,
at the time
X
Substituting in (2),
y
This
is
=.
\T\ oat
(3)
or
00
2n = -^.
becomes
(4)
By
J/
= A sm^i
Polar Co-ordinates.
in
When
curve
the
Fig. 26.
The
of
X between
is
e.
traced over by The Average Value of a Sine Curve. By "value of a is meant the value of an ordinate to the curve curve of sines
curve
'
'
as
drawn
jj/
value.
The
The
average value
plete
revolution
of the
A, Fig.
25,
is
zero.
its
length,
by
ti
when
the angles
28
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
fia
in rectangular
area
may be
planimeter, or,
by counting:
Fig. 26,
Thus,
33.7 squares
enclosed by one loop of the curve, while the length of the loop
is
10.
The average
which
is:
ordinate
is,
therefore,
33.7 divided by
10, or 3.37.
analytically,
Average ordinate
=X
It
71
maximum
3-37-
ordinate
= -5-3 =
Analytically the same result
tegration, as follows:
is
y= A
Area
z=
sm
X, dx.
y dx ^ A sm X
y dx
=Aj
sin
x dx
lOj
PERIODIC CURVES.
= A f COS
average ordinate
;ir
2A,
area
t
2A =
sine curve is
times
its
maximum
f.
The
'
'
Effective
By
"effective
value
meant the square root of the mean of the squares of This is always positive and has the the instantaneous values.
is
sine curve b
Fig. 27.
of squares
c.
Each
is
the square
of the corresponding ordinate of the former. value of c may be obtained by the methods used for determin-
The average
The
effective value
of ^
=
I.
V average
c.
= A sin x. = A^s\r?x
(S)
30
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[lO
y dx = A^J
sin*
x dx
A^ r'
/
(i
dx
A^
*
of b
A
V2
2.
It
has
a sine curve,
when
plotted in polar
circle.
The
may
be con-
sidered as
made up
width of
Ja
and altitude
b,
as in Fig. 28.
The
areas of the
Fig. 28.
as the angle
Aa
is
is
proportional to the
triangles.
mean
The complete
be drawn, as shown
circle, its
same
as that
ii]
PERIODIC CURVES.
circle, if the
3^
of the
square of
its
radius, r,
is
equal to the
mean
of
tri-
of the squares of
b.
This
is
may be
considered as
made up
radius, r,
in in
generating the
circle.
That
is,
of the squared
is
the
square of a radius vector of constant length which would sweep over the same area in passing through an angular distance of
j8o.
As
A
''=
V2'
But
f^
is
the
mean of
r
^
Vmean of IP'
effective b
A = j^Phase Relations
oj
II.
a.
Sine Curves.
curve
is
^vci
{x
-\is
a)
(6)
where a
0
is
x
is
at a uniform rate.
The
on
y^=^
sin a.
The
and
curve
y'
^A
sin {x
-\- oi)
its
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[11
second curve,
b,
is
drawn
is
in the
same
figure
The
where
/S'
is
a constant angle.
The two
angle
(/?
by the
+Y
Fig. 29.
X
B
axis in
the
in
same
direction.
and
also differ
phase position
is
a).
taken as positive,
is
ahead of
in angular position,
is
a, or it is said to
is
lead a
by an angle of (/?
(/S
a).
Conversely, a
said to lag
an angle of
a) behind b.
is
a, the
radius vectors
coincide,
1).
Their equations
-\-
a),
a),
Ill
PERIODIC CURVES.
ratio
33
ciarves,
and the
drawn
A B
One
curve
sin
(x-\-a)
A'
=i ^=r=.
sin {x-\- a)
constant.
may
by
multi-
Fig.
30.
Fig. 31.
The
in
phase
b.
constant.
Sine
their
curves
same
angular
Sine curves
ordinates,
i.e.,
addition of corresponding
same
vertical line.
Each
34
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
["
by the determina-
sums.
The
curve of sums
may be
plotted
tion of a large
number of such
points.
Fig. 32.
i>
fre-
and B.
is
s,
which
their
sum.
OASB.
is
The
at
any
instant,
x^^
OA
The
sin
xOA xOB
A-^x^.
is,
at the
same
instant,
OB
The ordinate
sin
B^x^.
s, is,
at the
same
instant,
= AjX^-{- B^x^
S^A^
where
=
sin
B'^x^,
AS sin A^AS = OB
and
xOB = B^x^=
xOA
S^A^,
OS
Therefore
sin
xOS = OA
is
sin
+ ^5 sin A^S
OS
on the ordinate
S^x^^
the projection of
through
x^.
"]
Since this
is
PERIODIC CURVES.
true for
35
OASB,
it
follows that
sine curve
The sum of two sine curves having' the same frequency is the which is generated by the diagonal of the parallelo-
gram formed on the radius vectors of the component curves. c. Sum of Sine Curves in Quadrature. The equation
y"
= B cos = B sin
may
be written
y"
when
it is
[x
+ J)
is
y ^^ A
The sum
of the curves
jj/'
sin X.
=^
sin
and
is
y"
= B cos x
A
is
x,
-\
with
Fig. 33.
The
must be
S=
VA^
+ ^.
36
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[X
The magnitude
of
of the
its
sum
is
and B, while
is
governed by the
between
and B.
A
zero,
= tan a.
or
tan
-r.
limits o
lies in
and 90.
first
If
x be
the
quadrant.
With
"
A A
negative and
positive,
lies in
ii]
PERIODIC CURVES.
37
sum
and
J
instead of
=A =
S
sm X
sin(;ir
-\-
cos
(/)
y
nT
+ "d
d.
Same
Frequency.
By
product of sine
of products of
instantaneous values.
I
.
When
it
be required
and
Fig. 35.
Fig. 35.
of their ordinates at
any
instant
is
yy'
= y^ = AA' Ax? X
(8)
Expanding
this, it
becomes
cos 2x)
,
y^
A A' = ^ (I
2
(9>
38
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[11
XX to X'X' a distance
its
equation becomes
^2=^1
AA'
AA'
J-=
(^2jr
^cos2x,
,
.
.
(10)
^2= - -y-sm
which
axis
is
+ -j, ....
i>',
(11)
with
its
AA'
at a
distance
2
l>
and
^'.
The
average value of
this
XX
AA'
is
.
This
may
be written
A A' = =
.
when
b'.
it is
\/2
j/2
tlie
one-half
maximum
values.
When
quadrature.
Let
b' ,
it
be
Fig.
^^
sin X,
y = A' sin
yy'
\x
-|
A' cos
x,
{A
sin
x){A' cos x)
= AA'
sin 2x.
(12)
This
is
Its
complete period
is
zero,
"J
PERIODIC CURVES.
39
sine curves
in
Fig. 36.
When
Let
in
quad-
rature.
curves b and
b' ,
One
with
b'
may be
the
in phase,
and
other
quadrature,
b.
OB^
OB,^
= OB cos OB sin 6,
the
e,
where
is
and B.
The product
(11)
and
B is
sum
of the products of
with
and
(12).
The average
quadrature product
zero.
The
maximum
B
6.
which
is
in
phase with
is
OB^
= OB cos
40
ELECTRIG/IL MJCHINERY.
["
ll]
PERIODIC CURVES.
average product of the sine values
41
The
and
B is
therefore
OA
V2
OB
COS
d.
V2
sine curves is the
of their angle
of phase difference. e. The Rate of Change Curve of Sine Values. The rate at which the ordinates to a sine curve change their values is
variable,
and
if
Fig. 38.
it is
derived.
The
first
curve
is
jf/
sin X,
it is
y
where
a sm
27r -=,^,
T is
Then
df :=
-i^fra
cos -i^tdt,
42
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[i*
and the
rate of
change
^ = asm[-+-^t)
'The rate of change curve
is
(I3>
therefore
its
sine curve go in
Conversely:
The integral of a
a second
and
its
values are
times as great.
f
The
tive
frequencies
always irregular
posi-
X axis
by
may
may
not be alike.
of this fact led
to
The
investigation
the
discovery
may
always be found
that their
in value,
sum
will
desired form.
which when added would reproduce any given periodic curve however irregular
periodic sine curves of different frequencies
it
might be.
12.
Such a
an
series
is
known
for
as a Fourier's Series.
Any
be
Periodic Alternating
in
is
Curve.
If
irregular
curve
plotted
rectangular
made
equal
by the addition of sine waves properly selected as to amplitude and phase position, one of which has the same frequency, or wave length, as the
reconstructed
irregular wave,
may be
four
times,
wave lengths
of 1/2,-1/3, i/4'
12]
PERIODIC CURyES.
43
The component sine curves which combine to produce the total curve are known as the first, second, third, etc. harmonics. The first harmonic, or fundamental, has the fi-e.
. .
quency of the
firequency,
total curve
twice that
and so on.
,
This convention
differs slightly
from
of the fundamental
in convention
is
is
harmonic.
The change
The
made up
of harmonic sine
components
jf
A'
sin {x
A"
sin
(2x
.
-j-
a^y
+
ylj,
A'"
sin (3;r
+ 3) +
. .
+ A" sin
(nx
+ ).
(14)
A^, A^,
A^&re
a^, a^,
a.^,
is
zero or
is
These
relations are
shown
in Fig. 39.
made up
of three
twice,
three
times
that
of the
irregular
curve.
The
radius
T'ectors
A',
A",
and
numIn the
bered
I,
2,
drawn
in
heavy
position in
;r
which x
45".
is
zero,
and
jf J
The
equations
sine
components of 5 are
y = A' sin {x + 30), y = A" sin (2x + 60), y" = A'" sm + 120),
(3;f
44
'ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[iz
13]
PERIODIC CURVES.
45
5 is
{2x
A' sin{x-\-
30)
+ A" sin
+ 60)
120).
4-^'"sin (3^:+
Note that
the
this
(15)
X axis.
From
the
statements already
made
it
follows
that
by
properly selecting the values A', A", A'", etc., and the constant angles of phase displacement; a^, a^, a^, etc., the above
equation
may
how
irregular
it
may
be.
The
is
separa-
into
its
components
first
always
possible,
and usually
it
will
five
comtotal
practical purposes.
The
actual analysis
may
1
method
The average of the product of any harmonic with any when taken for a complete cycle of the
irregular curve.
The average of the product of two sine curves in phase, having the same frequency, is half the product of their and
2.
amplitudes.
The average of the product of two sine curves in quadrature and having the same frequency is zero. The discussion of the first law is beyond the scope of the
3
present text.*
The meaning
of the law
may
be illustrated
sine curve
a.
In Fig.
40 the
Their
X axis.
The
Byerly.
46
10.
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
in
13]
PERIODIC CURVES.
is
47
Similarly
a,
therefore zero.
41 the product of
b,
and
c,
gives a product
38,
For the proof of the second law see Section 11, and for the third law see Section 1 1, d, 2, page
d,
page
39.
The product of one quantity by another, is identical with the sum of the products of that quantity and each of the components of the other.
Thus,
-\- b)
x{a
= xa
-\-
xb
(16)
frequency,
is
this sine
of the
nth.
in
phase
limits,
with
it.
The average
of the product of this sine curve and any other harmonic com-
ponent of the
components,
sum
of
all
is
zero.
The
general equation
J
may
= A'
+
f
A'"
ar
be rewritten by Section
A^sin X
-\-
A^
sin 'SV
+ A^ sin
-\-
ix
-\-
sin nx,
-(-
^3 cos 2^-\-
(17)
. .
+ B cos nx.
coefficient,
be required to
,
find
any
phase angle, a^
of this equation,
when
given.
From
(A'"f
A,^
+ B,\
48
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[i3
and
"3
Multiply graphically a complete wave of the total curve by
the curve
jj/3'
sin 2,x.
The average
curve j^
ordinate
of this product,
E,
is
equal to the
factor
latter
by the
2,x
A^
sin
ix,
y^
= sin
with
y
IX
is
zero.
= =
+.,,
sin
and
j/3
^3
sin 2>x
is
and
this
may
graphic multiplication, or
A,
Similarly, as
total curve
=.
2E.
is
cos ^x,
sine
it
follows that B^
2F.
The
this
harmonic
are,
known.
The
fied
may
If
by an inspection
first,
of
its
form.
the
third,
fifth,
etc.,
between components
will
I3j
PERIODIC CURyES.
(See Fig. 45.)
49
Such a curve
have
like loops
versely,
Curves having
tain only the
like loops
X axis
con-
odd hartnonics
In this case
the average
This
is
may
be taken over a
curve repeats
Where
i.e.,
the second,
components are
periodic curve.
The
result
is
differ in
form.
X axis in
periodic
The
following problem
is
method of
by which any
its
alternating curve
may
be resolved into
harmonic com-
ponents.
Problem.
It is
comin
This curve
is
symmetrical about
This fact
is
its
no even harmonics.
The
component
of the
drawn 40
:
to a
the
by the
ratio
i.
The
multi-
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
in
^3]
PERIODIC CURVES.
5'
plied
laid
by
down
in the
diagram.
its
An
average
From symmetry
sum must be
zero,
and the
be zero.
phase
rnust, therefore,
and
alter-
The
relative
product
is
a corre-
sponding negative value causing the average value of the product curve to be zero.
A trial of
Further
product of
it
The
found to be rich
odd harmonics.
In Figs. 43 and 44
sine,
and
In
Fig. 43 the unit sine analyzer for the third harmonic analyzer
is
as shown.
The
52
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[13
^3]
PERIODIC CURVES.
53
gggggggg
3
n
hj
54
positive
eiECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[13
The
final
net area
is
to actual scale of a
complete
This value
drawn
in Fig. 43,
is
and so labeled.
In doing this
as follows
Positive area
5140
Negative area
454^
594
Net
positive area
360
594 7:=
-\- 1. 65
Average product
The maximum
therefore
^3
Fig.
= 2(+
i-6s)
= + 3-30.
44 gives graphically a corresponding analysis to determine the cosine cohiponent of the third harmonic of the The numerical work for this is as follows: original curve.
Positive area
13]
PERIODIC CURVES.
55
is
The
total third
harmonic component
therefore
+ tan
is
.-6.82 *
'
3-3
7.56,
-64
6'.
drawn
to scale in
amount
in Fig. 45.
The fundamental and the fifth harmonics have been determined by this method. The only difference in detail met with
consists in the use of sine
har-
to determine.
=
*
66.8 sin
-\-
4.4 cos
-\-
3.3 sin
^x
6.82 cos 2^
(18)
The accompanying
7.24 sin
5;if -j-
figure will assist the reader to see that the ratio of the
-X
-Y
cosine to the sine components gives the tangent of the angle of phase difference, not the cotangent as might at first be supposed.
and
56
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[13
The
equation
may
in the following
manner:
1-995).*
f
or,
it
(66.8^
of the harmonics,
may
6')
36').
13]
PERIODIC CURl^ES.
Evidently
if
57
harmonics.
nounced minor
difference
irregularities there
it
between
harmonics.
of the
By means
ponents.
the
method
illustrated in the
above problem
into
its
may
sum
harmonic components.
may
ment of
their
wave problems.* Problerns numbered 47 and 48 illustrate this method of solving problems that arise in dealing with alternating quantities.
Effective
The
mean
square of
is
its
values.
The
nating curve
y=
A^svc\.
j5j
X cos X
Ar
-\-
A^
2x B^ cos 2x
sin
-\-
A^s'm
'ix
T,x
-f
-{-
-j-
+ B^ cos
(19)
Squaring,
2,^
-f
(20)
ix -^
{A^
(A
sin sin
mx){A
+
-\-
+
.
methods employed
all
non-sine waves.
58
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
All of these product terms have a
[13
mean
value of zero.
See Section
page 45
law
i.
From
Section 10,/,
(Mean ^
sin^
;i:)
= ^^
(21)
From which
(Mean ^)
it
follows that
= J(^^ + ^/+^/+
effective value
j/
is,
+ B,'+B,' + B,^+
.).
(22)
The
therefore,
Effective
= -^VA,^+Ai+Ai+.
Since ^A^ and iB^ are the
.B,^
+ Bi+B,' +
.).
(23)
mean
may
is
be further reduced.
The mean
^J =
where
KA^
+ B^),
(see Sec.
1 1, <:,)
(24)
is
Substituting,
Effective^
= VH^ + H^
-\-
H^ ^
effective
(25)
The
effective value
In
the general
y=
if
sin {x -|- ),
is
the angle
said to
be periodic.
As
wave
which
is
13]
PERIODIC CURVES.
in
59
in the other direction.
maximum
Two
This
is
increases
by 360".
the
The number
second
is
number
of periods per
called
the
periodicity,
or
more commonly
frequency.
wave
is
CHAPTER
IV.
COMPLEX QUANTITIES.
SYNOPSIS.
14. Vectors.
a.
b.
c.
Definitions.
Graphical conventions.
Addition of complex quantities.
Multiplication and division of complex quantities.
d.
and
vectors.
by
vectors.
14. Vectors.
a. Definitions.
tity
is
vector
The
line is usually
drawn with
an arrow-head to indicate
its
direction.
vector
can only be
represented analytically
its
by an
its
direction as Well as
magnitude.
b.
Such an expression
is
a complex quantity.
position
Graphical Conventions.
The
of a vector
is
specified
its
by reference
end.
to a horizontal line
initial
line,
to right,
it is
and
is
may be
negative, and
may
If
a vector be
60
multiplied
by the
factor
i),
it
is
reversed in direction.
14]
COMPLEX QUANTITIES.
process of reversal
is
61
in
The
assumed to consist
initial
a counter-
be multiplied twice by
rotated 180.
i, i.e.,
by (|/
if, or
by (
i), it is
It is
logical to
gives to
it
a positive rotation of
For convenience
J is
Then
I,
J= Vj^= The
cation.
I.
I,
Thus the
it
division of a vector
by /
is
is
equivalent to
giving
factor
represented by the
j.
Thus,
^
^J _
The
The
quantity a
-\-jl>,
Fig. 46,
is
a vector which
is
the
sum
quantity a
jb
i.
is
a vector which
is
the
sum of a jb.
positive
Summary.
is
vector which
its
is
length only.
and negative, the quantity is preceded by the minus sign. 2. A vector which is vertical and positive is denoted by a
quantity giving
its
length,
is
If vertical
and
62
3.
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[14
vector which
is
neither
horizontal
nor vertical
is
its
real. A A quantity containing the factor/ imaginary. A quantity made up of real and imaginary components
is
a complex quantity.
c.
Fig. 46.
quantities,
position
is
obtained.
sum
vectors [a -\-jb)
and
^jd)
is
{a^jb-)^{c^jd)
The
= {a^d)^j{b+d).
is
(26)
/= ^{a^cf + (bJ^d)\
This occupies a phase position with respect to the
(27)
X
:
axis
which
is
found as follows
sm
S/(a
b-\-d
+ cf ^
(^
+ df
(28)
14]
COMPLEX QUANTITIES.
Numerical
Illustrations.
63
Prob.
3 ^rJ'7, 5
13.
Draw
the vectors
S.
+74>
-76,
+^6.
Add
representing their
sum
also
(i+y6).
(3-72).
(-
9 +J7)Quantities.
d.
be
Complex
binomials.
Whenever 7^
{a -{-jUf
may
Thus,
(a -\-jb)(r -\-jx)
= a" ^j2ab -\-fb'' = 2 .j-j2al> ^, = ar -\-jbr -\-jax \-j^x = ar -}-j'{br ax) bx.
-\-
(29)
This product
may
be written
{ar
Its absolute value
bx)
-fj{br
-\-
ax)
(30)
is,
therefore.
V{ar
After expanding
bx)^-{-{br + axY.
(31)
we may
Va'
+ blx
+ x'.
....
(32)
From
product.
this result
it
Let
6',
6",
and
6,
respectively,
a +jb, r +jx,
and
their product,
(ar
bx)
-\-j\br
+ ax),
64
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
with the horizontal.
cos
0'
[14
make
Then
=
(^2
+
r
b
^3)4'
cos 6"
=
{a'
sin d'
+ b^f
X
sin 6"
=
ar
cos
cos
Substituting,
(6"
=
('
(9")
bx
X
(^
^)^
+ ^)*'
^'
= cos
^'
cos e"
- sin
sin 0".
we
cos
{e'
+ e") =
wherefore
+ ^ = +
(^
^'
b^Y-
(33)
(9".
From
angles.
two vectors
equal to the
is
sum of
phase
Phase angle
The
complex
quantity resulting
from
may be
laid
down
to
graphically.
Thus, in Fig.
are-
oA and oB
vectors
be
multiplied.
Expressed
are
analytically,
these
7
is
Fig. 47
The
The numerical
values of
1/3^
or
absolute
are
Multiplication of Vectors.
oA
32
oB, and
oR
V72-f
2^
7.27,
=4.24,
15]
COMPLEX QUANTITIES.
65
and
ViS^
+ 27^ =
30.8
7.27
4-24.
The absolute value of the product of two or more vectors is the product of the absolute values of the vectors. The angle
which this product makes with the
angles
initial line is the
sum of the
made by
As
plication, a similar
law
may be
com-
plex quantities.
quotient,
when one
vector is divided
this quotient
As
vector
a corollary
is
it
may
the reciprocal of
its
angle
reversed.
Thus,
in Fig. 48,
OA'
the reciprocal of
OA.
Fig. 48.
Division of Vectors.
and Vectors.
a.
Alternating
Quantities Represented by
Vectors.
The
actual value of an
66
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
is
[i5
alternating quantity
if
the positive
value for
and negative alternations are equal the average any whole number of alternations is zero. The
produced by such a quantity
is
average
effect
not,
however,
necessarily zero.
An
instance
is
a conductor.
is
The average
cur-
rent
is
ductor continuously.
now be
quantity
given.
It will
same
when
the alternating
The
effective
is its
value
measured
in
terms of an average
which
it
may produce
continuously.
by a
by a
straight line.
It is It is
in
many
cases
to
arbitrarily assign to
The
alternating quantity
is
phase position.
The
phase position
specified in terms of
Alternating
is
quantities
may be added
or subtracted
by
The
result of
may
not be multiplied
is]
complex quantities.
67
or divided
ing their
A vector
or divided
may be
multiplied
by a vector representing a constant quantity having magnitude and direction, i.e., by a simple vector. The result
of such an operation
is
tions performed
same operations on vectors representing their effective values. This method is used for convenience only, and its limitations,
as given above, must always be kept in mind.
Illustrations
CHAPTER
V,
CIRCUIT.
16.
Consumption of e.m.f. in single circuits. a. E.m.f. consumed in resistance. b. E.m.f. consumed in inductance. c. E.m.f. consumed in capacity. d. E.m.f. consumed in (o), (b\ and (<) combined. Problems in single series circuits. Problems in single multiple circuits. Consumption of e.m.f. in single and multiple circuits in
series.
16.
cuits.
E=Ir
(34)
of the current.
It follows
that
the
is
e.m.f.
consumed,
to
which
proportional
all instants,
the
current at
must also
plotted.
give a sine
wave when
in
^hus,
in
wave of
which when plotted
be estabat
ohms.
in
The e.m.f
any
instant
is
ir
3/,
i6j
69
current wave.
e.m.f.
and cur-
When an
alternating current
it is
it.
in
A
it
if
current which
is
when
at
same
rate as
would a
which heat
liberated at
any
instant
is
proportional to the
it
follows that
mean
square,
' '
the value
commonly
used.
For an
only,
current in
Ohm's law
sumed by
The
effective e.m.f.
con-
E=
Prob. 15.
Ir.
An
}
electric heater
How much
e.m.f. will be
consumed
18
when
it
carries a cur-
rent of 6 amperes
Solution:
b.
E=
Ir
=6X
108 volts.
Ans.
E J2nfLI.
From
the definition for the unit of inductance, the e.m.f.
due to an inductance of
of current in the
units
is
circuit, or
'--^Tt
(35)
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
di
[i6
-j-
have opposite
e.m.
Assuming
i to
=A
sm
-j^t,
(36)
whence
^^=A-^cos^i
and
e
27r = LA^p- cos
,
(37)
2it -Tpt
(38)
That
wave.
is,
is
An
consumed by
written
the inductance.
it
may be
LA-jT cos
-jrt,
(39)
which
is
The component of impressed e.m.f. which is consumed by the inductance of a circuit is go ahead of the current flowing in
the circuit.
The maximum
But the
is <?,
maximum
is
= LA-7=. /_ = A.
Therefore
i6]
LyifVS
OF THE ELECTRIC
CIRCUIT.
E for
^-^^ and
V2
I for -^^,
V2
this
becomes
E=
where
tively.
^rLI,
and current respec-
and / are
Or, writing
/=
-^,
E=
where /"is the frequency.
2TtfLI,
(40)
As
by the
wave
is
90 in
this is indicated
E =j2nfLI.
The
SO.
Fig. 50.
E.m.f. developed
quadrature with
it is
called reactance.
is
Thus, in a
is
2nfL.
f2
Prob, i6.
cuit of .2
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[i6
cir-
What
wijl
effective value of 5
second
E ^j'ZTt/LT,
volts,
=72 X
TT
60
.2
=73 77
where/ indicates
of the current.
c.
is
^0 in advance
in Capacity
When
is
whose capacity
C farads
'=- C c
Q_
where
Q is
i6]
,-
73
The maximum
value
and
its
value will be
-^^
-f ^^^^-
^^"
\2
"^
TV
Sec.
1 1
<?,
Substituting,
27 n
f=-^max. ^1"
In
\7 H~
27t
4^^,
27t
The corresponding
Let -Tph^f,
Then
J--^'
^=J^''
e.m.f.
....
(44)
The impressed
is
consumed by the
These
Prob.
circuit
relations are
17.
shown
in Fig. 5
What
will
in a
of
it.?
.5
which has a capacity of 2 microfarads, when a current ampere with a frequency of 60 p.p.s. is passed through
74
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
Solution: Substituting in the expression
[i6
E=-J 2
E=~J:2
=
The
d.
71
fC
I,
;r
-60 -.000002
volts.
7663
Ans.
is
factor
90
Impressed E.m.f. Consumed by Resistance and the Reactances of Inductance and Capacity in Series. By combining the
results of Sections a, b,
and
c,
Fig. 51.
and
may be
obtained.
Thus,
for the
general case,
E=
To
rl -\-j2nfLI j
27tfC,
is
(45)
and x"
is
substituted for
2nfC'
Then
(46)
E=
I{r
+jx' -jx").
6]
75
These
relations are
shown
in Fig. 52.
Ei=l'
>]e3-=I( Ja^^
C"
2t/C
rmmhtr^smLRESISTANCE
INDUCXANCE
M^
SOURCE OF S.M.F^
'
Fig. 52.
If
is
it is
equation
quantity in
brackets
is
the
volts
is
per
ampere
'
'
consumed
in the circuit.
This quantity
termed
impedance of a
circuit
be denoted by
!,
this equation
may be
or
written
f^,
(47)
-|.
which
is
(48)
76
17.
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[i/
It will
be noted
the
same throughout
The
various e.m.f.s
may be
con-
by reference
to the current.
may be treated
as vectors.
if
be
suffi-
When
attempted,
of a free-hand sketch.
In this
manner
e.m.f
and
may be
largely eliminated.
circuits,
where
either cur-
impedance
is
to be determined,
may
be solved
or,
for the
current,
by the
equation
r
In the general case, the effective values of / and
dealt with,
are
Since
follows
the impedance, z,
that
tion
/ and E,
it
any of the operations necessary to the solution of equa(45) may be performed upon the vectors representing the
quantities,
and the
result will be
present
considerable
mathematical
in
The
solution
may
either
be graphical,
which
I'/J
L/iH^S
OF THE ELECTRIC
CIRCUIT.
77
making use
methods are
Prob. i8.
of the
algebra
of
complex
quantities.
Both
When
is
incandescent lamp
is
lamp
200 ohms.
no /= 200 =
Prob. 19.
Ans.
furnished
is
by the
.
ohm.
What
e.m.f.
is
consumed
in the
armature
.'
Solution:
E=
Prob. 20.
si
.15
105
15.75 volts.
Ans.
What
e.m.f. to set
must be furnished
at a frequency of
up a current
of 8
amperes through,
.5
of
henry
r -\-jx'.
1400
volts
=
The symbol
2059, /47"
8', volts.
Ans.
8' is
angle of 47
2059
by
78
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
8'.
[17
an angle of 47
inverted,
is
used
The
obtained above
53.
is
shown
of
graphically in Fig.
the e.m.f.s
The sum
in
OE^ consumed
consumed
in resistance
and
OE^,
inductance
OE^,
which
is
in
The
by 47
8'.
The phase
is
given
to a
drawn
Prob. 21.
At what
pressure and at
will
when
the
frequency
is
.'
{b)
25 cycles
.'
{a)
(b)
3442,
1534,
/6i 58\
volts.
Ans.
/24
7' , volts.
Ans.
Prob, 22.
An
2000
if
volts at a frequency of
60
cycles.
flow
capacity
of 50 microfarads
Solution:
i=^ = r -jx100
2000
J 27r.60.5O' io~*
1
2000
2000
100-^53
II2.7\2{
7-7 5,
/s 8,
amperes.
Ans.
'7]
79
The elements
diagram Fig.
54.
The
alternat-
ohms of
generator pressure.
The
resistance
rnjwT
1=17.75,;
consumes 1775 volts, in phase and the condenser 940 volts in lagging quadrature with the current. The quadrature sum of these two presProb. 23.
2000 VOLTS
Fig. 54.
What
are the
[a)
125
(1^)
25 cycles
()
.'
19.4, 12.3,
Ans.
Ans.
Prob. 24.
R -WNAA/
L
-Mumsj
Fig. 55-
C
I
The
resistance of
its
its
armature
is
is
ohm, and
inductance
.01 henry.
L=
is
.05 henry, 7?
50
ohms, and
current
.'
C=
20 microfarads,
What
=
./
;r.
,,.,.,,. + 50)+X-05 +
= =
51 SI
lOOOOOO
\ )
.01)2.
125
-j[ ^o.2rr.i2s
+747-124
-yi6.S37
-763. 661
8o
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[iS
2200
=41.034, /ly 58
,
,
amperes. Ans.. ^
53-614X1758'
^
18.
In
simple
subjected to the
same
and
depend upon
Hence the
total cur-
same
The
rent
is
the geometrical
sum
These
reciprocals of the
of a circuit
is
the
number of amperes
This
is is
up
in
it
by one volt of
applied pressure.
circuit,
in contrast to the
impedance of the
to
the
ampere.
conductivity of several
branch
circuits
is
has been
obtained, the
corresponding total
is
impedance
simply
reciprocal.
This
illustrated in the
following problems.
Prob. 25.
Two
is
multiple
across
no-volt
What
what
The
I
conductivity of branch
(i") ^ '
is
100
3
.
that of
branch
(2)
^ '
200
and the
total conductivity
^
is
200
The
ioint '
8]
l/liys
OF THE ELECTRIC
200 -
CIRCUIT.
8i;
resistance
is,
therefore,
rent
is
,, ,^
" =1.65
amperes.
Ans.
is
Prob. 26.
A pressure
R=
C=
and
applied
R, L,
120 ohms, a^
2 5 microF"^- S^.
henry,
1!
farads.
The
joint
impedance and
Two
solu-
First Solution:
T
1
1000
"^ "120
"^ ^-33
amperes,
1000
^^
^j-27f6o..s
-yS-SOS amperes,
J.
/j
1000
=79.425 amperes,
'^27r-6o-25- iQ-*
2/j,
I^, /j
/26ig' amperes.
,
Ans.
^ 9.30 y26i9
\26i9', ohms.
Ans.
120 ohms,
j'2n-6o.^
=ji8g ohms,
B
and
J
'
2;r'6o-2S.io-
= ;'i05
-^
'
ohms.
The
.0083 mhos,
/ 00529
""
mhos,*
'-ee
For
(iffiniti'in
ui mho,
page
83.
82
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[19
and
^.00943 mhos, respectively.
The
tivities,
sum
or
is
00833
ig' ,
mhos,
The impedance
therefore,
is,
.0093 ^26
19'
7=
107.5,
\26
19', volts
per ampere.
The
current
is
Ans.
The dynamo armature in the preceding problem has a resistance of 5 ohms and an inductance of .05 henry. What is the total impedance of the circuit and what e.m.f. is developed by the dynamo ? The impedance of the armature is 5 +718.9 ohms, and the
Prob. 27.
total
impedance
is 5
101.2
729
\iS
59'.
is
ohms.
Ans.
9-3
The
e.m.f. developed
by the dynamo
104.3
= 969,
19.
\i5
59', volts.
Ans.
Consumption
and
From
seen that:
tivities; i.e.,
are in multiple.
=
19]
c.
LyiH^S
OF THE ELECTRIC
CIRCUIT.
83
Single
{b~).
and
()
and
which
is
the
final
then determined.
The
therefore, that of
an equivalent single
circuit
by
means
of impedances in series.
practical convenience the
For
term ohms
in
is
a circuit
ohm
is
mho
is
57
the
.
constants
are
as
follows:
Z=
henry,
R=
20 ohms, R'
=
JGENERATOR
30 ohms,
resistance
$0 microfarads.
is
The
cir-
of the line
total
negligible.
R'
Find the
cuit
impedance of the
to the
external
dynamo
at
i-V\/V\AJ
Fig. 57,
Impedance of L " R
" R' "
= =
"
j2nfLt
"
C =
77='
763.69
"
C"
This
is
the reciprocal
Conductivity oi R'
.0333 mhos.
"
"
c =y.ois7
"
84
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[19
C=
^tan-i-^^, mhos
/25i5^
0333+/0157,
= =
.0368,
.0368;
C=
o-7 .0368/25 IS
27.17,
\2S
15',
ohms.
and
it is
27.17X25
15'
is
The
total
impedance
the
sum of
all
the impedances in
series, or is
.3-^=y3i.4i6
+ 20 + 24.s6 -yii.58
/tan-'
i',
^P^^
ohms.
Ans.
48.8, /24
in Fig.
ohms.
dynamo
57 delivers a terminal
and what
is its
Solution:
The
pressure divided
by the impedance.
/=
2000
48.8 tan-i(^^^
g-
40.9 tan->|^-
^,
amperes,
=
That
is,
40.9,
\24
I',
amperes.
Ans.
by an
angle of 24
Prob. 30. Find the e.m.f at the ends of L, Fig. 57, and
find its
dynamo
terminals.
19]
85
Its
The
current flowing
is
40.9 amperes.
pressure
is
phase
dynamo
lagging by the
angle
19-8 tan-i-^
1
44.6
24
i'.
The
El
= 40.9
X73I-4I6 =yi284.9
is
volts.
The
factor
90 ahead of the
i'
current flowing.
Since
it
the current
is
24
behind the
dynamo
volts, is
pressure,
(90
24
I')
65 59'
Ans.
phase position relative
Solution: (a)
Ey= 2QX
40.9
{b)
=818 volts,
in
Ans.
E^
T.
J -0157^ = 40.9 X 27.17; tan->(^- -^j = II. 25, \25 IS', volts. Ans.
1 1
Check
is
dynamo
terminals
used up
r,
The sum
^1284.9
or 2000;
is
+ 818 +
1004.S
-^473-6
1822.5 +y8ii.3,
tan-* -5
1022.5
= 2000, /'24
i',
volts.
Ans.
S6
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
Prob. 32. If the generator armature, Fig.
[19
57, has resistis its
impedance
Solution:
s,
= =
A +y2;r.50'.oo8
or
4-72,
circuit,
including the
dynamo
is
e.m.f.
The
total
impedance
ohms.
Ans.
The
40.9
total
dynamo
pressure
is
53-45 /'24''4o'
Prob. 34.
= 2186,
power
to incandescent
12,000
volts pressure, 50
p.p.s.,
50' behind
the e.m.f
<()
518.4,
\25 /25
50',
amperes.
50',
ohms.
Ans.
(c)
the inductance of the circuit in the preceding problem, assuming the capacity of the line to be zero.
{a)
(<5)
466.56 ohms.
Ans.
"
7225.89 ohms.
.719 henry.
(c)
"
Prob. 36.
The "charging
current"
.2
ampere, at a pressure
into the cable
By "charging
the circuit
is
is
when
19]
LyifVS
1
OF THE ELECTRIC
CIRCUIT.
p.p.s.
87
of
What
5
is
the
2314 microfarad.
Ans.
amperes
50 micro-
through
R=
10 ohms,
r-^mm^
-A/WWh
Xalternator
-^(ny
Fig. 58.
A/wv\^
Fig. 59.
farads,
.5
frequency
its
lOO p.p.s.
is
The dynamo
resistance
is
ohm, and
inductance
.05 henry.
52.535,
\2
15', volts.
Ans.
when C
microfarads,
R=
ohms,
Z=
.5
henry, frequency
resistance
=
is
amperes.
is
The dynamo
henry.
ohm, and
137-4.
its
inductance
.
.05
/82"
40' volts.
Ans.
fmw-^^wffp^
M
Fig. 60.
TRANSFORMER
Prob. 39.
At what
an inductance of .4 henry
due to a capacity
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
of
5
[19
microfarads
The
series.
ii2.5p.p.s.
Ans.
Given: Frequency
=
i?
112.5 p.p.s.,
100 volts,
10
ohms,
{d)
Z=
.4 henry,
{a)
C=
{e)
^ microfarads.
tities:
Impedance,
c.
{b) Current,
d.
E.m.f. a to
b.
c.
E.m.f. b to
E.m.f. c to
(/) E.m.f. a to
{)
E.m.f. b to d.
Ans.
19]
89
circuit y2.55S Prob. 43. Find the voltage which would send 10 amperes
" "
" "
C L
through the
acteristics:
L" = ohms
tance.
.03
= 60 p.p.s., L' = .05 henry inductance, henry inductance, i2' = 5 ohms resistance, R" = 7
Frequency
Neglect the armature resistance and induc105.46,
resistance.
/24
10', volts.
Ans.
(Wmj\
AVWV^ h:
<a>
Fig. 63. Fig. 64.
R = $ = 20 ohms, L = .02 henry, C = 20 microfarads, frequency = 120 p.p.s. Neglect armature impedance.
64,
ohms, R'
Ans.
Prob. 45.
65) R' L'
=
I
50 ohms,
henry,
R"
= =6 C
L"
= =
35 ohms,
.5
henry,
10 mi-
rNm-mmh
c"
microfarads,
C"
50.
crofarads, p.p.s.
total
Find the
AWW<n>
Fig. 65.
ture.
356.2,
\7242', ohms.
is
Ans.
a diagram of an
electric circuit
made
go
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[19.
circuits in series.
The
"
No. "
i?
100 ohms,
2.
R'
50
"
"
.05 henry,
.1
50 m.f.
60
p.p.s.
{a)
Generator
is
o. 5
ohm.
What
?
{b)
What
When
(d)
?
the gen-
what
will
be the current
in
amperes
what
e.m.f. in volts
phase position
(/) What
of the
generator pressure
Fig. 66.
{a)
{b)
{c)
29.575,
29.678,
68.32,
{d) 2027.5,
ie)
\9 \i /9 \i
31*'.
32', 1' 31 ,
32'.
ohms.
Ans,
"
amperes.
volts.
"
'9 31^'
ahead.
(/)
i32'
1 9]
E=
(190,
Resistance
10
S,
ohms
ohms
"
Induction reactance
IS3
5^
ohms
Condenser reactance
33
I.
"
?
What
is
Solution
I :z
^^^^
16.73; 26.0,
'
I=Vi9' + 2,-S^+
i-iS'
/=
19.7s amperes;
Ans,
CHAPTER
VI.
ELECTRIC POWER.
Average power with sine-form e.m.f. and current in phase. Average power with sine-form e.m.f. and current in quadrature. 23. Average power with sine-form e.m.f. and current not in phase and not in
21. 22.
quadrature.
24.
25.
e.m.f.
and
current.
The
The function of an
exactly as a
electric
to convey
electric
power
action
is
is
mass motion.
but must
Electric
in a circuit as such,
state,
and
this, transformation
The sum
of
all
of the
consumed e.m.f.s
is,
a circuit
is
the e.m.f.
furnished
by
power.
As an
illustration,
take the
The
impressed e.m.f.
is
consumed
dynamo armatures, and in overcoming the counter e.m.f. accompanying the transformation from electrical into mechanical power in the motor, thus
including that of the motor and
accounting for
all
by the generator.
92
; ;
21]
ELECTRIC POWER.
93
elec-
The
and
electric
power which
is
being transformed in an
to the
the current.
This product
tinguish
it
may be
power to
dis-
more commonly
met
any
with.
circuit,
by
a simple
In the following
closes.
Current in Phase.
Fig. 67.
Power.
Let
eax..
= maximum value of e.m.f. maximum value of current 4iax. w = instantaneous .value of power = angle between the generating {)
of the
The
instantaneous values
power wave
will
be the
94
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[21
and
e.m.f.
sin ^)
I
= ^. 4, sin*
(49)
,
.
cos 2^
(SO)
cos 2^
;
^max. ^max.
(5^)
By
reduction,
^ = ^max. ^^max.
The power
is
^max. ^max.
'^OS 2x}
r~is
/,_\ (52)
a cosme curve of
it is
symmetrical
Z
"'"''
located a distance of
""'
above
ordi-
The average
nate of this power curve, measured from the axis of the e.m.f.
and current
axes.
is
curves,
is
By
found to be
made up
and
current.
fe)(%)=-^^'
(53) Fig. ^j
and / are
effective values of
shows the
The
and
follows
I.
currents,
when
may be
stated as
is
the prodtcct
of the
effective values
of e.m.f.
and current.
2 2] 2.
ELECTRIC POWER.
95
is
e.mf and
.
a distance equal
.
of the maximuni values of e.mf and current. 22. Case II. Average Power with Sine-form E.m.f. and
Current in Quadrature.
(Fig. 68.)
As
in
Case
the instan-
FiG. 68.
Power.
Current and
E.in.f. in
Quadrature.
w (e^^^,
= e^^^_
4,
sin
cos &.
(54)
sin
cos
&
sin 2-9
(SS)
substituting
w=
The power
'^max. "max,
sin
29
(56)
is
it is
symmetrical about
Its
average ordiis
Fig. 68
shows
the relative
circuit in
is zero.
which sine-
form
e.
m.f.
and current
are in quadrature,
96
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
23. Case III. Average
.
[23
Current neither in
Power with Sine-form E.m.f and Phase nor in Quadrature. (Fig. 69.)As
Fig. 69.
Power.
^>
^ = (^ma;t.
where
ff
sin
i&)(w.
sin {&
e))
(57)
is
As
III
is
is"
an angle always
than 90,
I
it is
and
II,
extreme cases.
As
there
is
it is
may
and that the sum of the average products of these components with the e.m.f will give the
23]
ELECTRIC POIVER.
97
The component
of
is
= W.
cos
i9
sin
i9
......
(58)
in
i"
= W.
sin
19
sin
(59)
As the quadrature product will be zero, as is shown in Case II, it may be neglected and the average power may be deduced
from Case
I.
For
this
component of
'
current,
-8
^max. sin
= ^max.
but
4ax. sin^
COS
(9
(60)
sm3
^ 0=
""
cos 2i9
^^
(61)
I
'
^max. ^max.
COS 2^ '
COS ^
^^
. .
.
(62)
w =: EI COS
(see case I)
(63)
The power transformed in any circuit in which sine-form e.m.f. and current are present is the product of the effective values of e.m.f. and current and the cosine of the angle of phase
difference between them.
To
is
name apparent power to distinguish it from the real power given in Case III. The ratio of the real to the apparent power is given the name power factor, which is, therefore equal
given the
to the cosine of the angle of phase difference
between current
and e.m.f.
considered as com-
;; ;
98
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[23
posed of two factors known as the real power and the wattless component, sometimes called the wattless power.
The
former of these
is
equal to
EI cos
the latter being
0,
EI sin
The term
9.
Power
is
z=.
w = EI cos
d
sin
in
called the
power
factor,
the equation
wattless component
is
= EI sin
power
is
transformed into
number of interesting
Let r = resistance
X = reactance s = impedance
J = symbol
by
it.
term following
^=7
Expressing current
equation (57) in components with respect to e.m.f,,
in
its
(^4)
two quadrature
Multiplying through
by
e.m.f.,
EI=EI^^jEA
(66)
24]
ELECTRIC POIVER.
99
Since
EI
is
in
it
represents no
circuit
W
value of I5S7 volts
z=
EI = EI cos
{6y)
Illustrative Problem.
A sine-form of
What
e.m.f. of a
maximum
amperes.
in the circuit
shows a
Ans.
is
24. Case IV. Average Power with Non-sine-form e.m.f. and Current. The harmonic component method of analysis
finds
an application
in
circuit in
form current.
power
in
an alternating current
circuit is the
average of the
it
equal to the
sum
of the products of
factors,
9^
ej,^
cos
^5 -j-
(68)
In a circuit where
all
of the
power
is
may be
written
(69)
general conclusion
it
all
100
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[25
desired.
power curve
in
is
As
all
in
of general
common- form of
25.
e.m.f.
An
inspection of prob-
lem 47 shows that where the impressed e.m.f. in a circuit does not have a simple sine-form and is therefore irregular the
current form
e.m.f.
is
likewise irregular.
will
The
and current
be
(70)
E = VE,^ + Ei-\-E,^+
and
/=V/i-f//H-^' +
These values are indicated
ment.
directly
(71)
power
in
watts.
Thus
for the
power equation,
(72)
Power Factor =
In the general case
-^
(73)
2S]
ELECTRIC POIVER.
is
lor
In fact there
no
Such
of
No
one
strictly speaking,
be applied to a pair of
of expression or even of
comprehension.
Power Factor
cos
d.
From
this
it
power equation
form must
be written
Wz= EI cos
^ = ^,
where E,
I,
and
W have
rent, pressure,
E=VE^^ + Ei + E^^ +
W= IE.
With
this conventional meaning of cos 6 a corresponding
and E.
in
considering / and
to be equivalent sine
waves
of current
and
sine
The
clearer
significance of equivalent
by
I02
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
illustrates
bs
which
irregular
wave
of current,
/,
differing in
E
E
and / be
EFFECTIVE
E.
M.
F.
= = =
8S. 2
VOLTS.
55.6 AMPERES,
2962.
Fig. 70.
determined
waves
be drawn
to scale in this
may be com-
The
The
25]
effective values of
ELECTRIC POfVER.
1O3
in the
diagram.
p. 57.
Power Factor
cos B =.
are
EI
-=-^.
The
equivalent
sine
waves
now determined
is
after
to be
The
0).
The corresponding
and then drawn
to
If the irregular current wave had been chosen as the one which the phase of the wave of e.m.f. is to be referred the equivalent sine wave of current would pass through zero in a
same
wave
same
direction.
From
the diagram
it
is
ward 16 degrees with respect to their corresponding irregular waves and with respect to the position at present determined
for
them in the diagram. Thus the precise meaning and significance of the equivalent In most routine practice E, I, and sine wave are made clear.
W as
E and / are
sine
irregular.
wave
leads to error
the equivalent
104
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[25
The
solution
of a
power problem
of harmonic
component
waves
EI products,
Prob. 48.
E'
(190O1
360^
+ 7O3 + 350^
this
produces a counter-e.m.f. of
-f (i6oOj
100,)
E"
-^J{is
60, 4-
10O3+
SO5).
The impedance
Resistance
3
2, '1
ohms
Induction reactance
6,
Required the
electric
E'-E"
^ /=
(23. 1^
(30O1
30.,
+ 300.0
Power equals
[(23-ii
lo.i^)!
IV=
113,680 watts.
CHAPTER
VII.
The unit of m.m.f. The m.m.f. of the ampere-turn. The conTluctor-turn, helix, and solenoid.
Magnetic reluctance.
d.
c.
/".
Magnetic permeability,
The magnetic
Saturation.
circuit.
g.
A.
Magnetization curves.
Permeability.
Effect of temperature
on permeability. on permeability.
d. Effect of impurities
on permeability.
Reluctance.
circuits,
Comparison of magnetic and electric Amount of magnetic leakage. 29. Magnetic hysteresis.
a.
6.
c.
Hysteresis.
Energy expended
in
overcoming hysteresis.
d.
e. /".
upon
hysteresis,
upon
hysteresis.
26.
a.
The Unit of Magnetomotive Force, M.m.f., the Gilbert. Symbol H. Magnetomotive force is the cause which results
105
io6
ELECTRIC/IL MACHINERY.
[26
in the production of
magnetic
flux.
By
of
Tlae
name
of this unit
the gilbert.*
The
practical
and
identical.
The
71
and throughout
-^^
Fig. 71.
H AT UNITY IS APPLIED UNIFORMLY THROUGHOUT THE CUBE. IT ESTABLISHES THROUGH THE CUBE ONE UNIT OF MAGNETIC FLUX
AT A DENSITY OF UNITY.
its
See
maxwell, Section
5,
page
13.
Ampere-turn.
In
CC
when measured
researches
straight
n
.:
of
-.^^
magnetic flux
conductor
flux
is
set
up about
it.
When
the
j^-j
is
ductor,
JC
FiG. 72.
ductor and,
therefore,
everywhere equidistant
is
from
it.
inversely pro-
Names
of 'units.
26]
MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE.
this
107
point
is
also
As
directly proportional to
constant for
infinite
length
47r
ts
gilberts.
The
value of
10
is
bj'
own
direction
is
No
molecular magnetic mechanism before the magnetic flux came The conservation of energy requires, then, that into existence.
work be done when magnetic flux is established. It requires that the amount of this work shall be equal to the product of the
tension into the distance through which the tension
is
produced.
In the field the mechanical expression for the work done in establishing a
will, therefore,
be
(;4)
w= 2n.r--^-A
where
8ar
io8
is
it
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[26
is
of the filament.
establishing
this
An
work done
in
same
flux
filament
may
also
be written.
in the conductor,
of the current.
in
amount
to the rate of
The
rate at
which work
is
done
in
field is, at
any
when
is
in
circuit equal at
The energy
of this
energy
V/hen
brought
doing
m.m.f maintains
is
comes
and
in so
potential energy
time
when the supply pressure is cut off". The energy thus taken from the circuit
field is
or restored to
it
At any
instant
dw
Eldt
(75)
Since flux density varies inversely with distance from the conductor,
2Tir
2 6]
MAGNETOMOTiyS FORCE.
109
or
where k
ductor.
is
The
flux in the
^=f
where ^
circuit.
(7^)
BA,
dw
(ve
lEdt,
{j-j)
have
dw
2nr
2'Kr
/2
Q.nr
r-.B-A-dB,
(78)
BdB=-^-A-\B\
7Tf
(79)
(79),
B^
and solving
for k,
4;r.
any concentric
circuit
one tenth
any complete
conductor carrying
or i-S^'j gilberts.
This statement
is
true
in a
plane
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
Proof: If the path does not
the conductor,
it
[26
lie in
a path perpendicular to
may be
or parallel to the
is
is
conductor.
Along the
m.m.f.
zero.
in
An
equivalent path
may
a plane
and
in their
corresponding
radii.
The m.m.f.
Let pqstp,
i.
Let
composed of
circular arcs
radial distances.
Along
the
m.m.f.
is
zero.
same
Fig. 73.
sum
of the
m.m.f.s found
is
sum
of
all
the elemental
circle,
each taken
26]
M^GNETOMOTiyE FORCE.
The m.m.f. around
Ill
the irregulaf
and
is
lO /,
where
/'is
com.pletely
around a
is zero.
is
included an even
number
total
c.
sum
If the
con-
Under these
is
repre-
"]&.
The
direction of the flux at all points about the turn, while their
proximity
is
proportional
to the
flux
density,
or B.
The
Fig. 76.
Fig. 75.
is
every-
where
alike for
any closed
circuit
The
variable nature of
112
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[26
the flux as to
amount and
direction
is
minimum
turn,
portion
at
is
by the
and
of
the
maximum
portion
is
indefinite space.
These two
varying
field of flux as
given in Fig.
If the
in Fig. yy,
it is
is
is
amount and direction of the flux is determined by the length and character of the magnetic flux circuit.
difference,
There
is this
however, to be observed.
In the case
Fig. 78.
Fig. 77.
around the conductor once^ while for the helix the closed flux
circuit
through the helix passes around the conductor as many times as there are turns in the helix. The m.m.f. exerted by
it is
many
times
When
of turns
practice
a conductor spiral
is
made up
The
it is
it is
same m.m.f.
26]
MAGNETOMOTIl/E FORCE.
113
coil.
Its
m.m.f. equals the produt of its turns and current, times 1.2^7.
a solenoid having n turns carrying I amperes, the The product nl in practice is called m.m.f. 1.2^-jnI.
in
Thus
ampere-turns.
d.
Magnetic Reluctance.
Its
Unit.
Magnetic reluctance,
It is
or
netizable region
lished
more generally reluctance, is the property of every magwhereby the amount of magnetic flux estabby a given amount
of m.m.f.
is
limited.
analogous
in
The
is
H
p
is
therefore the
e.
symbol
Magnetic Permeability.
is
generally permeability,
and
is,
therefore, analogous
Its
the
electric circuit.
value
is
B
f.
nickel,
The Magnetic Circuit. With, the exception of iron, and cobalt, no substance or material used in engineerinto the
in
ing
when brought
the other hand,
magnetic
circuit will
modify the
appreciably.
is
amount and
direction
On
when
placed in
both
in
amount and
direction.
Thus
if
a bar of
bar
at
As soon
as the
current in the solenoid ceases the bar of soft iron will cease to
114
ELECTRIC/I L MACHINERY.
[26
be a magnet.
In Fig. 79,
soft
if
the bar
NS as
AAA
AAA,
he made of
into
may
be accurately observed.
The arrangement
circuit
is
AAA
and JVS
shown
79.
By weighing
a.a.
^r<i.g.
Fig. 79.
wrought iron
is
in the
Assume
a balance.
may be weighed on
in closed circuits
The
flux
produced
is
set
up
which pass
It
The
flux set
up around
to the
any path by
constant m.m.f.
is
These
which
it
passes,
i.e.,
upon
its
permeability.
Example: In
Fig.
AAA
and
NS
is
so high that
is
quite accurate to
assume
that all the flux follows the iron path where possible,
straight from iron to iron at their gaps.
and goes
The flux
crossing the
26]
M/iGNETOMOTiyE FORCE.
is
115
air-gaps
distributed
is
sensibly equal to
AAA,
in
air-gap being
made very
in sq.
small.
Let
dynes,
/
the area of
cross-section
P^_
B>
~A~
and
'3^
/STtPxi
^=[-A-)
The
portion of the
(8)
is
m.m.f
used in putting
H^ Bl
If the
gilberts.
number
of
the
solenoid
experiment
if
is
nl ampere-turns,
or 1.257%/ gilberts.
Now
to be
m.m.f used
be
piart
little
m.m.f
of
is
consumed
be increased to
I^ in
the solenoid,
If in this
B at
way
ag
/^
will
B^.
has been
made
large
enough
to cause B^ to attain a
value above
14,000 maxwells per sq. cm., the m.m.f coniron part of the magnetic circuit,
sumed by the
m.m.fj= \.2t,TnI^
will
IB^,
....
14,000 the
(81)
be much greater
less, or
in proportion
was
B.
In
fact, for
values of
B above
soft
'
ii6
ELECTRICAL M/ICHINERY.
will
[26
wrought iron
suddenly increase
its
low value
materials.
and ordinary
densities
are
called
magnetic
To
make
soft
may
the
be used.
wrought iron
in
magnetic balance
carefully
preceding sub-section
f should
be
made.
eliminate the error due to the fringes of flux over the edges.
made
at intervals corresponding to
approximately uniform
values of
increments of current.
The corresponding
and
and
(81).
by the length
circuit,
magnetic
thus
consumed
centimetre length.
are platted with
'
These values
'
sheet steel
'
wrought iron
electrical
is
for
steel.
called a
B-ff
curve.
It
steel
B=
80,000
The B-ff
now customary
For engineering purposes in the United States, and maxwells per square inch
for
B-H
values
centimetre.
i.e.,
The
B-H values
in Fig.
80
may
be reduced to the
system,
system of values, by dividing the valuesby 6.45, the number of square centimetres in a square inch, and the .^values by
to the gilbert-maxwell-centimetre
gilberts in
an ampere-turn.
26]
M/IGNETOMOTiyE FORCE.
MAXWELLS PER SQUARE
INCH.
117
0=
'S
Ii8
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
in.
[26
per sq.
per inch
Above 80,000 per sq. in. the m.m.f. consumed length increases much more rapidly in proportion to
in.
no longer
remains
uniformly
small.
For values
up
above
80,000 the
105,000,
to the value
B ==
which there
is
The
B-H curve
above
this point
nearly to a straight
line.
This
ultimately becomes
may
be drawn
magnetic
flux, B^^^, in
maxwells per
in
This relation
//"=
B^^^,
approximately
B^l.^gH^C,
where
is
B-H
curve
above the
H-B^j,^ curve, or
it
represents the
it
becomes saturated.
h.
Saturation.
magnetic material
is
said
to be
saturated when
it
already
mag-
To
Iron
may be
by much smaller
forces.
The
knee
' '
of the
B-H
27]
MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE.
is
119
curve
of
' '
H ^ 40.
for
This
is
a region
approaching saturation,
'
and
for practical
purposes the
large
iron
may
this point, as
increases in
comparatively small
increases in B.
when
in this
condition as saturated
an abrupt change
its
magnetic
behavior
is
susceptibility
has
if it
its
very
much
as
were
in fact saturated.
a.
Permeability.
induction
is
the
B-H
if
Conversely, also,
line,
B-H
is
not a straight
air
for
that material
not constant.
For
>" is
and
except
iron, nickel,
and
cobalt,
relations
for the
between
/^
and
for the
"sheet
Fig. 81.
S2OOO
o
Siooo
>
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
rapidly to a value from which
nitely.
it
[27
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
H
Fig.
8ifl.
IN
Strongly Magnetized.
as obtained
applied per
centimetre
The
permefound at
change
in temperature.
Very remarkable
effects are
high temperatures.
The
10,000
9,000
'
^7]
MAGNETOMOTiyE FORCE.
force of
ff =
=^ a, and curve C with curve .5 with //"= gilberts per centimetre length of the 4$, where wrought iron. In each case the permeability falls to about
=.:
.3,
With
much
,000.
The
rod
it
changes
of iron
is
is
'
critical
temperature
;
' '
there
is
a sudden
in
so
marked
redness.
of
" recaiescence."
At
Effect of Physical
Treatment on
is
Permeability.
The
has re-
are
tending
such
as
a.
1,000
Any
process of hardening
decreases
the permeability.
The
curves
and
Curve
is
taken
Fig.
electrical
4.1
of
Anneal
.^^^
Permeability of
same sample
d.
after
thorough annealing.
Almost
all
im-
122
purities in iron
ELECTRIC/IL MACHINERY.
[28
its
have a detrimental
effect
upon
permeability.
Some
are of a
character
than others.
Combined carbon
present in
injurious.
particularly
silicon,
bad.
Manganese, nickel,
chromium, tungsten,
when
also
more than
ordinarily
amounts,
are
difficult to
weight to each.
It
many
substances
may
be present
permeability.
by
either.
also
The mechanical character of irons and steels is improved or harmed by the presence of impurities. The
is
The
as to
engineer, therefore,
who
steels
must make a judicious use of the impurities so produce a good foundry and machine-shop material and and
irons
it
yet have
Modern manufacturers
'
'
electrical
'
iron
and
It is
steel
which are
possible,
fairly
not
steel, or
iron, exactly, in
advance of a
test,
and
different
samples from
same
may show
a.
Reluctance.
The
symbol
magits
netic flux
through
is
it
its
reluctance.
Specific
reluctance
is
and
p
*
.
is to
An
excellent
paper on
this subject
be found in
28]
MAGNETOMOTiyE FORCE.
specific
123
is
The
reluctance
for
any material
the
magnetic
We
is
may
similar to
Ohm's law
Flux
M.m.f.
Reluctance
The
tional to
any path
is
inversely proporits
length.
Thua
is
and cross-section
(82)
for the
magnetic
circuit
becomes
Flux
whicfi
is
=z
=^
m.m.f.J
ixA
....
"X.
it is
(83)
necessary to
know, or
as the value of
b.
depends upon
this.
netic circuit to
differs
Comparison of Magnetic and Electric Circuits. A magwhich the relations just given may be applied,
electric circuit, for
from the
of current.
for
On
flux.
an
insulator-
magnetic
The
a permeability
little less
than unity.
It is, therefore,
impossi-
We
may, indeed,
but a
field
of greater or less
and extending
to
an
surround
124
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
In Fig. 84
is
[28
shown the magnetic circuit of an early and dynamo. The useful magnetic flux
I.
:^^
I
Fig. 84.
lies
^^
in
the
path,
A AAA,
is
leakage" or "stray"
field,
which
in this type of
machine
often amounts to
c.
Amount of Magnetic Leakage. It is often necessary to estimate the amount of leakage which will occur in air between iron surfaces, when a m.m.f. acts across the intervening space.
It is
it is,
illustrations.
The
its
average length in
its
centimetres divided
^^5?
cross-section,
IJ
Fig. 85.
<
A,
a
Fig. 86.
h
Fig. 87.
measured
in
square centimetres
In Fig. 85 this
is
simply
A'
in Fig.
86
A,+A^.
it is
29]
MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE.
I2S
Fig. 87, ab, and cd, the approximate path of the flux may be sketched to scale and the average length and area of the path
estimated, f29. Magnetic Hysteresis. . Hysteresis. li a ring of iron is magnetized by a steadily increasing force, and this force
is
it
is
B-H curves
curve taken
in
not coincide.
force
is
The
B-H
while
magnetizing
lies
decreasing
(See Fig.
and
3.)
is
When
the
magnetizing force
induction
removed the
fall
does not
to zero.
in
changes
induction
do
not correspond
to
Fig. 88.
This la^-
.bringing
the force
H to
zero
it
is
again steadily
with
increased, the
either
resulting
B-H
magalter-
netism
are
c.
Fig. 88.
In Fig. 89
shown
and H, when
is
It is to
When
magnetized
by an alternating current the magnetizing force is not only The increased and decreased but is reversed in direction.
cyclic relation between
B and
ior a
manner
oi H.
b.
is
shown
in Fig. 90.
shown, giving
Hysteresis.
It
has
126
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
in a
[29,
magnetic
field.
field
up while a current
is
when
it
decreases.
If
the
+B
Fig. 89.
field as
was
does
If the field
it
wholly or partly
in iron or other
magnetic material,
when the current that established it The energy required to establish the
circuit.
To demagnetize
in
the
traced and
expended.
It is obvious, then,
definite quantity of
29]
electrical
MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE.
127
hysteresis.
c.
Energy Dissipated
in
/,
Hysteresis.
Suppose
by a
to be magnetized
of n turns uniformly
coil
wound upon
it.
be great
in
comparison with
H may be uniform
throughout.
Let
dB.
The
an amount
This induces
dB
a counter-e.m.f., nAr-.
dt
is
If
ihe the
is IA,
nidB
-.
IS
.The magnetizmg
r force,
4'f
cm.,
is
-j,
when
is in
work becomes
dW= HdB.
W = ^fHdB = ergs
as the energy expended per
tion.
cu.
(84)
cm.
is
~
where
fndB,
(85)
is
by one complete
cycle of magnetization.
The
value of /
HdB
taken
is
This area
therefore, proportional to
128
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[29
In Fig.
Curve a
is for
by
stretching,
and curve b
after
is
thorough annealing
greater.
Note that
work done
cycle
is
same
limits in
Note
also that
These
facts actually
go together.
by temperature.
little'
For
all
change takes
less,
At higher temperatures
fifth
these losses
grow
reach-
to
one tenth of
29]
MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE.
Above
800''
129
irons lose their
neighborhood of 700" C.
magnetic properties.
C.
have served no
with time.
This process
Whenever
electrical
machinery the
is
sought.
for
As
these
losses
much
sheets
may
hysteresis loss.
treatment
in
minimum aging
Above
consists
ture.
This temperature
is
about 900 C.
that tem-
must
always be
built
up out of sheets
to avoid
eddy current
losses.
The aging
of actual use.
high permeability electrical steel sheets annealed from the highest temperature do not age much when not subjected to a
higher operating temperature in the machinery or apparatus
than 60
C,
if
the operating
temperature
is
The
following
of results
given
by
Parshall
and
show the
effects of
annealing and
13
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[29
Time
in
Hours.
29]
hysteresis.
M/tGNETOMOTIVE FORCE.
'31
The
is
The right-hand
B
sa.oM.
16,000
132
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
rf
[S"
where
units
steel.
cu. in.,
is
by the system
of
sq.
77
in.
The
Poor
highest quality
001
0015
The
law:
lost
cti.
in.
maximum
Watts
30.
lost
-""^S
30.0'-10,
1000
100
^^^
^^^_
Swing's Theory
of
Magnetism.
Weber
suggested
forces.
This
magnet under the influence of such forces. Weber, Maxwell, and others have suggested theories, based on this one as
fundamental,
etc.
to
account
for
hysteresis,
the
B-H
relation,
These
resistance,
effects of stress,
by assuming nothing
frfee
to turn.
He
each other
is
phenomena.
3]
M/IGNETOMOTIVE FORCE.
133
The theory
(See Fig. 93.)
is
as follows
The
small magnets,
when not
is
forces,
When
-- \
-^ -> /
H=0
\\
/ /
^^
a
^X
b
f \
Fig. 93.
to a group the individual molecules turn slightly in the direction of that force..
removed,
B-H curve.
be applied, a point
is
If a stronger force
around, forming
a general aligning
tendency
individual
in
the
This
B-H
curve,
where a small
in-
crease in
H causes
is
If the
outside force
removed during
magnets
do not return
more or
If,
less strongly
magnetized.
(See curve
b,
Fig. 94c.)
after the original
newly
magnets composing
134
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
are already turned
L30
them
force.
more
nearly
indefinitely increased,
an
infinite force
make them
each other.
B-H
H=0
\
t
t
t f
t
t
/
\
/
\
t
t
\
I
t
!
31]
MAGNETOMOriyE FORCE.
135
in iron
B-II curve.
On
bringing the
bar
in
still
little
94^),
in
mag-
The
magnets grouped
themselves as shown in Fig. 94c, which corresponds to the lower end of the curve
i>
in Fig. 88.
if
Thus
any angle
energy,
iron
it is
seen that
is
made
swing through
own
positions,
and
in this
swinging dissipate
all
the essential
phenomena by Ewing's
of magnetic induction in
theory.
When
most of
proximately
By
through
this
Prob.
49.
when
the
induction
is
290,000 maxwells.
136
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[31
Bar
AAA,
iron.
The
is
given
by the formula
is
B-H
curves of Fig.
by
B and B
'
H to
in the expression
square
40.6
61,-
=
=
is
210
58
.006256; ^
'
^35
^i
"Tq5^
the
-010948.
of these, or .017966.
The
total reluctance
sum
Ans.
Prob. 50.
How many
.''
magnetic
tion
circuit of
may
be set up
Solution:
M.m.f.
.017966
290,000
are
5210
gilberts.
M.m.f.
.AfTt
5210
I-2S7
414s ampere-turns. ^
Ans.
Prob. 51.
How many
3i]
-.^"
MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE.
10,000 maxwells per
sq. inch.
in sq.
137
Solution:
cm. correspond to
64,500 per
From
Total
ampere-turns
in steel are
16
15
= =
240.
30
290
8700.
in gilberts is
.01094
580,000
6345,
which reduces
to
6345
5047 ampere-turns.
The
total
240
8700
+ 5047 =
is
13,987 ampere-turns.
Ans.
The
Prob. 52.
What
shown
when
is
5000 maxwells
per sq.
cm..''
Solution:
Pull in dynes
AB =-=
=
57,600,000.
,,
Pull
m
.
pounds ^
57,600,000
445. 000
129.4
lbs.
Ans.
Prob.
53.
In Fig. 84 the
"leakage coefficient"
in the
is
1.4.
armature
must be produced, the remainder forming the leakage field. -How many ampere-turns must be wound on the vertical cores.
138
ELECTRIC/IL MACHINERY.
in order that
[31
A A,
wells
may
be produced
The
A A,
Armature
sq. in.
Air-gap, double
length
8 in.
Solution:
The approximate
This
is
as
Yoke, length 28
in.,
in.
in.
Armature
total induction of
maxwells are
in the cores
up
in the air-gaps
That
may
will
pole-pieces
The
sq. in.
" "
46,000
87,500
"
" "
"
"
The corresponding
length of each part are
3i]
MAGNETOMOTIVE
FORCE.
139
In cast-steel yoke, 25
28
X 32 X lO
18
= = = X ii-8 =
=
3,680
120
354
46,000
5-^
The
1.
2.54
^^^
=17^
21,854.
Total ampere-turns
Prob. 54.
is
Ans.
centimetre.
How much
m.m.f., in gilberts,
is
required to
?
Ans.
A cast-steel ring,
one foot
is
in
subjected to a magnetizing
By means
81,000 maxwells.
Ans.
magnetic
density
is
when
the induction
Determine also
Fig. 96.
Fig. 97.
Reluctance .17089.
10,678 ampere-turns.
* These curves
will
Ans. "
140
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
131
shown
will
in Fig. 97.
The
ring
is
."
of cast iron.
How much
ilux
220,800 maxwells.
Ans.
is
The
made
How many
ampere-turns must
?/Rounii
Rod
*<2^
3'J
MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE.
141
a keeper or armature.
With a m.m.f.
CHAPTER
VIII.
and
field.
fields.
Polyphase quantities.
The
1.
rotating magnetic
Pivot
fields.
fields.
fields.
2.
Cylinder
33.
By means
of two-phase currents,
of three-phase currents.
By means
d.
fields.
field.
35.
magnetic
fields.
Limited number of phases employed. The cylinder fields formed by two- and three-phase currents fluctuate. Rotating cylinder fields produced by two-phase currents.
Rotating cylinder
fields
d.
32.
In
modern
made
of two,
and
its
Polyphase
is
in use.
The
and
phase, four-phase,
etc.
Polyphase e.m.fs,
currents,
magnetic
fields are
32]
143
fields
they establish
fields
in engineering.
by means of the following illustrations that rotating magnetic fields and their components afford. b. The Hotating Magnetic Field. Rotating magnetic fields as applied in engineering occur in two classes, which may be
pivot field
may
be any single
the
or other mobile
medium wherein
field
made
to revolve
and
In Fig.
02 the circular
coil
show.
When
the coil
is
correspondingly
stationary
coil
and constant.
through
its
If the
be
own
field
plane
and
centre of the
of flux, so
Such a
field, in
what-
y\q.
102.
Model
field.
of
Rotating Pivot
Field.
144
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
fields
[3*
and of negative
Fig. 103.
The
is
is
stationary and
The
Upon
it
in
through slip-rings
is
as indicated.
The
When
mounted
and the
fields of flux
they pro-
fields are
by means of alternating currents, as will be shown later. The particular model above used has but little application. It has
been introduced here
precisely
for
what
is
33]
ROTATING MAGNETIC
33.
FIELDS.
US
Components
of the
field
Any
may
of axes.
When
rotates
its
components remain
If the
field
stationary in position
rotates uniformly,
it
and alternate
in value.
will
alter-
more convenient
to study
components
into
components
of. its
In
Fig. 104
let
(5
be a uniform
field
Fig. 104.
may
be assumed
was
CC
The
field at that
point
is
The
horizontal
component
cos B
ox
of this field
is
sin
(^+3.
146
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
vertical
[34
and the
component
is
#
Suppose the
0'
sin d.
iield
$ be
rotated so as to
The
horizontal
make
ponents will
now be
^
<?
+ J),
It is
vertical
components
When
and
vertical
components of such
simple fixed
fields
a.
By means
carrying
of Two-phase Currents.
current which sets up a
tion
is
In Fig.
field
102
is
shown a
coil
When
change of
there
relative density
and
same.
At
uniform in amount
field set
and
direction.
Keeping these
and
facts in
mind, the
up
may be
studied.
These
coils
2 are circular in
common
i
.
An
alternating current
is
set
up through
coil
In
34]
ROTATING MAGNETIC
FIELDS.
147
in Strength
to
and
in
These
densities given in
maximum
and
vary as
will
and B^
vary as sines and be exactly equal to the horizontal and ver00000 00000 00000 OOOOO
148
b.
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[34
By Means of Three-phase
Currents.
In Fig.
;
106 three
coils, Nos. I, 2, and 3, are mounted about a common centre and spaced with symmetry 120 apart. Assume that an alter-
that such
currents are equal and that they differ in phase from each other
by
120.
Each
nating
field
centre.
The
The
This
field
rotating at
uniform velocity
at 120, such
is
up
in this
way
components
identical in char-
acter
The
field is easily
determined, since
at
it is
three fields
any
instant.
The
resultant
root of the
sum
hori-
B^ sin
e,
BjSin
B^
(^+
120),
sin (9 4- 240),
where
34]
ROTATING MAGNETIC
Coil
FIELDS.
it
149
will then
No.
is
and 3 will establish and B^, 120 and 240 remote from B^, and B^
coils 2
The
as
shown
in Fig. 106.
The
therefore be
sin 120 sin
B^
sin {0
sin {d
-\.
120)
240 ^3
240)
be
(i9
240)
The sum
.866^2 sin [0
120)
.866^3 sin {6
+ 240),
^B^
sin [6
The
Rotating
B=
{.S66\B^
+
B^
[5jSin(9-
On
substituting
any
particular value of 6
and denoting
=
c.
B^
B^ by ^max. we have
Rotating
B=
i.S-^^ax.-
Practical
application
of the pivot field is made occasionally where the components The forming the same differ in amount and phase position.
fields also
when note
is
made
of the fact that the values of B^, B^, etc., are different in
15
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
that they have their
[SS
amount and
^j. ^2, etc.
own
different
phase positions,
But
in
a limited analysis
air
field
fi-ee
or a
homo-
geneous medium.
There
is
little
need
in
engineering for
fields established
completely in
for
Such
fields
demonstrational experiments.
The
more
useful in engineer-
fields.
Components
103
in a
Magnetic Field.
and
In
each
coils
Fig.
mounted
Assume
will
in
to
which
have a circumferential
in posi-
sine waves.
that the inner core, coils, and field are revolving at a uniform
field
of the rotating
this the
here specified.
To
assist in
accomplishing
cyHnder
field
The
field.
Assume
that the
3S]
ROTATING MAGNETIC
is
FIELDS.
in Fig.
151
direction of rotation
107
from
left
to right.
the development of
and
are identical.
As
wave runs
field is
B it
simultaneously appears at
This cylinder
distribution.
Fig. 107.
Field.
The components
rotating field
which such a
may
by
of
coils
carrying
and
mounted
sym-
metrically side
To make
this clear
assume the
actual case where nine circuits form nine sets of coils, each
On
and
the cylinder.
in
which
mounted.
AA'BB' is
a por-
are mounted.
its
As
this
diagram
way
many
times as
152
ELECTRIC/IL MACHINERY.
L35
cylinder
field.
terminal ends
8,
of these
circuits
3', 4',
are
S',
2,
3, 4,
5, 6, 7,
and
9,
and
i',
2',
and
9'.
applied
is
called an inductor.
are to be
1^
2
3
35]
ROTATING MAGNETIC
FIELDS.
153
This distinc-
tion
is
made
which the
is
mounted.
It is also
necessary to
occupied
Fig. 109. Formation of a Uniform Sine- wave Rotating Cylinder Field by Means of a Polyphase Arrangement of Circuits and Currents.
To do
this the
circuit
is
As
of the
developed section
109.
AB
is
CD
along the
154
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[35
The
two
cores
is
^C
or
BD.
It is
It is
customary to refer
The
interval
is,
therefore, 20.
To
These cur-
must be
alike in periodicity
differ in
ferential
circuits.
must, therefore,
phase by
which they
exist.
A comprehensive diagram
circuits,
and currents
is i^,
given in Fig.
no.
The
nine sine
waves of current-time
of one current
have been
length
If the
wave
in this
may
circuits
which the
distinguish
To
marked prime.
Frqm
in
is
this
diagram one
may obtain
in
any
circuit at
any
instant.
It
know from
and signs
be deter-
fields
they establish
may
mined.
This has been done for ten different instants, and the
values of the currents and their direction across the core have
been recorded
10.
3S]
ROTATING MAGNETIC
FIELDS.
it
155
is
In order to note the m.m.f. of a circuit the value of the current and
It is
its
necessary that
known.
know whether
156
tors
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[35
when
it
will pass
heavy-bodied type.
through
its
from rear to
The
are alike,
inductor and
itself
in the
diagram be selected
for the
by these
polyphase
The
the nine current waves, and the distances from these intercepts
to the axis of the
moment
are
all
negative.
The
therefore minus
in black.
The next series of nine inductors are negative, through which when negatively directed currents are passed a positive direcThe currents in these nine tion across the core results.
negative inductors have the same values as in their correspond-
fore
always given
With
this
made up
1
=
9
o
1'
any polar
4'
5'
8'
9'
00
34
64
t
87
I
98
98
87
64
34
00
34
64
87
98
98
87
64
i
34
When
^circuits
has
increased from o to
The
currents
and
35]
ROTATING MAGNETIC
FIELDS.
157
have there-
fore
1
become
2
3
34
00
34
4 64
1'
3'
3'
4'
5'
6'
7'
8'
9'
87
98
98
87
64
34
00
34
64
87
98
98
87
64
In precisely this
tions
their direc-
may be
determined
The
table
venient intervals up to
The
results-
taken at any
The
as in this case,
i.e.,
a regular for-
ward movement
of the positive
The
field
m.m.f s has
6, 7, 8, 9,
been determined
to the instant
1',
5,
2',
3',
and
4'
in a negative
direction
The
have current
in
in a positive
direction
The
current-
field is
pre-
same
Over the
These
or negative inductors.
circuits within the
The ampere-turns
set until
the
minimum
centres.
The
been
iS8
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[35
This curve
Its
is
a sine
wave and
is
is
labelled ampere-in-
ductors.
maximum
value
which
lie
on either side
maximum have
'
100
in
sin (4
20)
98.48,
or 98 as put
down
the table.
the
The m.m.f. exerted about the inductors will be given by sum of the inductor-currents included within each closed
circuit
magnetic
These sums
.are
35]
ROTATING MAGNETIC
FIELDS.
159
for
above
table,
and the
results
wave
/
The wave
is
drawn
4.
As
move
pro1
shown
in
10.
As
move forward
the flux
waves they
move
This
been traversed
so
by each wave.
inductors.
Then
itself indefinitely
Thus
it is
static structure
a rotat-
ing magnetic
is
form and character as the rotating field established in the mechanically operated model as described in connection with
Figs. 103 and 107.
A
wave
lishes
it
The wave
has for
its
ampere-inductors taken
the characteristics
general case wherein the rotating cylinder field is formed by any number of polyphase currents having a symmetrical phase and inductor displacement may now be determined.
Let
/max.
be the
maximum
currents
n, their
number;
l6o
a, the
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[35
number
circumferentially
/, the frequency of the currents
/,
formed
in
the
In the above example each circuit ended after traversing the circumference of the core once.
These
circuits
might have
been made
when
of
by one inductor
space.
number of inductors
negative
collection of inductor-currents
where Ij
is
The maximum
H=
lo
an
y_
7t
""
max.
is
negative inductor-currents.
The sum
of such must be
7t
and
TMs
turns
.
is
ampere-
3S]
ROTATING MAGNETIC
It follows, therefore, that the
FIELDS.
161
maximum
m.m.f. in gilberts
is
The maximum
will
be
Rotating ^.
=H 2l^
Ti^nl^^,
(88)
Rotating
b.
B.^^,
It
(rotating B^^^).
(8g)
Terminology of Polyphase
Currefits
The
wave
length.
The
appears,
then, that there were applied here nine phases having neigh-
of one
eighteenth
period.
It
is
customary to
call
phase
eighteenthposition from the others, are employed. The term phased current" states that the associated currents have an interval phase difference of one eighteenth period, leaving one
to infer from general
used.
i62
ELBCTRIC/1L MACHINERY.
fact
:
[3^
is
Any wave
of current
the equiva-
half period or
is
i8o
sent
remote from
through the
direction.
in
circuit
This
is
by reversing the
ter-
and then
means
of a nine-phase current.
will
As
be seen
in
does not always mean that the currents have the one2nth period
of phase displacement.
Often, as where
3,
phase
a one
is
apt to refer to three equal alternating quantities having period of phase displacement.
jd
The term
n-phase,
may have
period.
On
etc.,
means that
one-
half n
Fields.
Magnetic Cylinder
a.
The
of
requirements
simplicity in practice
limit
the
number
oifour and
six.
36]
ROTATING MAGNETIC
FIELDS.
163
many circuits
number
b.
of phases
employed
as stated above.
The Cylinder Fields Formed by Two- and Three-phase Currents Fluctuate. In the above illustration of the formation
of
a.
by means
the
sum of
The
is
thus
established remains
larger the
is
The
number
of
the established
Where
in
m.m.f.
The
total
form
c.
it
rents.
1 1 1
is
given a diagram of
field.
Under
all
circum-
is
called a
winding.
In the winding of Fig.
1 1 1
circuits
Thus
the
in alternate
first
The
2, 3, 7, 8, 9,
13,
14,
IS, etc.,
164
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
circuit passes
[36
As
36]
ROTATING MAGNETIC
FIELDS.
165
To
der
are
maximum
field
mounted
winding
like that
given in Fig.
1 1
1,
the wave
may
These
The maximum
when one
is
value of the
density occurs
when
maximum.
been plotted from the values
zero and the other maxi-
B has
when
mum.
The
own
method employed
for
con-
be
The
^ax. sin
sin
(90)
22=^.ax.
(;ir
--^j
(91)
The
flux
wave
B was
traced for
'
>
-max. ^^
^=
when
i^
135,
sin
135=
+ -707,
|)
2;=sin (135
= + .707,
8
3
.707
3
.707
4
.707
5
.707
6
.707
10
11
18 etc.
.707
.707
.707
.707
.707
.707
.707 "
66
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[36
traced
when
all
values had
moved forward
= =
sin 180
0.0,
sin
180
-j
=+
i.o,
12
I
etc.
would be established
Owing
always con-
always
less
By
in
and B'.
values of
The maximum
Rotating B^^^_
Rotating B'^^,
Since
Sin 45
their ratio
is
.707
=-^-,
is
^2.
36]
ROTATING MAGNETIC
FIELDS.
167
and flux
It is
of the
maximum
up
ampere-
The
value of
H in equation (87) H =^ 10
is
ani. max.*
71
and
in
ampere-turns
i68
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
I36
by
B and
may
also be
made.
and ^'
=^t.av.
^t.
av.
From
these values
it is
seen that
The average rotating cylinder flux established by a twophase current fluctuates over a range of ten per cent during each
eighth
cycle.
is
slightly less than the equation for the general polyphase circuit
In
The
value of
is
I^
just the
= an=
6,
same
as applied in the
Thus
the winding
three-phase currents.
formed by the two- and These are the two forms of polyphase
must separate the less as the^numStated in another way, the difference is due to ber of phases in use is increased. the rectangular irregular deviations from the sine form wherein only the outer corners are to be found on the edges of the sine wave to which they belong. With a large number of phases this difference must, therefore, entirely disappear.
is
* This difference
due
The
effect
grows
36]
ROTATING MAGNETIC
For the three-phase
FIELDS.
169
maximum
of the cur-
when one
at its
PHAfiP
1
maximum and
_^
170
ELECTRICAL MACHJNERY.
This
is
[3^
The
Thus
current i'"
its
is
shifted in
reversing
i'"
is
applied.
becomes
sin [x
-j-j,
]
; .
(95)
sin
(.ir
(96)
i"
the
three-phase, one-third-phased
current becomes
a three-
by the equations
(97)
4,ax. = ^ax. =
sin
jr,
h
4
sin (jr
-],
(98)
4ax. sin (^
y)
(99)
2,
8,
14, 16,
3, 5.
9.
IS.
'7-
4,
6,
10,
12,
".
18,
An
half
be
maximum and
X
maximum when
210,
36]
ROTATING MAGNETIC
FIELDS.
171
in
Assume
>
when
= = =
sin
210
.5,
sin (210 in
-^) = +.S,
j
sin (^210"
3
-f- i-O,
will
5
I
be
6
I
3-4
.5
7
.5
8
.5
9
.$
10
-S
11
I
13, etc.
I,
Currents
.5.5
etc.
in
Fig. 112
is
laid
down by means
(97), (98),
of these
and
(99)
shows
will
be zero
240.
The
= = =
sin
240
i
?2
sm
27r\
j
sin \^240
= +
.866,
1334 56789
of these values the rotating flux
will
be
10
11 .866
13, etc.
.866
By means
down.
wave has
b.een laid
The
that values of
identical.
ai-e
This
done
for
convenience only.
From
these
172
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[36
curves and the general formulse applicable to this case the fol-
lowing results
3.464
r^"^^^
2
3.732.
12
A^ max. by
^av.
B'.,
eq. (87)
anl^^_
1^
A^
av.
by
eq. (89)
it
From
follows that
TAe average rotating cylinder flux established by a threephase current fliectiiates over a range of about one per cent during each twelfth cycle. The average rotating cylinder flux thus established
indicates should be the
is
slightly less than the equation for the general polyphase circuit
case*
CHAPTER
IX.
THE ELECTROSTATIC
FIELD.
The
field
of electrostatic
flux.
G.
38.
The
electrostatic corona.
tt.
i.
c.
Break-down
test of a
lead-covered cable.
The
use
electricits
current circuit.
in
has
little
beyond
without
electrostatic
indicating
it is
or
measuring instruments.
applied;
its
Indirectly,
however,
universally
service
definite
no
The
has,
There
netic field.
fact that
The cause of this lack of experience is due to the we make so little direct use of electrostatic actions.
practical concern that the electrostatic field usually
173
The most
174
gives
is
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
L^7
formed
is
common phenom-
enon of arcing.
Prior to the use of high-pressure alternating currents for the
little
real diffi-
in
on the
up to 2000
volts.
Later,
when
made
to use
alternating pressures of
difficulties
In overcoming
field
produced by alternating
In Fig.
11 2,
and
some source
Fig. 113.
in discs
is
mounted a
plate of glass
as shown.
On
and
an electrostatic
be established
figure
in density
lines.
by the curved
lines thus
used to represent
the electrostatic
of flux
is
37]
THE ELECTROSTATIC
FIELD.
175
to represent
drawn
of flux.
and
number
in a unit cross-section,
rate of occurrence,
flux density.
electric pres-
are dielectrics.
The
electrostatic field
is
strain
produced
in the dielectric
The
strain is distributed
its
everywhere
in
application
any route whatsoever. 'Such a strain about conductors between which there
tial
in the dielectric
is
media
a difference of poten-
The
quantitaas that
precisely the
same
of m.m.f.
amount of current must pass for a In other and more conventional phraseology, definite time. quantity or charge of 'electricity must be applied to a definite
electrostatic flux, a definite
the dielectric.
dielectric,
a counter-electromotive force
to
is
formed
in it that is
i.e.,
proportional
the
current strength
and
passing.
So small
is
is
ordinarily
that is equal and opposite to the impressed or actuating e.m.f. that this process for most practical purposes may be assumed to
176
ELECTRlCy4L M/iCHINERY.
[37
occur instantaneously.
On
which
tric
is
the dielec-
Of so
in
little
importance
and so
phenomenon
when
it
is
subjected to an
it is
the general
some iking
For example,
we
we say
that a positive
dielectric of the
condenser
face
The
no current only
after a time-inte-
Informing
produced
this counter-e.m.f.
is
in the dielectric.
This
it
to cause
to rupture.
energy
is
used in an
amount equal
faces of
through
By uniting the
dielectric with
is
established.
The amount
of
is
owing
The
follows
An
e.m.f. will
37]
is
THE ELECTROSTATIC
in the dielectric
FIELD.
177
e.in.f.
formed
This
circuit
to
the
changing.
electrostatic
is
changing the
always closed
in a
manner
The magnetic
is
made up
of
The
electrostatic
circuit
is
through a conductor.
in
It follows,
one part of an
electrostatic
definite rate of
change of
the circuit.
not changing.
is
The reason
changing
is
when
not
due to the
fact that in
magnetism there
in
is
nothing
conductor
electrostatics.
in
That
magnetism would
respects.
is
The analogy
example,
in the
is
not complete in
circuit
many minor
For
magnetic
when
the m.m.f.
removed
The
trans-
energy stored
is
when
the e.m.f.
is
removed
The
is
is
considered
density
is
field
flux
The
own.
178
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[37
the e.m.f. was produced, the electrostatic field of flux will dis-
it is
constituted
field.
not disappear
closed
It will
remain as a
circuit, partially
is
upon
itself
no operating means
energy.
The
electrostatic field
is,
is
dielectric, that
a non-conducting medium.
The
air is
the
which
all
immersed.
The
by
Solid
and
more permeable
for electro-
static flux
is,
than
air,
That
at a given e.m.f.
gaseous dielectrics.
K,
is
static
flux that
is
established through
air
to
that
established
e.m.f.s.
through
at
corresponding
dimensions and
' '
electrostatic flux
through a
dielectric flux.
k,
is
The
Dielectric
Flux Constant,
the
number
of
dielectric
faces.
volt
is
1.122
lO"^^ joules.
one half
the
final
pressure,
it
follows that
the
number of coulombs
37]
THE ELECTROSTATIC
air
FIELD.
179
per volt
is
amount
The
is
of energy in joules.
Dielectric
This makes
k,
Flux Constant,
io~*^ coulombs.
equal to 2.244
^kE^,
(100)
where
is
dielectric.
D = kE
d.
(loi)
is
The
definitions,
the following
tables of
K
Name
of Dielectric.
Specific Inductive Capacity.
Dielectric Flux ConJoules of Energy stant for Inch Cube stored per Inch Cube Volt, to be multiat one Volt per inch, to be multiplied plied by 10 '3.
by
10
".
Vacuum
Air
hard, old hard, new hard, 13 extra dense flint lowest value Porcelain Shellac
Glass, Glass, Glass, Glass, Glass,
I
.9996
6.96
2.236 2.244
15.6
1. 1.
118 122
7,8
3"
IS
4.4 2.74
3 2.12
Wax
Olive
oil
Turpentine
Sperm
oil
4-95 3-07 3-37 2-37 3,02 2,52 2,25 2,08 3-46 2.52
'
2. II
2.17
i8o
ELECTRIC/1 L M/tCHlNERY.
[38
Name
of Dielectric.
38]
THE ELECTROSTATIC
FIELD.
l8l
electrode and streamers are drawn in solid black, and the~ homogeneous corona, wherever it is seen to develop, is drawn by means of the broken-line shading. In looking at this phenomenon the eye sees many more streamers at any one
instant than really exist.
The
The
many more
In Fig.
Fig. 114.
drawn much
any one
instant.
The
about 8
10 inches.
Occasionally a pair
of streamers, one on either side, will build out to the edge of the plate.
circuit, in
They
will
unite,
loud report.
volts
On
many
Finally
will
Such
an arc places a continuous short-circuit between the electrodes This is promptly stopped by and, therefore, upon the source.
the circuit-breaker in the primary of the high-pressure trans-
82
ELECTRIC/IL MACHINERY.
[3S
former.
alternating periodicity.
If the
is
maintained at
On examining
The
the
puncture critically
rather than
is
The
One
is
By
homogeneous
be seen that
It is
is
corona
it
will
easily
enor-
an
effort is
made
to apply a pressure
between the
elec-
astonished
for
a mere instant
it
to
In
fact,
is
quite
pressure
to
break
down
this
thickness
of
glass
immediately.
is
great
115.
on one
wound back
and occa-
and
the intervals
amount
38]
THE ELECTROSTATIC
is
FIELD.
183
but ^ inch.
An
alternating pressure of
coating.
applied between the wire and the Corona and streamers will form over the
is
now
most
prolific fashion.
loud
complex note
about
is
ampere
at a
power
GLASS PLATE.
.^IRE
Fig.
115.
this
will
strike first
is
The
plate
Thus
one
is
supply the streamers and the corona, one finds that these
streamers form
When
through the
air,
84
ELECTRICAL M/tCHINERY.
[38
is
nomenon.
tended.
density
is
Thus
in effect the
ex-
On
of potential through
is
so lowers
no longer ruptured.
The temperature coefficient of the corona as a conductor is As the corona broadens, the least resistance for the passage of current to its outlying districts will occur by the concentration of current along narrow paths that become
negative.
nomena of corona and streamers on the plate in Fig. 115. The bright streamers are drawn in black and the non-streamer
or
even corona
is
drawn
in
broken-line
hatching.
is
It
is
Where
to a certain distance.
the middle
is
supplied
with a streamer that starts from one point on the wire on one
side of the space.
way along
the
At
more.
At
a space that
will
is
still
middle portion
fed
by
In
all
cases
clear that
They
obtain this
easily
their origin
38J
THE ELECTROSTATIC
FIELD.
185
when such electrode is covered with a brought out by the experiments with the wine-
glasses in Figs. 116 and 117 and the glass. tubes in Figs. 118
and
19.
The
shown
differ in
size so
that one
may
in Fig. 116.
turned
Fig. 116.
Fig.
117.
on gradually up
to 30,000 volts.
even
corona appears, then after that broadens, the streamers appear and develop in length and intensity until at 30,000 volts they
a short circuit, and leap over the edges of the glasses, forming The opening of the circuit-breaker. all action ceases on the
The
glasses are
now remounted,
as
shown
in
Fig.
117,
86
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[38
Even
now
observed.
The
pressure
may be
elevated
There
no change
experiment.
The amount
in the
of even
corona
in
the
second
arrangement
arrangement.
^asja
A
Fig. 118.
|-
inch
is
slipped over an
just large
enough
At
laid
as for the
is
now
turned
volts.
A brilliant
Another glass
applied between
is
now shpped
that
free
from
all
38]
will
THE ELECTROST/ITIC
FIELD.
187
run over the surface of one tube or another, in no wise presenting the rich density that the streamers possess in the
earlier experiments.
Fig. 119.
19,
which have
of
volts
local
destruction
of the
dielectric,
no
break-down
test
to form.
test
is
must be concluded
present even in a
weak
Every
effort
must be made
when making
these
tests.
When
may
Fig. 120.
be melted and cast into any desired shape, the form of testpiece given in Fig. 120
is
excellent.
rectangular slab-
of.
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
the dielectric
is
[38
The
ball
the electrodes.
and the metal plate on the under side of the slab will provide The distance between the face of the ball
nearest the plate and the plate will be the thickness of dielectric
punctured.
The
sample
When
as paraffined
test
samples
may
be
Fig. 123.
made up
mounted
in pairs of tubes
at right angles
1 1
as described in Fig.
tested properly
may
be
by
this
is
method.
easily arranged.
liquid
sample
The
to
electrode rods,
be broken.
to surround
In a
is
then
made
is
the
applied.
39]
THE ELECTROSTATIC
FIELD.
189
Where
is
shown
in Fig.
121.
by
fairly satisfactory.
If the in the
manner described
method shown
is
in
Fig. 122
may
be used.
The
inevitable corona
kept from
shown.
The
last
testing of samples
by
this
method
is
tedious.
The
part in
method
is
many
used for
is
a reliable
the corona
tion
Break-down Test of a Lead-covered Cable. The insulaand lead cover are removed as shown in Fig. 123. To
, /<8BEST0BN
"''"iSSfcli;;^
Lead COVERING
Fig. 123.
is
applied in a bunch
corona
carry.
is
In
at
arrangement cables
will,
general,
break
some point under the lead covering instead of at the ends, as will always occur when the corona is permitted. In 39. Dielectric Thickness Required to Avoid Corona.
down
in
which high
19 pressures
are
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
employed,
insulators
[39
must
be
selected
and
for
two reasons.
highly destructive.
When
occurring even to a
is
allowed to play
way.
Even
waste of power.
formation in
machinery and
be better
The
best
method
corona
will
understood
after
the corona as
some study has been made of the character of brought out by the above experiments and their
media or materials as given
seen that thin
From
is
much
portionally than
are
greater thickne.sses.
For example,
it
per inch to rupture an air-film .05 inch thick and but 15,000
volts per inch to rupture air-thickness greater than
5
inches.
conducting elec-
It
that the greater the density and, therefore, the greater the
is
required to rupture
From
air in
follows that
if
electric
39]
THE ELECTROSTATIC
FIELD.
191
be
much more
difficult to rupture
for
much
given in
shows that
oils
of
air are
trics,
dielectric.
For
air in bulk
and
Some
additional light
is
studied together.
D= kE,
from which
it
k and
E at the
point of rup-
any given
is
D at
which a given
is
also
constant.
The
value of k
/&= 2.544
i.e.,
io-"-isr.
(102)
and
the
specific
inductive
capacity are
the
same
expressed
in different units.
'
192
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[Sg^
As
must be
trics
practically useful
'
have to be mounted
'
in series
'
same
be the
first
to give
individually
it
may have
The
above tables
::
TABLE GIVING RUPTURING VALUES OF DIELECTRIC FLUX DENSITIES IN THE COULOMB-VOLT-INCH SYSTEM OF UNITS.
Air Air Air
less
560,000
X
'
io~^*
.5 to
I
inch
63,000 "
56,000
to 2 inches
5
Air 2 to
inches...
Air
to 10 inches
Glass
Linseed-oil paper,* assumed.
Paraffin
5,000;000 "
Petroleum
Turpentine
A
* It
dielectric has
many excellent
properties,
it is
unfortunately very
is
many
of the most
unknown
which
in the literature.
In
assuming 5,000,000
10-"
linseed-oil
paper breaks
its
down
was taken
at 1,000,000 volts
and
specific
inductive capacity was assumed to be 2.25, for which the value of k is 5.05
x io-^'
39]
THE ELECTROSTATIC
in this respect.
FIELD.
it
193
weak
at
Except
far
breaks
dielectric
flux
densities
below those
at
which other
can
common
insulators break.
Except where a
air
liquid insulator
always
occurs
as an
insulator
dielectrics
more powerful
the
phenomenon
called corona.
is
under and directly between the electrodes which face the plate
At
nearly as great as
within
Under the surfaces of the electrodes, between them and the glass plate, a very thin film of air exists, broken here and there where the electrodes actually touch the glass.
Surrounding the immediate edges of the electrodes and separating them and the neighboring surface of the glass plate there
are air-films also that are
somewhat
thicker.
more
its
rapidly than
bulk-thickness
is
The
that as the
dielectric flux
560,000
10-'',
which
air-films
commencement
of corona
formation
The limits of this text do not permit analysis of the corona phenomena further than that which is necessary to account
194
quantitatively for
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
its
[39
origin.
113
it
dielectric
flux
diminishes more
This accounts
electrodes
separated
by powerful
dielectrics
have a much
first
higher rupturing gradient than air in bulk, yet they are the
portions of the air to rupture and they are always the seat of
initial
corona formation.
all
in
almost
used to insulate
pressure.
applied
a high
machinery or apparatus.
a powerful dielectric that
An
is
therefore, derived as
The
dielectric
flux
at
at
lO"''' units
volt-inch system.
will
be practically absent.
will
which corona
account
is
400,000
kE
-J-
400,000
lo-is,
where
/ is the thickness of
4]
THE ELECTROSTATIC
FIELD.
195
are the dielectric flux constant of the insulator employed and the applied pressure respectively.
Tke thickness that a powerful insulator must have for pracin withstanding a high pressure backed up with power is, therefore,
tical duty
kE
400,000
X
It
10-'*
Ci3j
was found
in
Section ijc
of dielectric flux.
When
destroyed the
energy
energy
is
is
This
it
medium where
the field of
dielectric flux
formed.
The
has
for
which reason
yet very httle
it
teresis.
As
ence.
is
definitely
known
of the character of
dielectric hysteresis
One
thing
is
practice,
as
shown
be
in
them
flux
will not
suffi-
cause
corona.
When
the
practically negligible.
Electrical
June
22, 1901.
196
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[41
by the General
Electric
Company,
is
when operated on
alternating-current circuits
normal pressure 99. 5 per cent is returned to the circuit by the condenser. A condenser is simply an aggregation of
dielectric
electrodes
that
deliver electric
loss of
per
cent,
most of
is
of a
weak corona,
as
may
graph of
follows
'
'
and which
is
quoted as
As
I
while
phenomenon
is
exists,
am
air
under the
due to traces of
which are
still
electric stress."
dielectric hysteresis,
phenomenon
tors.
is
of no consequence.
There
This
is
the
same thing
Current
may
collect
4i]
{b) It is
THE ELECTROSTATIC
FIELD.
197
The
phenomena
of dielectric
At
facts.
It
apt to
most powerful.
For
this
many
a
years past
it
dielectric in
terms of
In
modern times
is
it
has
come
not a reliable
dielectrics as
factor with
insulators.
k,
and the rupturing gradient, G, are much more rational and trustworthy factors with which to gauge the insulating strength
of a given dielectric.
To
which ordinary
and
per c m^cube.
Temperature.
Mica
Gutta percha
84
449
28 34
Hard rubber
Paraffin
Glass,
flint
16,700
Porcelain
54
X X X X X X
iQi^
lo*^
20
24
lo'^
lo'^ 10'' ioi=
46 46"
o" 0
Kennelly.
* These values were compiled from the original sources by Houston and A more complete table may be found in Foster's "Electrical Engineer's
Pocket-book."
198
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
42.
[42
Problems on the
Electrostatic Field.
Prob.
62.
in microfarads,
is
i
.
By
37<:,
r
where
^
through the
dielectric.
By
is
where
section.
/ is
its
cross-
k--j-ioK
value of ^ for old hard glass given in the table on page 179,
<;=
15.6
X IO-15- .io,
Ans.
C
Prob. 63. It
is
.002246 microfarad.
switches,
volts.
etc.,
of a
power
the
service.
The
line pressure
20,000
minimum
Solution:
Assume
by
may have
ness
is
The
required thick-
obtained
/=
kE
400,000
20,000
400,000
-3
inch.
Ans.
Prob. 64.
What
be
is
raised ta
33,000 volts
.?
inch.
Ans.
CHAPTER
X.
Composition of resistance.
d.
e.
Elements of inductance.
Inductance of transmission
lines.
circuit.
48.
Eddy Eddy
u.
b.
c.
losses in
magnetic
circuits.
Eddy Eddy
and
cables.
Composition of capacity.
lines,
50.
Magnetic and
and
dielectric conduction.
The
transfer
of energy-
through an
which may
or of power, or they
may
be
For example,
one of pressure.
is,
presence of the conductors and the insulating medium separating them, there
is
200
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[44
In
energy
is
accom-
conductors.
3.
In heat produced
by
dielectric
in the 4.
circuit.
medium
wind-
These
in the
power
The
These must
now be analyzed
affect their
in order to
magnitude.
Of these
may be
called that
which
is
upon
In
conductors.
its
case capacity
is
reactance
a.
Composition of Resistance.
The
re-
specific
being
directly
proportional
to
the
length
and
resistance,
and
is,
That
^==~f
(104)
44]
2ol
For convenience
by the Brown
use.
made
is
of certain
&
general
In this system,
in
known
as
the B.
&
S.
gauge, wires
range
The
B.
&
S. wire
gauge
is
The
The
No. 10 wire
in this
ohm
per thousand
As
use,
it is
Tvith the
number of the wire. The properties of both copper and aluminum wire in accordance with the B. & S. gauge
are given in the appendix.
d.
In specifying
thousandth of an inch.
There
is
and
One
square mil
.001''
square inch.
and
having a diameter
is
One
circular mil
.001 '
202
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[44
its
circle is
may
circular
square
of the diameter
in mils.
As most
conis
much more
c.
Specific Resistance.
is
The
specific resistance
of a conIn
ducting material
While
of a cylindrical wire
in area,
one mil
long.
As one
ohms
is
mil-foot
exactly ten
at a temperature of 50.4 F.
of this unit
Illustrative Problem.
What
is
the resistance of a
in length at
,000, 000-
one mile
a temperature
of 50.4
F..?
:
Solution
R=
d.
10
cm.
10
X
,
5280
^ 1,000,000
XI = .0528 ^
ohm.
Ans.
Electrical
resistance
having
its
own
in resistance per
degree
rise in
temperature.
this
temperature coefficient
slightly with
is
not
usually varies
the tem-
44]
203
is
For any
R,{i-{-at+6^)
(105)
temperature of
The
present.
depend upon
physical
condition
and
the
impurities
is
As
all
always small
tance for
a given specimen,
it is
of
no practical impor-
The
varia-
standard products
practical
make
this
variation of metals
and alloys
R,
is,
therefore,
R,{i
+ ai)
in
electrical
(106)
The
metals
for
engineering
conducting
desired,
and
iron,
German
is
silver,
required.
Resistance, Ohms per Mil-foot at Zero Centigrade.
( '
1061"
'
Copper,
soft,
pure
9.612
16.02
60.
127.
0.004284*
0.0039
0. 0045 3
Aluminum, pure
Iron, soft, pure
German
silver
9.00044
Manganin
* This coefficient
is
291.
important owing to
its
0.00001
extensive
application for the
The most
p.
here given.
Editorial, Electrical
yournal British Institution of Electrical Engineers, January, 1900, World and En^neer, March 17, 1900, Vol. XXXV. Weight in pounds of one cir, mil-foot of copper, .000003029.
p. 389.
204
-;
ELECTRICAL MACHINEHY.
Iron in addition to
its
144-
is
used
German- silver
high
It
is
is
an
alioj
possesses
specific
resistance
coefficient.
extensively used
the
construction
of
Manganin
cent nickel.
is
temperature coefficient
coefficient
is
is
C.
;.
is
positive,
very small.
up
Illustrative
an
engaged
duty
is
air,
18 C.
is
found to have a
resistance of 109
ohms.
The
field is
wire.
What
ance
?
rise
Solution: a.
The
general case
Rtx
is
^0(1
+ 0.
Many
Extensive data relating to the conducting properties of such metals and alloys are.
to be found in Foster's Electrical Engineer's
Handbook.
;;
44]
205
Temperature increase
b.
t^
t^.
The
above problem.
Substituting
in equation (107),
t.
2
18
109
=:
'
100
^^ ^o 40.0 c ^
Temperature increase
z=
= 40.6
t^ t^
18
22.6 C.
Ans.
e.
Convenient Formulm.
These
r,
r^^
,
ohms per
circular mil-foot
weight
in
pounds of a
From
equation (104),
Ohms
of resistance, r
'^.
.
A = /=
r-A
.
(io8)>
Length of conductor
in feet,
(109);
K.m.f consumed by
resistance, .
r -l-I
-^^^
. .
(iioy
3o6
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[44
Length of conductor
in a coil,
/=
V
-r^.
, .
(m)
(112)
Resistance of a
coil,
r=
/=
-7
^^,
3-
Since
A = A.-L
and
w
I-w^.Ai
-r,
by
substitution
az
(^ '3)
Problems
in the Resistance
of Electric Circuits.
Prob.
With
65.
What
&
S.
{c)
copper wire
Solution
{F)
1000 ^
X X
746
24. 3 amperes.
6000
.055
=
2
330
volts.
() Substituting in equation
_ ~ = =
10.382
2.5
5280
124.3
330
103,300 circular mils.
B.e^^^^No.o
,^.
^ '
^-r-
^ ^ ~
2.5
5280
124.3
330
B.
a.T^iu^N..
000
= =
Ans.
is
Prob. 66.
What weight
of copper wire
required to trans.'
size,
the weight
lbs.
is
39.7
Ans.
4S]
207
What
?
is
No. o B.
&
S.
130 watts.
Ans.
Prob. 68. If a three-phase circuit requires 75 per cent of the copper needed for a single-phase line, at what pressure can
1000 H.P. be
delii^ered
31,200 volts.
netic circuit a m.m.f. of 1000 ampere-turns
coil
Ans.
mag-
required in the
which
is
The mean
length of a
2 feet.
What
size of
used
if
What
size
200
.''
45.
Inductance.
Ans.
Elements of Inductance.
circuit
it
Inductance
which
produced by
by
virtue of
an e.m.f. of such a
is
This e.m.f.
field
enclosed by the
The
process
of calculating
circuit consists in
From
number of
unit rate
of change of the
current can be
found.
is
If the
permeability of the
rate of
medium
constant, the
consequently constant.
This
is
medium,
air.
If the
2o8
circuit
is
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[45
induction.
b.
power-transmis-
number of wires suspended in air and separated by a distance great enough to insure good elecsion line usually consists of a
'trical
insulation.
serious
if
the line
is
number of miles
in length.
The
shown
in c.g.s. units to
be
B=
(see
Sect.
(114)
26,
page
108).
in
The
equal
Equation
(i
^'=7.
where ^
is
("5)
mum
From
the
density of flux thus found the total flux which exists about
may be
readily deter-
The
flux
the current disappears from the circuit and will thus generate
in
it
an e.m.f.
Over an area dr
measured
in
d^
(116)
45]
209
1cm
dt
CONDUCTOR
rNORMAU
J=LANE8
'
Fig. 124.
The
the
total flux
which
is
by a
distance
d is
2/log, -,
^2l
where
r^ is
("7)
It is
conis,
than d,
cuts
both
conductors
or destroyed.
when
the
Fig. 125.
field is
made
From
(117)
we may
write
d$
di
d di
(118)
but
d^
dt
=^=4
(119)
2IO
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[45
As
a
unit rate of
change of current
in th
circuit,
if
di/dt in
formula (119) be
made
becomes
(120)
L=^2
The
d
log,
be readily calculated by
is
approached.
Assuming a uniform
ductor section,
it
is
Then
r^ ^= X
;
2lr 2/ = T
U-2i\
By
integration,
<?
= 2/
2
f"''
r di
I.
(122)
By reducing to
find that
we
The average value may its surface. The complete inductance of the conthe values within and without
it,
obtained
by adding
which gives
in c.g.s. units
^
The
inconvenient
2log.
d +j
I
(123)
is
of
is
L
where
^
.160931J2
log,
-+
^j,
(124)
is
45]
The
transmission circuit
a single-phase line
Prob. 70.
What
the
inductance
of
single-phase
transmission line
Formula (124)
is
reliable only
when non-magnetic
is
materials
If iron or steel
greatly
increased.
The
5 for
copper or aluminum,
steel.
For
this,
common
c.
Circuit.
^When
the
induction
as
in
loUows a
circuit
definite path,
like that
shown
in Fig.
126,
the
inductance,
with any
particular
current flowing,
may
By
definition of inductance,
Fig. 126.
^E (per E
dv
dt
(125)
turn)
d<P
-^,
(total)
= n-y-,
d^
212
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[45
or
" dt
dt
d^
di
..
'
di
An
/< is
not constant
any given current the inductance must be obtained by determining the corresponding flux from
therefore for
the curve.
Then
(126)
may
be written
L
From
= nj
(127)
^
Substituting in (127),
^j~Y./i,nnI.
(128)
^=
where
/^
^^7
(129)
inductance
desired.
when
ampere flows
Length
of circuit
circuit
= 4 feet
square inches.
Area of
=16
The
curve
is
circuit is
which the
B-H
in
Solution
The m.m.f
of lOOO ampere-turns
is
consumed
feet
of circuit,
the corresponding
being
1000
X
12
20.8.
46]
213,
The corresponding
65,000.
is
B
ff
Q-^ c.g.s. units)
978.7.
^=
\7t
1000^
X 16 X 6.45 X 10^x48x2.54
978.7
'-4'3 ^^"y^-
Ans.
When
is
made up
wholly or partly of
judgment
The same
straight conductors
and
in closed
magnetic
which
will
be accurate in proportion
matter
stants.
is
The
calculations of in-
This assumption
is
some
uneven
effect,
sidered.
is
made up
will
The
external
in the
flux
producing no difference
The
itself
by none of the
up within
about the axis of the conductor, while the axis will be cut
by
214
ductor.
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[46
The inductance
of the
outer layer
of the
con-
Thus
it
is
greater at
is
its
centre than at
surface.
The
to
more toward
its
surface.
The
is
E'
2nfIL
is
271/7(2 log^
h Af
(130)
^"=2;r//(2log,^J
(131)
is
The
E'
E" =
2nfl.
(132)
The
and
face.
that
is,
non.
The name skin effect has been given to this phenomeThe effect is practically to increase the resistance of the
It is
possible
The mathematical
calculation
is
too
46J
resistance
215
direct current:
12
U,.iov
(133)
where
i2 is
R^. is
/ is the
As
is
The
and
steel
is
It
effect is
it is is
present also.
is
The
effect of
rent resistance.
The
may
be reduced by changing
same combined
current-
carrying capacity.
ductors of moderate
At
size,
ordinary frequencies
not serious, as
is
illustrated
problem.
Illustrative
Example.
How
much
be met by an alternating current of a frequency of 130 p.p.s. than by a direct current in a No. 0000 copper wire
.'
Solution
From
we
find that
feet.
a resistance of .04906
ohm
per 1000
After changing
I'Electricitd.
2l6
this
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[47
the increase
Ans.
With
increases,
for
per second.
47. Eddy-current Losses in Conductors.
In
order that
conductors
electrical
may
currents must
When
field,
a conductor
or
is
is
moving
a difference
'
:.
-.'A.
48]
217
as an eddy-
occurs
it is
known
Current.
Eddy-current losses
may
the
serious proportions in
their occurrence.
in
Magnetic
is
Circuits.
Steel,
iron, or
permeated by an alternating
flux
will
PR
in
power used
heating
the
ing them
material.
is
completely wasted
magnetic
The important
where
an alternating
by means
of an alternating-current circuit
wound about
is
In the
first
in
circuit with
which
it is
linked
become a
power
losses
Mechanical power which the eddy-current losses are taken. thus applied is a portion of the total mechanical power supplied
2l8
ELECTRIC/1L MACHINERY.
[48
motor
it is
power developed.
Under
The magnitude
source.
It
of these losses
is
No
attempt
made
magnetic
circuits to
accommodate alternating
eddy
losses
flux
nitude of
occurring therein.
Such
circuits
are
invariably built
are coated in
up of
The
surfaces
some manner so
another.
Such insulation
may
japan, or asphaltum.
magnetic
circuits
such magnetic
b.
circuits.
The
circular cross-
The eddy-current
first
dA
be deter-
mined
may
^max.
in
max.
sq.
in.
is
R^j,
Fig. 129.
The
the
circular portion
cj^
dA, Fig.
29,
from
E=
(27r/)(-^.^-r5.^..io-),*
* See note in
Appendix,
sec. 3.
4^]
219
wherein,
by
Sec. 7d,
Watts
length of
dA
dw
d{PR)
= d^.
dA
R=
dw
Watts
27rr,R,
V^^'fB^^^rno-'fdri
^
2nriR^p
lost in wire per unit length:
-'=-i;^
Volume
of wire per unit length
034)
iron:
Watts
w' ^=^'
^=^^5^
R^i,
0^5T
page 203
'^
60
12
TT
220
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[48
The
round cross-section
in.
at zero
degrees
C,
neglecting skin
efifect,
per cu.
are therefore
w=
where r
is
.eipBi^^f X
10-",
(136)
B is
the
maximum
Example.
Illustrative
will
be
lost
through eddies per cubic inch of iron wire where the data are
as follows:
Radius, of wire
inch
Flux density, m.
Frequency
p. sq. in
10,000
100
W= .63
When
loo^
10,000^
is
.1'
Arts.
its
iron wire
diameter should be
made
eddy currents
Let e be the
eddy to hysteresis
r"
=
63/'^Lx.
10-
V
Illustrative
590e77
JB^
y -^max.
(137)
Example.
to keep the
eddy
48]
LOSSES
m ELECTRIC
6=
.25,
CIRCUITS.
221
/=
100.
R^ assumed
the
same
=/
r
c.
.0098
or a diameter of .0196
in.
Ans.
Let
be the thick-
-222
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
49]
223
(i
accomplished by dividing 2r by
as given
by equations
37)
and
(140),
2r
UX
1590
^
. .
7=V^^85~='-^33.
49.
(141)
(;
Composition of Capacity.
ized, as in
cuit
Capacity
it
in
a circuit
may
be local-
a condenser, or
may be
condenser
in
series
is
with
a circuit, e.m.f.
is
consumed.
When
a condenser
in
when
the
dielectric
medium between
is
the
conductors
provides a dis-
of low-power factor
certain
amount of energy
is
wasted
due
and armored
underground cables
nitude.
this current
it
may be
of considerable
mag-
may
As
the curit
rent
will
is
transformers, induction
apparatus, and
hence
b.
in
a benefit, rather
than a detriment.
In Fig.
131
C and
which
C"
mounted
in the air
remote
They
are connected to
sets
up a
field
of dielectric flux.
The
field is set
Its distribution is
shown by
From
point to point
throughout the
field
the flux
is
is
The
224
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[49
equal to the
Fig. 131.
applied pressure.
By
any
electric
conductors equals
C=
coulombs per
volt.
^=X
where
175^j, is the total electrostatic flux as specified
<'42)
on page
By
is
$D=DA
where
section.
kEA
d
is
its
cross-
kA
d(143)
The
values of
and
49]
tial
225
of the
dielectric
in
mounted.
The
vertical line
C and
this
C"
A conducting
One
be
maybe mounted
may
applied between
C" without
amount and
may now
altering
any way
shown
in Fig. 132.
Fig. 132.
Fro. 133-
Mathematical research has shown that where a medium is permeated by a field of flux emanating from a long round
wire
to
a
the
body presenting
effective
it
a plane of the
surface
of indefinite
flux
is
extent,
length
path
of such
double what
is
for the
26
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
'
[49
medium
which
tance between the wire and plane, with the restriction that the
distance of the wire from the plane must be twenty or
more
times
its
own
diameter.
any character of flux through any medium wherein the pressure taken up is directly proportional to the flux density and the
distance in the direction of the flux.
It follows,
therefore,
current in the
it
medium surrounding
in Fig.
132
and the plane is double that for the same medium and the walls of the cylinder, d and r in Fig. 133 between being the same in both cases.
between
The conductor
are
C in
Fig. 133
mounted
and
air,
with
d and
in
of conductor.
D
df
is
is
any point within the field. any portion of d measured from the center of C,
dielectric flux density at
Then
L^
likewise
Therefore
49]
227
Integrating,
is
C=
-^,
n,
C
For
2nk
-r
(145)
practical purposes
it is
common
logarithm, the microfarad in lieu of the farad, and the mile for
For
air
2.244
io~'=-
Reduction factor for miles " " microfarads.... " " " " logjD
63,360
1,000,000
2.3026
substitutions
^=-^'
0388
(H6)*
Tvhere
d is
neutral plane,
and r
is
The
circuit
suspended
This
may
be
conductor to establish
dielectric flux
* The
By
equation (44)
2d.
'
;:
2 28
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[49
neutral plane
r
is
^=-75^
From symmetry
lish
27rfCE
(^47)
/ from
wire to wire
is
2E, and
(148)
27[fC'{2E)
io
where
is
27t/(2y
from (147),
^
therefore
=
to
10/
27r/E
C'
iC
(149)
log^-)
where
C is
/
is
the capacity of the line in microfarads the length of the line in miles
half the distance between the lines in inches
d is
r
is
Illustrative
Example.
Find
the
charging current in a
Radius of conductor
Distance between centres
1625 inch
24 inches
50 miles
Length of line
E.m.f.
50,000 volts
Frequency
60 cycles
49]
229
=
c.
27r. 60-
50,000
.0388
,
50
\
2A
'^^
amperes.
Ans.
For
underground
It
drawn
to
Over
for
generally applied
an extra sheathing
mechanical protection.
The
(ISO
where
C
k
is
is
the capacity in microfarads the dielectric flux constant in coulombs per inch-
d is
r
is
Illustrative
Example.
What
miles
is
ductor
is
.25 in.
in.
and
The
is
on page 179
equation (151),
io~^'.
6.04
X 10-" X
32.77
io
5280
,
C=
.915 microfarad.
Ans.
23
50.
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[SQ
Conduction.
In alternating-current circuits electrostatic and magnetic
fields are
when such
pressure
and current
and mag-
reverse
their electrostatic
and
In forming an electrois
a magnetic
circuit.
field
removed
field
from the
Such energy
it
most part
is
returned ta
It is
returned to the
circuit, as.
some energy
itself
is
always
lost in hysteresis.
upon the
loss
due to resistance.
same manner as does a The magnitude of magnetic and elec-have been treated
in
Chapters VII;
and IX.
tical
mind and
limited
as
much
most circumstances.
In engineering
amounts of energy.
it
is
economical operation
of
machinery and
circuits.
Where
by
some
loss of
energy
(See
is
Sec. 41.)
The magnitude
manner
satisfactory in other
The corona
is
is
quite
it is
As
so]
23
must be brought near together and insulated by powerful on account of the rapid destruction of the insulation
causes.
dielectrics
that
less
it
The
opportunity to manifest
lines,
on high-pressure long-dis-
tance transmission
conductors supported
at intervals of about
in the air
1
00
feet,
allowed
that
it
involves.
loss of
by the corona class of dielectric conduction has been examined experimentally and reported upon by eminent engineers.*
power
in high-pressure transmission circuits
The
by measurements made by R. D. Mershon upon a conductors, .162 inch in diameter and 11,720 feet in
located at Telluride, Colorado, separated 15, 22, inches and
subjected to
volts.
length,
35,
and 52
in.,
20,000 to 60,000
in.,
The
35
and 52 in. show the relation between the watts lost on the line and the alternating pressures when the wires were separated by the corresponding distances 15, 22, 35, and 52
inches.
The form
wave approximated
facts
the sudden upward bend are due to a general current leakage over the insulators, and to a very small extent through the at-
Scott.
Trans.
Am.
Inst.
XV,
p. 531, 1898.
232
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
[50
mosphere; and that the great losses recorded above the bend
in the curves are
A study of these
sion line
is
The
results
show
somewhat
increases the
pressure at which the loss begins, but does not alter the rate
of increase of the loss with increase of pressure.
The
critical
much
greater pro-
The
cause
is
obviously as follows
When
allel
an
in the
atmosphere a
flux will
in
be established
in the
amount and
distribution as
shown
in Fig. 131.
is
tric flux
at a greater distance
follows that
is
when
which the
dielectric flux
density in the air next to the conductor surface will exceed the
rupturing point and will break through a certain radial distance
in the air.
When
power
at
once ensues.
Such
loss occurs
On
further increase of
is
dis-
power consumed.
air
This
is
When
becomes conductive by
of an arc
by the formation
to
presents a resistance
the
flow of the
5]
233
increases.
Thus,
in the case
tance from the centre of the conductor tends to limit the thickness of the corona, the inverse resistance-variation character
of the corona current-conducting zone tends to extend the thickness of such zone and thus counteract the limiting action
of the radial lessening of the flux density.
next to the metallic surface of the conductor, the capacity of the conductor has been increased
2.
air
by the
of the conducting
is
atmospheric zone.
An
increase in capacity
followed
by an
which, as stated above, reacts to increase the thickness of the corona or conducting zone.
SOOOh
16
) 25 30 36 40 ALTEEUSlATlNe IjirUOVOUXS.
46
so
GS
60
Fig. 134.
Curves showing watts lost in corona on a 2j-mile experimental highpressure power-transmission line at various pressures and distances between wires of .162 inch diameter. The points marked on the curves near the base were located by equation 154.*
tween the conductors with respect to the power lost as found by Mershon and given in Fig. 1 34 is accounted for. When
* See foot-note on p. 236.
334
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
LS'*
is
rela-
tion
The
i.e., its
and
146),
is
C=
The
and the
2;r/^
^"^ 2nr
Substituting,
^0,
l2dV
('52)
where D^
arated
is
conductor.
As
the conductors on transmission lines are sepforty diameters, the dielectric flux
all sides
is
more than
on
prac-
tically uniform
will start
on
at
at practically the
same
The
pressure
dielectric
is,
therefore,
'"ids
E=
where
> is
y^-^
which appreciable power
(153)
There
is
no need
for
49]
235
will not
where
maximum
more than
may
its
an appreciable
occur.
loss of
power from
dielectric conduction
may
rewritten thus:
Emax.
= maximum pressure applied between the conductors = radius of the conductors in inches; s = separation between centres of conductors in irtches; Df^ = lowest dielectric flux at which appreciable power
r
is
units.
Mershon's
results as given
by the curves
in Fig.
134
may
be
The 52"
of the conductor
was .162
inch,
and
inches.
of
Dq
is
found to be
A=
2.055
1.71
X
X
39.200
.081
lo&ioi.-^g'i)
'*'
=
* 2.055 + 1.71
190,500
10-^^.
X
is
10"
=
factor
the form
of the pressure
wave
A.
I.
E. E. Tr.ms., Vol.
XV,
p. 550.
236
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY.
LS o
When
15, 22,
this value of
D^
is
and 35
and diameters of the conductors, .081 and .162 inch, are there substituted, the following values of E at which the power waste
begins are obtained:
d
.
^
A. C. e.m.f. at which corona loss begins ^^ determined by equation (154).
mcneo.
IS
42,100
45-IOO
22
35 52
48,900
52,000
The
tion
these e.m.f.s
occupy positions
rise in
in
each instance
in that por-
The
high pressures
for the
points to see
enough so
made
in
1897-1898 mercury.
at
Ill
high altitude where the barometric pressure is about 20 inches of a recent, 1903, investigation made by one of the authors it was
-Co, at
loss begins,
it
was
Da
less
varies irregularly with variation in the diameter of the conductor for diameters
it
is
The
4 of the appendix.
APPENDIX.
238
APPENDIX.
APPENDIX.
2.
239
The
ampere-inductor
and
the
ampere-turn.
The
m.m.f.
that
an
rounds
it is
precisely the
is
same as
that of
an ampere-turn.
The
in-
ductor that
circuit.
The
circuits that
when
but one
magnetic
the
corresponding
that
electric
particular magnetic
circuit,
may
by a
single
magnetic
makes
number
circuits
completed
= 4 X / X B^^nr,^ X lo^^
total flux cuts the circuit
The
factor
= -Eave. X ~" X
V/ 2
2
-Eeff.
=4X/X5,ax.'rn'X-
X -7- X io-, V2
= 2;r/(^^ri^5^ax.Xio-').
4.
following facts were found regarding the variation of the dielectric flux
240
APPENDIX.
conduction occurs:
The molecular
atmosphere
not the
first to
rupture owing to
its
superior
dielectric strength.
first
conductive
therefore,
is
the
ruptures
the radius^
For
this
For diameters smaller than one-quarter inch the distance from the conductor surface at which the weakest atmospheric zone
occurs
grows
less
the
in-
The
table
radii of the
reis.
used
r,
radius of conductor
iii
inches;
which
APPENDIX.
241
D'
242
>()'
APPENDIX.
= 170,000X10"^'
at 70 F.
and
and
for
-Emax.=35o.ooo(''+-o7)logi/yj
(iS4&)
at 70 F.
and
mined
29.5" B.
and 70
at
mined.
The
1^^3253X6
459-2 +
/'
^
wherein
1.3253= weight in
459.2 cu.
ft.
o air at 0 F. and at
Reduction factor for atmospheric density due to any temperature and barometric pressure:
1-3253^
I-32S3X 29.5
17^946
459.2 +
i!
459.2+70
4S9-2 + <
APPENDIX.
It follows, therefore, that
243;
when equations
I7-94&
'-'mav.
459.2 + i
realize
(154&')
In order to
made
in equations
(154)
and (1546)
hne
on a high-pressure
to
from 50,000
250,000
voltS'
For diameters
less
than
.25 inch
which atmospheric
would occur.
The
values of
E^^
for
In
this
manner a
was determined
radii.
a-S
coordinates, showing
between
the
size
of
the
conductors and
of
maximums
of
From
this
in
the
the
effective
pressures having
90%
of the values
would occur.
The
244
APPENDIX.
without
encountering
the
corona
loss.
The
pressures were
wave
volts.
Maximum Volts
at which
Atmos-
APPENDIX.
scale
245
amounts
to
rise of
about
7%
at
maximum
of the pressure
wave
and which means that the which corona will first form
by
7%
when
the
temperature
is
only on a scale sufficiently large to warrant the expense of building a cover over the Hne so as to keep snow, rain,
and then only after the electrical manufacturing knowledge and art can produce practical transformers
it
power
in large
amounts
at such
high pressures.
Where
may be made
tubular.
The
maximum
,(iS4a')>
maximum
will
instantaneous values.
values divided by
V2
For
all cases,
differs
from the
factor
for
the particular
must be used
only
mation
The
to
modify the
in general
re-
wave
in
quiring
correspondingly
conductors
is
having
larger
or
smaller
V2.
From
equation (154^')
it
is
obvious that in
cases where
^46
electrical
APPENDIX.
circuits
and
circuits
by sohd or Uquid
as
is
capable of sustaining a high pneumatic or hydrostatic pressure according as dry or hquid insulation is employed. Such high
pressure should be applied for the purpose of greatly increasing
the strength of the atmosphere or other gas that
in the presence of the solid
may
be confined
or hquid
dielectric
which constitutes
the
main
insulation.
The compression
s.ilation
will
greatly
dielectric
strength
carried
to resist
it is
where the
and gas
main
solid
At
an insulation
air or gas
main
insulation.
Mechanical pressure
INDEX.
PACE 62
33> 34
129
gj
65
66
58 58
201 13 106 45 128
of.
Analyzer,
Harmonic
49 97 27
3,
Dielectrics for
187
189
201
189 223-229
223
72 226
229
17
Capacity, Composition of
e.m.f.
Consumed
in
Capacity of a Condiictor
Cables, Problem in
Dielectric
Line, Problem in
228
Transmission Line and Cables Underground Cables Capacity, Problems Illustrating Unit of
Specific Inductive
223 229
23,
24 17
179
Unit of
247
248
INDEX.
PAGE 117 117
12
System
14
14 14
15
.,
Laws
of
Magnetic
114-123
199 113
177
Magnetic Circuit, Nature of Electrostatic Circuits, Problems in Resistances of Circular Mil Coefl&cients of Hysteresis Loss CoefEcient, Temperature of Conductors
Coil, Definition of
206 201
132 202 112
m.m.f. of
Coils,
112
211
Inductance of
Combination of Harmonic Components Combinations of Sine Curves. . : Comparison of Electric and Magnetic Circuits
. .
56
31
Complex
Quantities, Addition of
123 62
63
Division of
Multiplication of
Condenser, Charging a
Condenser Circuit
Conduction, Dielectric
Conductivity, Definition of
176 14 196-230
80
226
'
Conductor, Capacity of a
Conductor Circuit
Conductor, m.m.f. about a Conductors, Eddy Losses in Formula for Resistance of
^4 i6
216
20S 213 202
Skin Effect in
Specific Resistance of.
."
Table of
Specific Resistances of
203
Conductor-turn, Definition of
233 189
INDEX.
Corona, Electrostatic Experiments Illustrating Electrostatic
249
PAGE
180-193 180
236 233
3 17 19
in
Cox Generator
Coulomb, Definition of Counter e.m.f ., Power consumed by
Constant, Dielectric Flux. Control of Current
178
15
in Single Circuits
68
121
227
15
142
of.
21-23
13
125-131 116
233 59 151 144
Model
of
of.
Production
152-163
150 162
142
Cylinder Fields, Applications of Practical Production of Cylinder Magnetic Field Cylinder Rotating Field, Components of
Dielectric, Capacity of
150
17
Dielectric Conduction
Dielectric, Definition of
196^230
Term
Dielectric
Dielectric
175 178
178
179
195-230
175
Nature of Table of Energy Stored in Table of Specific Resistances of Testing for Break-down Gradient. Dielectric Thickness to Avoid Corona Difierence of Phase
Dielectric,
Dielectrics,
32 63 58
13 112
Division of
Complex Quantities
Definition of Alternation
Ampere
Coil
Complex Quantity
Conductivity
the Conductor
60-62 80
iii
17
Turn
Coulomb
250
INDEX.
PAGE
Definition of Cycle
59
17
Farad Frequency
Gilbert
Helix.
59 105 112
,
Henry Impedance
Inductor
Joule
16 75 152
19
Maxwell
Microfarad
113 18
16
Ohm
Period
Periodic
Periodicity
59 58 59 153
71 112
142 60
14 18
Watt
Wave
Winding
Density, Magnetic Flux
59 163
13
8
i
15
3,
Dynamo, Nature
of
131
216
221
222
218 220
217
30 66
-.
57 29 18
Horse Power Electrical Steel, Magnetic Qualities of Electrical Units, Problems in use of Electric and Magnetic Circuits, Comparison of
Electric Circuit
116
20
123 14
'.
p2
ig
Power consumed
in
Power
q3
INDEX.
25
PAGE
Electric Pressure Gradient..
Electricity,
179
i
207
15
2
,
Nature of
177
Corona
Field, Characteristics of
180-193
173 198
Problems on Uses of
Flux, Field of
173 174
5
E.m.f.
Consumed
Voltmeter in Capacity
72 74 69 68 82 68
2
Impedance
Inductance
Resistance
E.m.f.Coiistmiption in Multiple Series Circuits
Single Circuits
E.m.f
.,
Means
for
Maintaining
142 22
5
E.m.f.
Measurement
E.m.f., Unit of
-
13
2
Energy, Electrical Energy Loss due to Hysteresis Energy, Problem Illustrating Unit of
125
23
i&
Wave
100.
132-
i8a.
Power
Wattless
97 98
17
Farad, Definition of
Field of Electrostatic Flux Flux Densities, Table of Rupturing Dielectric
174 192
13
i74
7
202 205
42
33-59"
92
43
12
201;
Gauge, Wire
252
INDEX.
PAGE
Gilbert, Definition of
60 26
1S9
128
49
45 45 49
Harmonic Analyses
Laws
of
of Periodic Curves
43
112
112
16 18
7
m.m.f. of
Henry, Definition of
132
Curves
Dielectric
125-131
195-230
128 128 130 128
Effect of Annealing
Effect of Effect of Effect of
125
230
125
Impedance, Definition of
e.m.f
.
75
in
Consumed
Consumed
Inductance, Elements of
e.m.f.
in
74 207
6c)
of Coils
of Transmission LineSi
211
208
207
211-213
24 16
lyg
g 1^2
,y ,,
jq-
ny
INDEX.
53
PAGE
Iron Sheets, Iron Wires,
221
in
22*
218.
Joule, Definition of
19.
Law
of
Ohm
Harmonic
Analjfsis
19.
45.
Laws
of
Magnetit Circuit Magnetic Tension Leakage, Magnetic Problem Illustrating Magnetic Lines, Capacity of Transmission
Inductance of
Losses in Conductors, Iron Sheets,
114-123.
10.
124 137
223. 208.
Eddy Eddy
Eddy
216
22r
aiS
217
199 233
Magnetic
Circuits,
Sources of Circuit
6
7
129
Circuits,
Comparison of
123
113
114-123
in
217
135
142-
Pivot
142 142
142,
145 107
7
8, 13;
Illustrating Unit of
20
13
Magnetic Hysteresis
230
125
&
124.
254
INDEX.
PAGB 113 118 8
9,
Tension
Measurement
M.m.f. of Coil M.m.f about a Conductor M.m.f. of Helix the Ampere-turn
.
10
112
106
112
106
112
Solenoid
6
105 132 6
Magnetism, Ewing's Theory of Nature of Magnetization Curves Magnets, Permanent Problems in Strength of
Maxwell,' Definition of
116 130 20
13
S
9,
Measurement of e.m.f
Magnetic Tension Mershon's Power Loss Curves
Microfarad, Definition of
Mil, Circular Mil-foot
10
18
233
201
202
201
Mil, Square
80
in
82
83 63
57
Ohm,
Definition of
16
19
Ohm's Law
Operations on Vectors
TPeriod, Definition of
66 59 58
59 130
Permanent Magnets
Permeabilityi Effect of Impurities
upon upon
121
121
Physical Treatment
Temperature upon.
Magnetic. .. Matters Affecting
120
113, 119
119 135-139
phase Angle
Difference.
;
64
32
31
INDEX.
255
PAGB
of.
Model
of
143
153 142
142
Term
Power,
a. c
93 97
e.m.f 19 19
in Resistance
Apparent
Consumed by Counter
Consumption
Electric
in Electric Circuits
19
Factor
of Electric
93 97 99 104 97
iS
Real Unit of With Non-sine e.m.f. and Current Problem in Capacity of Cables Transmission Line Corona Power Loss Eddy Losses in Iron Sheets
Electric
99 229 228
236 222
104
215
Power
Harmonic Analysis Power Factor
the Unit of Energy
in Iron
49 99
23
in
Eddy Losses
Wires
220
135
83
80
76 202-206 20
198 211-213
20
'.
on
Electrostatic Field
Illustrating
23, 24
21-23
22
24 20
22-24
3'r
Phase
37
256
INDEX.
PAGE
Product of Sine Curves in Quadrature not in Phase nor Quadrature Properties of the Sine Curve
Quadrature, Product of Sine Curves in
38
39 25
38
32
35.
^ .
Quadrature Relation of Sine Curves Sum of the Sine Curves in Quantity of Electricity, Unit of
36
17
41
71
Real Power
Quantities
97 62
121 135
113, r22
Recalescence
Reluctance, Problems Illustrating Magnetic
Specific
Unit of Magnetic
Resistance, Composition of
e.m.f.
Consumed
in
113 200 68
197
Insulation
202-206 202
19 22-23, 24
Resistance,
Power Consumed
Problems
in
203 205
197
15
Resistance, Unit of
Pivot. Field,
Components
of.
.
r45
of.
Fields, Irregular
rrS
Consumed
in
i
76 42 82
22r 27
Eddy Losses
in Iron
29
27
Rectangular Coordinates
Properties of the
26
25
INDEX.
257
PAGE
33,
34
^i
Sumof
not in Phase and not in Quadrature, Product of in Phase, Product of
38 35,36
39
37 31
Time
as abscissae for
37 26
41 100
for
in
'
Formula Problem
Solenoid, Definition of
n2
.....--..-.--......-,...-......,,........,,,, 112
ipg 178
m.m.f of
.
Capacities,
Table of
179
113, 122
202
203
'
Table of
197 201
116
117 124
33>
Stray Field
Sum
of Sine Curves
in Quadrature
35,
34 36
56
Synthesis of
Harmonic Components
Table of Corona-forming Pressures Dielectric Flux Constants Rupturing Gradients Energy Stored in Dielectrics Rupturing Dielectric Flux Densities Specific Resistances of Conductors
Inductive Capacities
Resistances of Dielectrics
236
179 180
179 192
203 179
'.
Temperature
Coefficient of Conductors
197 202
121
Temperature, Critical
Tension, Magnetic
Problem
Illustrating
8 20 20 S8 132
2
163-168
2S8
INDEX.
PAGE 14S 26
211
Time
146
of
<
229
17
23, 24
Problems Illustrating
Current
13
Problems
e.m.f
e.m.f.,
Illustrating
zi-23
13 22 i&
Problems Illustrating Energy Problem Illustrating Inductance Problems Illustrating Unit of Magnetic Flux Problems Illustrating
Reluctance
23 16 24
13
20
113
105
18.
M.mi
Power
Quantity of Electricity
Resistance
17
Problems Illustrating
Units, Derived
15 22-24
15
I2
Electrical
20
60
and
65
60 66
14
Voltmeter, Electrostatic
S
18
Watt, Definition of
Wattless Factor
98
59 132
163 201
Wave, Definition of Weber's Hypothesis Winding, Definition of Wire Gauge, American or B. & S Wires, Eddy Losses in Iron Formulae for Resistance of Work done on a Magnetic Field
220
205,
107
Work,
Electrical