Work Measurement is a term which covers several different ways of finding out how long a job or part of a job

should take to complete. It can be defined as the systematic determination, through the use of various techniques, of the amount of effective physical and mental work in terms of work units in a specified task. The work units usually are given in standard minutes or standard hours. Why should we need to know how long a job should take? The answer to this question lies in the importance of time in our everyday life. We need to know how long it should take to walk to the train station in the morning, one needs to schedule the day's work and even when to take out the dinner from the oven. In the business world these standard times are needed for: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. planning the work of a workforce, manning jobs, to decide how many workers it would need to complete certain jobs, scheduling the tasks allocated to people costing the work for estimating contract prices and costing the labour content in general calculating the efficiency or productivity of workers - and from this: providing fair returns on possible incentive bonus payment schemes.

On what are these standard times set? They are set, not on how long a certain individual would take to complete a task but on how long a trained, experienced worker would take to do the task at a defined level of pace or performance. Who sets these standard times? Specially trained and qualified observers set these times, using the most appropriate methods or techniques for the purpose i.e. "horses for courses". How it is done depends on circumstances that obtain. The toolkit available to the comprehensively trained observer is described below.

The reader is invited to search the individual methods on this current Website. Selecting the most appropriate methods of work measurement The method chosen for each individual situation to be measured depends on several factors which include: a. the length on the job to be measured in time units b. the precision which is appropriate for the type of work in terms of time units (i.e. should it be in minutes, hundredths or thousandths of a minute) c. the general cycle-time of the work, i.e. does it take seconds, minutes or days to complete The length of time necessary for the completion of the range of jobs can vary from a few seconds in highly repetitive factory work to several weeks or months for large projects such as major shutdown maintenance work on an oil refinery. It is quite clear that using a stop-watch, for example, on the latter work would take several man-years to time to measure! Thus, more "overall" large-scale methods of timing must be employed. The precision is an important factor, too. This can vary from setting times of the order of "to the nearest thousandth of a minute" (e.g. short cycle factory work) to the other end of the scale of "to the nearest week" (e.g. for large project work). These are the dominant factors that affect the choice of method of measurement. The methods
PMTS.

At the "precision" end of the scale is a group of methods known as predetermined motion time systems that use measurement units in ten thousandths (0.0001) of a minute or hundred-thousandths of an

hour (0.00001 hour). The methods in this group are described in the PMTS topic in this Website. The resulting standard times can be used directly, for very shortcycle work of around one minute total duration such as small assembly work. However, they often are used to generate regularly used basic tasks such using assembling or disassembling nuts and bolts, using a screwdriver and similar. Tasks of this type are filed as standard or synthetic data-banks.
Estimating.

At the other end of the scale (long-cycle and project work) we need something which is quick to use. Such a method is estimating. This can exist in three main forms. a. Analytical estimating relies on the experience and judgement of the estimator. It is just of case of weighing up the work content and, using this experience, stating a probable time for completion, such as "this job will take about eight days to complete". b. Category estimating. This is a form of range estimating and requires a knowledge of the work. Estimators may not feel comfortable with overall, analytical estimates upon which may depend the outlay of a great deal of money. They often prefer giving a range estimate such as "this job should take between 12 weeks and 14 weeks to complete", which provides a safety net should things go wrong. Such ranges are not just picked upon at random but are statistically calculated and based on probability theory. c. Comparative estimating. This is another example of range estimating. Again, estimators rely on experience of the work in order to produce estimates. This experience can be augmented by the provision of each time-range with a few typical, descriptive, jobs that would guide estimators to the most appropriate range. The estimator would compare the work to be estimated with those in the various ranges until the most appropriate fit is found.

Timing.

The intermediate method between the two groups above is timing the work in some way, usually with a stop-watch or computerized electronic study board. This method is retrospective in that the job must be seen in action in order to be timed whereas the other methods are prospective and can be used for timing jobs before they start. The observer times each element of the work and obtains times that the observed operator takes to do the elements. Each timing is adjusted (rated) by the pace at which the operator was working as assessed by the observer. This produces basic times for the elements and hence the whole job, which are independent of the operator and can be used as the time for a trained, experienced worker to carry out the same elements. The reader is referred to the Topic on time study in this Website. Another method of assessing the work is using activity sampling and rated activity sampling. This is a method based on the observer making snap observations at random or systematic sample times, observing what the operator is (or operators are) doing at the times of those observations (see the appropriate Topic).
Models:

A most useful method for standard or synthetic data-banks of job or element times is using computer models of the jobs. These are generated as mathematical formulae in which the observed data are inserted to compile a time for completion of the task or project. It is a useful method for recycling time standards for elements of basic work over and over again, only changing the values of the variables to suit each project. Definition: PMT Systems are methods of setting basic times for doing basic human activities necessary for carrying out a job or task.

The definition in BS 3138, Glossary of Terms Used in Work Study is: 'Tables of time data at defined rates of working for classified human movements and mental activities. Times for an operation or task are derived using precise conventions. Predetermined motion time data have also been developed for common combinations of basic human movements and mental activities'. Background The principle of analyzing work into into basic actions was first published by F. Gilbreth in 1920, as his Therbligs. The first commercial and internationally recognized system was devised in the 1930's to circumvent the banning by the government of the United States time study and the stop-watch as the means of measuring work performed on US government contracts. It was devised by Quick, Malcolm and Duncan under the title WorkFactor and appeared in 1938. Other methods followed, the main one, some ten years later, being Methods-Time Measurement (MTM). Both systems share basic similarities but are based on different standards of time. Outline description of PMTS The concept of PMTS is to analyse a job into its fundamental human activities, apply basic times for these from tables and synthesize them into a basic time for the complete job. The basic elements include the following:
y y y y

reach for an object or a location, grasp an object , touching it or closing the fingers around it, move an object a specified distance to a specified place, regrasp an object in order to locate it in a particular way, usually prior to: release an object to relinquish control on it,

other elements for assembling to, or inserting an object into, its intended location.

For each of these actions basic times are tabled. For example, in Work-Factor the time unit is one thousandth of a minute (the Work-Factor Time Unit) whereas in MTM the unit is one hundredthousandth of an hour (time measurement unit, tmu). The times for basic actions are adjusted for other factors which take into account such variables as:
y y

distances moved, in inches or centimetres difficulty in performing the actions, such as avoiding obstacles during moves, closeness of fit during assembling, weight of the object, all of which increase the times to carry out the basic actions.

The above basic motions cover most of the actions performed by humans when carrying out work. Other basic activities include:
y y y y y

walking to a specified place bending down and stooping kneeling on one knee and kneeling on both knees foot and leg motions sitting down and standing.

Mental activities include times for: See, Inspect, Identify, Nerve Conduct, React, Eye focus, Eye travel times, Memorize, Recall, Compute (calculate) and others, mostly from Work-Factor. Levels of detail in systems In order to speed up measurement time the major systems all include different levels of detail, such as: 1. most detailed systems: MTM and Detailed Work-Factor 2. Second level systems: MTM-2 and Ready Work-Factor (abridged versions) achieved usually by the four methods of combining, statistically averaging, substituting and/or eliminating certain basic motions. 3. Third level systems: MTM-3 and Abbreviated Work-Factor (even more abridged)

4. "higher level" systems, usually times for complete activities. One example of simplifying in the second level system MTM-2 is the combining of MTM elements reach, grasp and release to produce a new MTM-2 element of "Get". PMTS is often used to generate synthetic data or (standard data banks) which are overall basic times for more complex tasks such as maintenance or overhauling of equipment. This is achieved by synthesizing the hundreds of small jobs measured using PMTS into a time for the complete project. Basic times produced by PMTS need to have relaxation allowances and other necessary allowances added to produce standard times. An example of part of a typical analysis in MTM-2 is given in the Appendix. An extract from an MTM analysis showing the first seven elements.
MTM Analysis Job description: Assemble r.f. transformer to base-plate El. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Description Move hand to washer Grasp first washer Move hand clear of container Palm washer To second washer Grasp washer Move washers to area Analyst: Date: E J H 3 May

LH tmu's RH Description R14C 15.6 R14B Move hand to transformer G4B 9.1 G1A Grasp transformer M2B ----- Hold in box G2 5.6 --- ditto R2C 5.9 --- ditto G4B 9.1 --- ditto M10B 16.9 M14C Transformer to plate

Notes on descriptions of some of the codes as examples.

The codes in the LH and RH columns refer to those in the MTM time tables. For example: R14C is translated as "Reach 14 in. to an object jumbled with other objects in a group, so that search and select occur" (Class C reach). R14B is translated as "Reach 14 in. to a single object in location which may vary slightly from cycle to

cycle." G2 is a grasp Case 2 which is a Regrasp to move the washer into the palm G4B is a Grasp Case 4B which is for grasping *object jumbled with other objects so search and select occur. Objects within the range 0.25 x 0.25 x 0.125 in. to 1 x 1 x 1 inch." Activity Sampling What is it ? Activity Sampling is a statistical technique that can be used as a means for collecting data. It is defined by BS 3138:41008 as: A technique in which a large number of observations are made over a period of time of one group of machines, processes or workers. Each observation records what is happening at that instant and the percentage of observations recorded for a particular activity or delay is a measure of the percentage of time during which that activity or delay occurs. It is normally used for collecting information on the percentages of time spent on activities, without the need to devote the time that would otherwise be required for any continuous observation. One of the great advantages of this technique is that it enables lengthy activities or groups of activities to be studied economically and in a way that produces statistically accurate data. Fixed and Random Interval Sampling Activity Sampling can be carried out at random intervals or fixed intervals. Random activity sampling is where the intervals between observations are selected at random e.g. from a table of random numbers. Fixed interval activity sampling is where the same interval exists between observations. A decision will need to be made on which of these two approaches is to be chosen. A fixed interval is usually chosen where activities are performed by a person or group of people who have a degree of control over what they do and when they do it. Random intervals will normally be used where there are a series of automated tasks or activities as part of a process, that are have to be performed in a pre established regular pattern. If fixed interval sampling were to be used in this situation there is a

danger that the sampling point would continue to occur at the same point in the activity cycle. Confidence Levels Remember, that activity sampling is used for assessing the percentage of time spent on activities. Because activity sampling conforms to the binomial distribution it is possible to use a calculation to determine how many observations will be needed to operate within specified limits of accuracy. The formula for the number of observations is as follows:
=

(100 - p)

L2 Where p is the estimated % time spent on the activity Where L is the limit of error, expressed as a % Once the above calculation has been completed the observations can begin and activities are recorded at the agreed time intervals. When they have been completed a further calculation can be used to determine the error rate, as follows: Error Rate = 2
x

( p x (100 - p) )

Number of observations This is very much an overview to the topic of activity sampling, with a definition of what it is, its advantage over continuous observation and the formulae that can be used to establish the confidence levels that can be obtained.

Analytical estimating What is it ? Analytical estimating is a structured work measurement technique. The formal BSI definition (22022) states that it is a development of estimating, in which the time required to perform each constituent part of a task at a defined rate of working is estimated from knowledge and practical experience of the work and/or from synthetic data An important feature of this technique, which helps to improve accuracy, is that a whole job should be broken down into smaller individual tasks. This is because any errors in the time estimates may be seen as random and will therefore compensate for each other. How can it be used ? Analytical estimating would normally be used for assessing work over a reasonably lengthy period of time, where it may be difficult and more expensive to collect the information required using other measurement techniques. Also, in some work environments the presence of an individual carrying out work measurement in the work place could be unacceptable. In these cases, analytical estimating may be an appropriate method to use, assuming someone with experience of the work is available to apply their experienced judgement. ( This may be work measurement personnel who have previous experience of this particular work ) However, the work content of some jobs cannot be estimated in advance because one is unclear about what is required until an assembly operation has been tested or stripped down. For example, during the progress of repair unforeseen and non standard difficulties can arise. Removing a wooden door from its frame by unscrewing 8 or 12 screws could take five minutes if the screws were recently inserted, or a great deal longer if the screws are rusted and clogged with paint. In summary, the technique is used most commonly in any work environment where a lengthy time (and associated high cost) is needed to collect data.

Advantages & Disadvantages Perhaps the most significant advantage of using anaytical estimating is its speed of application and low cost. Using trained and experienced personnel process and measurement data can be quickly assembled and applied. However, the use of experienced judgement when determining the time necessary to perform a task is the technique's most obvious source of weakness when compared with a more precise technique such as time study. This is why the technique would not normally be used when a more precise and accurate alternative is a feasible and economic alternative, particularly to highly repetitive, standardised operations. Many jobs, such as craft work in the maintenance field, consist of a group of tasks which are periodically repeated but the precise nature of each task varies each time in minor respects ( see research on Natural & Normal Variation for further explanation). In this example, since it is impractical, in terms of time and cost, to allocate one time study observer permanently to each craftsman, the alternative is to use a time-study basis plus the experienced judgement of an ex-craft work-study observer to allow for detailed task variations. Time study What is it? Time study is a tried and tested method of work measurement for setting basic times and hence standard times for carrying out specified work. Its roots are back to the period between the two World Wars. The aim of time study is to establish a time for a qualified worker to perform specified work under stated conditions and at a defined rate of working. This is achieved by a qualified practitioner observing the work, recording what is done and then timing (using a time measuring device) and simultaneously rating (assessing) the pace of working. The requirements for taking a time study are quite strict.

Conditions:
y

the practitioner (observer) must be fully qualified to carry out Time Study, the person performing the task must be fully trained and experienced in the work, the work must be clearly defined and the method of doing the work must be effective the working conditions must be clearly defined

There are two main essentials for establishing a basic time for specified work i.e. rating and timing. Some terminology explained Timing The observer records the actual time taken to do the element or operation. This usually is in centiminutes (0.01 min.) and is recorded, using a stop-watch or computerized study board. Rating. When someone is doing work his/her way of working will vary throughout the working period and will be different from others doing the same work. This is due to differing speeds of movement, effort, dexterity and consistency. Thus, the time taken for one person to do the work may not be the same as that for others and may or may not be 'reasonable' anyway. The purpose of rating is to adjust the actual time to a standardized basic time that is appropriate and at a defined level of performance. Rating is on a scale with 100 as its standard rating. (Managers-net Website topic Rating). Elements A complete job usually will be too long and variable to time and rate in one go, so it would be analysed into several smaller parts (elements) which, separately, will each be timed and rated.

Basic time This is the standardised time for carrying out an element of work at standard rating. Example: An observer times an element as 30 centiminutes (cm) and because it is performed more slowly than the standard 100, herates it as 95. Thus the basic time is 95% of 30 or 28.5 basic cm. The formula is: (actual time x rating)/100. Allowances Extra time is allowed for various conditions which obtain, the main ones being relaxation allowance for: A. recovery from the effort of carrying out specified work under specified conditions (fatigue allowance) B. attention to personal needs C. adverse environmental conditions, plus: D. others concerned with machine operations Frequency The basic time is the time for a complete cycle to be performed but as not all elements are repeated in every cycle their times per average cycle must be pro rata. In the example which follows, element 2 only occurs once every eight cycles so its basic time is one eighth of the element time, per cycle. Similar treatment for element 7 (one twelfth). Standard time: Basic time + allowances An example of a time study - extracts from the two main documents in time study follow:

Time study observation sheet Goods summary Department: Main Stores Section: Inwards 10.35 A study ends: am E. Section head: 10.03 Thompson B study starts: am J.Allen 12 July Analyst Date: C study time: 32 min. 1.68 D check times: min. total study 33.68 E time: min. Raise and process Goods Received Operation: F elapsed time: 34 min. Note 0.32 G difference F-E min. timing error: H 0.9% G/F% Element number 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 3 4 (etc.) Element Description Look out relevant Purchase Demand (PD) Obtain pad of Goods Received notes (GR) Make out GR note Pin green copy to PD and place in internal post bin File white copy Pin other 3 copies to goods and place goods on pallet repeat rating 90 80 80 90 75 80 80 75 75 observed time (cm) 30 95 45 10 22 17 33 46 10 (etc. etc..) basic time (cm) 27.0 76.0 36.0 9.0 16.5 13.6 26.4 34.5 7.5

(etc. etc.)

Time study analysis sheet Department: Section head: Operation: Main Stores E. Thompson Raise and process Goods Received Note Section: Date: Analyst Goods Inwards 12 July J.Allen

El.

Element Description Look out relevant Purchase Demand (PD) Obtain pad of Goods Received notes (GR) Make out GR note Pin green copy to PD and place in internal post bin File white copy Pin other 3 copies to goods and place goods on pallet Move pallet to stores

basic times (b.min) basic b.t. x frequency t. freq. 29 75 38 9 15 17 96 1/1 1/8 1/1 1/1 1/1 1/1 1/12 0.290 0.094 0.380 0.090 0.150 0.170 0.080

RA% std.mins. (sm) 10 10 10 10 10 15 18 total sm = 0.319 0.103 0.418 0.099 0.165 0.196 0.094 1.394

1 2 3 4 5 6 7