8.

2 The Processes of Colonisation and Succession in an Ecosystem

Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a community of living organisms interacting with one another and with the non-living environment. Ecosystems are dynamic. All biotic communities are continually changing. They change in response to external factors such as changing climates as well as internal factors caused by the organisms themselves.

Photograph: A wetland

Ecological Terms
Habitat A habitat is the natural environment in which an organism lives. A habitat provides plants and animals with the basic resources of life: food, shelter, living space, nesting and breeding sites. For example, a single tree can be a habitat for beetles, caterpillars and birds. Species A species consists of a group of organisms that look alike and have similar characteristics, share the same ecological niche and are capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. For example, duckweeds, water hyacinths and water lilies are three different species of water plants.

Population A population consists of a group of organisms of the same species living in the same habitat at the same time, for example, a population of elephants living in a jungle or a population of grasshoppers living in paddy field. The individuals of a population rely on the same resources and are affected by similar environmental factors. Community A community is a natural collection of plant and animal species living within a defined area or habitat in an ecosystem. The members of a community are interdependent and interact with one another. A change in the population of one species will affect the population and distribution of the other species within the community. Communities are named after one of the dominant species (for example, a mangrove community)or the major physical characteristics of the area (for example, a freshwater pond community). Niche Every organism has an important role to play. The function of an organism or the role it plays in an ecosystem is known as the ecological niche. This includes its habitat, its interactions with other organisms, the type of food it consumes, the range of temperature it tolerates and the space it occupies. Based on its role in a food chain, an organism can be categorized as a producer, a predator, or a parasite. For example, the niche of grass is as a producer of carbohydrates and other organic substances, which provide food for other organisms in the ecosystem.

Colonisation and succession

The communities in an ecosystem are subject to disturbances which, in turn, lead to changes in the plant and animal communities over time. Major changes can be caused by external factors such as fires, deforestation, pollution, volcanic eruptions or changes in climate. Bare ground An environment of bare rocks and sand left behind by a forest fire is not suitable for most organisms. After the ground cools down, water , nutrients and sunlight are available, spores and seeds of certain plants start to germinate and grow. This process is known as colonisation. Colonisation is a process whereby a species invades and occupies a newly formed area where no life has existed previously.

Pioneer species The early species that appear on a bare patch of ground are called the pioneer species. Pioneer species are typically hardy plants, for example, grasses, ferns and sedges (grasslike plants). Pioneer species have special adaptations which enable them to survive in dry and nutrient-poor soil. They change the environment in ways that favour subsequent communities. a) Pioneer plants generally produce large numbers of easily dispersed seeds which help them colonise open spaces. b) The dense root systems of the pioneer species bind the sand and soil particles together, and hold water and humus to improve the structure of the soil. c) They have a short life cycle. When they die, their remains add to the humus content of the soil. Successor species The pioneer species modify the environment, ultimately creating conditions which are less favourable for themselves but are more conductive to other species called successor species. The successor species replaces the pioneer species because they are better adapted to the new conditions. Examples of successor species are herbaceous plants such as dandelions and weeds. a) These plants have small wind-dispersed seeds which are able to spread, germinate and grow rapidly. b) The successor species also changes the structure and the quality of the soil, making it more conductive for the growth of bigger plants like shrubs. Dominant species The shrubs become the new dominant species that grow faster and dominate the slowerglowing pioneer and successor species. As time passes, the shrubs, in turn, modify the environment which allows large tree to grow. The large tree provide shade and shrubs cannot compete and are replaced by forest-floor species which require lower light intensities. The gradual process in which one community changes the environment so that it is replaced by another community is called succession. Succession is a gradual and continuous process which can take hundreds of years. Climax community Ecological succession leads to a relatively stable and mature community which is in equilibrium with its environment. This is called a climax community.

Mangrove swamps
Mangrove swamps are mostly found in the tropical and subtropical regions where freshwater meets salt water. They have muddy soft soil and are a hostile environment for normal plants. This is because the soil has very lowlevels of oxygen and a high concentration of salt. In addition, mangrove swamps are exposed to high intensities of sunlight and strong winds. Adaptations of mangrove plants 1) To support themselves, mangrove trees such as the Avicenna sp. have long, highly branched underground cable roots. Another mangrove species, the Rhizophora sp., have prop roots. These roots, also known as aerial roots, anchor the plants onto the muddy. 2) The Avicennia sp. has breathing roots called pneumatophores which grow vertically upwards. Each pneumatophore has numerous pores through which gaseous exchange also occurs through pores called lenticels found on the bark of the mangrove trees. 3) The leaves of the mangroves are covered by a thick layer of cuticle which reduces transpiration during hot days. In addition, the leaves are thick and succulent, and able to store water. 4) The cell sap in the roots cells of the mangrove trees has a higher osmostic pressure than surrounds them. Instead, the excess salt in the hypertonic solution of the soil enters the roots and is then excreted as crystalline salt from the hydathodes, the pores on the lower epidermis of leaves. 5) Mangrove seeds are able to germinate while still attached to the mother plant. This phenomenon is called viviparity.

Mangrove plants (Rhizophora)

Colonisation and succession in a mangrove swamp

The pioneer species of a mangrove swamp are the Sonneratia sp. and Avicennia sp. which gradually changes the physical environment of the habitat. The extensive root systems of these plants trap and collect sediments, including organic matter from decaying plant parts. As time passes, the soil becomes more compact and firm. This condition favours the growth of the Rhizophora sp. and it replaces the pioneer species. The seeds of the Rhizophora sp. show viviparity. The prop root system of the Rhizophora sp. traps silt and mud, creating a firmer soil structure over time. The ground becomes higher. As a result, the soil is drier because it is less submerged by sea water. The condition now becomes more suitable for another mangrove species, the Bruguiera sp., which replaces the Rhizophora sp. The buttressroot system of the Bruguiera sp. forms loops which extend from the soil to trap more silt and mud. As more sediments are deposited, the shore extends further to the sea. The old shore is now further away from the sea and is like terrestrial ground. Over time, terrestrial plants like the nipah palm (Nypa fruticans) and Pandanus sp. begin to replace the Bruguiera sp. The gradual transition and eventually to a tropical rainforest, which is a climax community, takes to conserve and preserve our mangrove forests.

Colonation and succession in a pond

Submerged plants Succession in a disused pond begins with the growth of pioneer species such as phytoplankton, algae and submerged plants like the Hydrilla sp., Cabomba sp. and Elodea sp. which have special adaptive features that enable them to colonise the pond. Their fibrous roots penetrate deep into the soil to absorb nutrients and bind sand particles together. When the pioneer species die and decompose, more organic nutrients are released into the pond. The organic matter is converted into humus at the pond base. The humus and soil which erode from the sides of the pond are deposited on the base of the pond, making the pond shallower.

Floating plants The condition becomes unfavourable for submerged plants but more suitable for floating plants such as duckweeds (Lemna sp.) water hyacinths (Eichornia sp.) and lotus plants (Nelumbium sp.) which float freely on the surface of the water. Since these plants receive sunlight directly and can reproduce rapidly by vegetative propagation, they spread to cover a large area of the water surface and prevent sunlight for reaching the submerged plants. Hence, the submerged plants die because they cannot photosynthesise. At the same time, more erosion occurs at the edge which results in more sediments being deposited on the base of the pond. As the result, the pond becomes more and more shallow which makes is unsuitable for the floating plants. Emergent plants The floating plants are subsequently replaced by the emergent (amphibious) plants which can live in water as well as on land, for example, sedges and cattails. The rhizomes of these plants grow horizontally across the habitat. Their extensive roots bind the soil particles together and penetrate deeply to absorb more mineral salts. These plants spread rapidly and colonise the habitat, changing it. The emergent plants grow from the edge of the pond towards the middle of the pond as the pond becomes more shallow. Land plants The condition of the pond now becomes more favourable for land plants like small herbaceous weeds, for example, Ageratum conyzoides, Euphobia hirta and Oldentandia dichotoma. As time passes, the land becomes drier. Land plants such as shrubs, bushes and woody plants become numerous. Climax community A primary forest emerges and eventually turns into a tropical rainforest which is also known as a climax community.