KENNETH O.

DOYLE and SEOUNMI YOUN

EXPLORING THE TRAITS OF HAPPY PEOPLE

(Accepted 26 February, 2000)

ABSTRACT. This paper explores self-reported happiness across a fourfold personality framework that synthesizes psychoanalytic and psychometric approaches to personality structure. Using survey data from a representative sample of the U.S. adult population, we identied four personality types rooted in two basic dimensions Extraversion/Introversion and Tendermindedness/Toughmindedness. On a general level, we found that Extraverts were happier than Introverts, and Tendermindeds were happier than Toughmindeds. More specically, we identied patterns of similarities and differences across personality types in the meaning of happiness with respect to good eating habits, nancial insecurity, anxiety and tension, nancial optimism, and health concerns.

Down the ages and around the world, scholars from many disciplines have attempted to dene happiness and identify its components. Aristotle and his successors dened happiness as the state that results from having lived a virtuous life; they regarded happiness as the summum bonum of the human condition, the supreme good (MacIntyre, 1984). More recent thinkers have viewed happiness as a global assessment of quality of life (e.g., Shin and Johnson, 1978), or simply as positive affect, a pleasant emotional experience (Bradburn, 1969; Campbell, 1981). Contemporary research has focused more on specic variables. One thrust has concentrated on specic demographic factors like age and gender (e.g., Argyle, 1987; Costa et al., 1987; Diener, 1984; Diener et al., 1992; Larson, 1989; Myers and Diener, 1995; Scheier and Carver, 1992, 1993; Veenhoven, 1984). But Myers and Diener (1995) argued that knowledge of demographic factors gives hardly a clue to understanding happiness. Happiness is similarly available to young and old, women and men, and so forth, they argued, and the proportion of variance in happiness that can be explained by demographic variables is very small (Andrews and Withey, 1976; Diener, 1984).
Social Indicators Research 52: 195209, 2000. 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

196

KENNETH O. DOYLE AND SEOUNMI YOUN

The other chief contemporary research thrust is the study of personality traits associated with happiness. The argument in this research (Tatarkiewicz, 1976) is that internal factors (e.g., temperament) are more important to happiness than external factors (e.g., money). Myers and Dieners (1995) conclusion that personality factors are far more illuminating than demographic factors has led to an increasing number of studies on the psychological causes of happiness. The present paper, too, concerns the relationship of personality traits and happiness, but it tries to offer a fresh perspective by integrating two competing traditions that differ in vocabulary, methodology, and practitioner values: traditional psychoanalysis and contemporary psychometrics. Despite their differences, these two disciplines show an interest in covariation and structure. In psychoanalysis, this interest produced collection of personality types; in psychometrics, it produced dimensions of personality. Many psychoanalysts take the position that happiness is the satisfaction of a long-held desire (Freud, 1930/1961), and that satisfaction, and therefore happiness, varies with psychological type. To Freud, each successive type, or stage, is healthier than the preceding, hence some forms of happiness are healthier than others. To Jung, in contrast, the types are neither better nor worse, just different, each with its own principal need, satisfaction, and source of happiness (Doyle, 1999: 23940). For the most part, however, psychoanalysis concentrates not on happiness but on psychopathology. Most psychometricians propose that happiness is simply another word for life satisfaction. They take the position that happiness varies with personality dimensions: e.g., varies positively with extraversion (Argyle and Lu, 1990; Diener, 1984; Diener et al., 1992; Emmons and Diener, 1986; Myers and Diener, 1995), self-esteem (Campbell, 1981), a sense of control (Campbell, 1981; Larson, 1989) and optimism (Dember and Brooks, 1989; Diener, 1984; Larson, 1989; Myers and Diener, 1995; Scheier and Carver, 1992; Seligman, 1991; Veenhoven, 1984). Thus, each of these variables is a component of happiness. In the present paper we examine self-reported happiness across a fourfold personality framework that synthesizes the psychoanalytic

EXPLORING THE TRAITS OF HAPPY PEOPLE

197

and psychometric approaches to personality structure, we present sets of items that measure the dimensions of this framework, and we examine the connections between these measures and various correlates of happiness. Finally, we discuss how our data conrm some traditional ndings, present some new ndings, and offer some new interpretations of old ndings.

METHOD

We used data from the DDB Needham 1995 Life Style Survey an annual standing-panel quota sample similar to the U.S. adult population in age, gender, income, geography, and other demographics. Of 5,000 questionnaires, usable responses were received from 1612 males and 2001 females. The Life Style Survey addresses a wide range of interests, opinions, activities, and personality traits. Measures. Of the items on the Life Style Survey, we limited ourselves to 1) personality traits, 2) happiness (life satisfaction; Campbell, Converse and Rodgers, 1976), and 3) probable correlates of happiness. Our personality traits comprised 58 adjectives rated on four-point Likert scales that ranged from 1 = Denitely wouldnt describe me to 4 = Denitely would describe me. Our life satisfaction measure comprised four six-point Disagree/Agree items, for example, I am very satised with the way things are going in my life these days. Scores on the life satisfaction scale ranged from 4 to 24, with an alpha of 0.73. The probable correlates of happiness comprised ve scales: Good Eating Habits (11 items), Financial Insecurity (7 items), Anxiety and Tension (5 items), Financial Optimism (3 items), and Health Concerns (4 items).

DATA ANALYSIS

Identifying Personality Dimensions and Psychological Types Factor analysis. Respondents answers to the fty-eight personality items were subjected to a series of principal components analyses, rotated to a Varimax solution. Since a major purpose of this analysis

198

KENNETH O. DOYLE AND SEOUNMI YOUN

was to match the four psychoanalytic types, we forced the extraction of two bipolar factors, which, when the vectors are crossed as Cartesian coordinates, would produce four categories (high vs. low Factor I crossed with high vs. low Factor II). Items showing high loadings on both factors were eliminated. The nal pair of factors (see Table I) accounted for 18.1% and 8.7% of the variance, respectively, with alpha reliabilities of 0.90 and 0.79. In psychoanalytic terms, high Factor I scores seem to describe focus on the external world, or Extraversion, while low scores describe just the opposite, focus on the interior life, or Introversion. People who are high on Factor I possess the component traits of sociability, zest, vigor, or domination, and the like, while people who are low on Factor I are non-sociable, introspective, and passive. Diener et al. (1992) note that Extraversion tends to predispose people toward positive affect regardless of the level of social contact. High Factor II scores are often associated with what James (1911) and Eysenck (1953/1970) called the Tenderminded orientation, while low scores describe the opposing Toughminded orientation. People who are high on Factor II tend to be more agreeable, altruistic, loving, forgiving, helpful, and trusting, while people low on Factor II are more likely to be self-focused, hostile, and rigid. We anticipate that Tenderminded people should report greater life satisfaction than Toughminded people. For further discussion of Introversion/Extraversion and Toughminded/Tenderminded, see Doyle (1999). Cluster analysis. To produce four categories that might correspond to the psychoanalysts types, we clustered people on the basis of the same pool of items we used in the nal factor analysis, the original 58 items minus the ve with high loadings on both factors. For each personality item, we created standardized z-scores and used these values in the cluster analysis. We named the four clusters Expressives, Analytics, Drivers, and Amiables, using Merrill and Reids (1981) terminology. To test the discriminant validity of the four clusters, we performed one-way ANOVAs on the mean factor scores for each factor. Table II presents the means, F-values, and signicance levels.

EXPLORING THE TRAITS OF HAPPY PEOPLE

199

Figure 1. Visual inspection of four clusters based on two dimensions.

Both ANOVAs are signicant at p < 0.001, indicating strong discriminant validity. Cluster I (29.9% of the sample; Expressives) comprises people characterized as both Extraverted and Tenderminded, i.e., who described themselves to be both more social/active/energetic/etc. and more agreeable/altruistic/etc. Cluster II (12.3%; Analytics) comprises people described as both Introverted and Toughminded, i.e., who said they were both less sociable/etc. and less agreeable/etc. Cluster III (28.0%; Drivers) refers to people described as both Extraverted and Toughminded, i.e., who reported themselves to be social/active/energetic, but not agreeable. Finally, Cluster IV (29.8%; Amiables) comprises people described as both Introverted and Tenderminded, i.e., who said they were less sociable, but more agreeable and altruistic (Figure 1). By visual inspection, our four groups of personality traits seem very similar to the traits Freud ascribed to his stages and Jung to his orientations. For further discussion of this correspondence, see Doyle (1999, Ch. 8).

200

KENNETH O. DOYLE AND SEOUNMI YOUN

TABLE I Varimax-rotated factor loadings for 53 adjective items

Adjectives Dynamic Exciting Winner Leader Sexy Interesting Clever Assertive Self-condent Attractive Daring Youthful Smart High-class Successful Fun Outspoken Life-of-the-party Up-to-date Stylish Athletic Physically t Creative Passionate Intellectual Rugged Vain Demanding Independent Romantic Wealthy Masculine Choosy Shy R Caring Extraversion/Introversion 72 68 64 64 63 62 61 61 58 57 57 54 54 53 53 51 51 49 47 46 45 45 44 42 42 39 39 39 37 36 32 32 28 24 13 Tenderminded/Toughminded 05 08 14 06 02 20 09 01 19 14 11 07 25 08 26 28 13 16 22 14 08 05 22 25 27 13 28 21 25 26 16 20 07 13 69

EXPLORING THE TRAITS OF HAPPY PEOPLE

201

TABLE I Continued
Adjectives Mature Friendly Honest Tolerant of others Patient Sensitive Practical Hardworking Easy-going Traditional Self-centered R Content Thrifty Reserved Humble Patriotic Feminine Serious Extraversion/Introversion 18 22 00 01 01 06 02 24 15 03 28 13 01 15 05 11 10 08 Tenderminded/Toughminded 61 55 55 55 54 52 50 48 47 42 38 37 37 36 35 32 30 30

Note. All loading multiplied by 100. The loadings above 0.30 given in boldface. R reverse-coded. TABLE II One-way ANOVA of two primary factors by four clusters
Expressives Analytics a b N respondents Extraversion/ Introversion Tenderminded/ Toughminded

Drivers c 863 mean 0.25abd

Amiables d

F-value

Sig.

924 mean 1.01bcd 0.50bcd

377 mean 1.23acd

917 mean 0.75abc 2129.724 p < 0.001 0.67abc 1136.355 p < 0.001

1.18acd 0.72abd

Mean of factor scores for each factor. a, b, c, and d indicate which means are signicantly different from each other via Post-Hoc tests LSD.

202

KENNETH O. DOYLE AND SEOUNMI YOUN

Potential Correlates of Happiness In order to test the validation of the four types, we examined similarities and differences across four groups in terms of variables potentially related to happiness or life satisfaction. For this purpose, we factor analyzed the 30 items from the Life Style Questionnaires that measured these concepts. This analysis yielded ve factors that generally conformed to the expected pattern of concepts (see Table III), accounting for 50.42% of the variance in total. The rst factor was comprised of items concerning good eating habits (e.g., I try to avoid foods that are high in fat). The second factor was consisted of items concerning nancial security (e.g., No matter how fast our income goes up we never seem to get ahead). The third factor was composed of items reecting anxiety and tension (e.g., Everything is changing too fast today). The fourth factor represents nancial optimism (e.g., I will probably have more money to spend next year than I have now). The last factor describes health concerns (e.g., I have troubles getting to sleep). Negatively loading items were reverse coded, and Cronbachs alpha was calculated for each factor. The health conditions factor had an alpha of 0.51, borderline reliability even for an exploratory study. The remainder had alphas of 0.89, 0.83, 0.70, and 0.71, respectively. For subsequent analysis, responses to items are summed, with higher scores indicating greater agreement for each concept.

RESULTS

Life Satisfaction Table IV (F = 19.775, p < 0.001) shows that Expressives were satised most with their life as a whole (M = 15.35), while Analytics were satised least with theirs (M = 13.16). Amiables and Drivers are in between, and very similar to each other (Amiables; M = 14.77, Drivers; M = 14.72). This pattern is consistent with the general nding that Extraverts are happier than Introverts (Diener et al. 1992), and our additional suggestion that Tendermindeds should be happier than Toughmindeds.

EXPLORING THE TRAITS OF HAPPY PEOPLE

203

TABLE III Internal consistency alpha coefcients and factor loadings for good eating habits, nancial insecurity, anxiety and tension, nancial optimism, health concerns scale
Scales No. of items 11 Alpha Factor loading 82 78 70 70 69 68 68 67 64 62 58 7 0.83 75 75 73 68 66 64 61 5 0.70 69 66 61 59 58 3 0.71 85 76 68 4 0.51 68 63 55 53

Good Eating Habits I try to avoid foods that are high in fat. I try to avoid foods that are high in cholesterol. I am concerned about how much sugar I eat I try to avoid foods with a high salt content I use a lot of low calorie or calorie reduced products. I try to avoid fried foods. I make a special effort to get enough ber in my diet. I try to select foods that are fortied with vitamins, minerals, and protein. I am careful about what I eat in order to keep my weight under control. I try to avoid foods that have additives in them. I am concerned about getting enough calcium in my diet. Financial Insecurity No matter how fast our income goes up we never seem to get ahead. Our family is too heavily in debt. If I lost my job tomorrow, I could get by for several months on my current savings and investments. Saving for the future is a luxury I cant afford right now. Credit cards have gotten me into too much debt. Our family income is high enough to satisfy nearly all our important desires. I am not very good at saving money. Anxiety and Tension I wish I knew how to relax. I feel like Im so busy trying to make everybody else happy that I dont have control of my own life. I dread the future. Everything is changing too fast today. I feel I am under a great deal of pressure most of the time. Financial Optimism Five years from now our family income will probably be a lot higher than it is now. I will probably have more money to spend next year than I have now. My greatest achievements are still ahead of me. Health Concerns I get more headaches than most people. If I dont feel well, I take a pain reliever or other medication right away. I frequently get indigestion. I have trouble getting to sleep.

0.89

Note. All loading multiplied by 100.

204

KENNETH O. DOYLE AND SEOUNMI YOUN

TABLE IV One-way ANOVA of life satisfaction scale by four clusters

Expressives Analytics Drivers Amiables F-value a b c d N respondents Life Satisfaction 924 mean 15.35bcd 377 863 917 mean mean mean 13.17acd 14.72ab 14.77ab Sig.

19.775 p < 0.001

Note: a, b, c, and d indicate which means are signicantly different from each other via Post-Hoc tests LSD. Life satisfaction scale has four items. Items are: (1) I wish I could leave my present life and do something entirely different (R). (2) I am very satised with the way things are going in my life these days. (3) If I had my life to live over, I would sure do things differently (R). (4) Sometimes I feel that I dont have enough control over the direction my life is taking (R).

Other Factors Potentially Related to Life Satisfaction Rousseau placed the source of happiness in a good bank account, good digestion, and a good cook (Diener, 1984). We compare the four personality groups for happiness differences in good eating habits, nancial insecurity, anxiety and tension, nancial optimism, and health concerns. Table V shows the means, Fs, and probabilities for one-way ANOVAs testing for group differences across these variables. All Fs were signicant at p < 0.001, indicating signicant variation in the totality. Post-hoc LSD comparisons indicated that the most pronounced differences among four of the ve variables were consistently between the Expressive and Analytic groups. Good eating habits. The post-hoc comparisons on Good Eating Habits are signicant (p < 0.001) for Expressives (M = 42.40) and Amiables (M = 42.43) on the one hand, and Drivers (M = 38.68) and Analytics (M = 39.69) on the other, with the former the Tendermindeds reporting better eating habits than the latter. The results imply that people who feel happier, Expressives and Amiables, are more likely to engage in healthier eating behaviors than people

EXPLORING THE TRAITS OF HAPPY PEOPLE

205

TABLE V One-way ANOVA of life satisfaction related scales by four clusters

Scales Expressives Analytics Drivers Amiables F-value a b c d 924 mean 42.40bc 22.15bcd 15.44bcd 13.06bcd 10.79bcd 377 mean 39.69ad 24.64acd 17.74acd 9.62acd 11.73a 863 mean 38.68ad 23.04ab 16.07abd 12.11abd 11.32a Sig.

N respondents Good Eating Habits Financial Insecurity Anxiety and Tension Financial Optimism Health Concerns

917 mean 42.43bc 21.356 p < 0.001 23.07ab 7.132 p < 0.001 16.25abc 21.087 p < 0.001 10.60abc 121.201 p < 0.001 11.31a 5.402 p < 0.001

Note: a, b, c, and d indicate which means are signicantly different from each other via Post-Hoc tests LSD.

who feel less happy, though the direction of causality cannot be determined from these data. Financial insecurity. Contrasts for nancial insecurity are signicant for all pairings except Driver vs. Amiable. The strongest contrast is for Expressives (M = 22.15) vs. Analytics (M = 24.64), indicating that people who feel happier also feel more nancially secure. Anxiety and tension. The LSD contrasts, consistent with Larson (1989) and Langer (1975, 1983), show that the differences among all pairs of personality groups are signicant at p < 0.05. The group with the lowest life satisfaction, Analytics (M = 17.74), showed the highest anxiety and tension, whereas the group with the highest life satisfaction, Expressives (M = 15.44), showed the lowest. Our anxiety and tension scale contains a strong loss-of-control component, and perceived loss of control is widely viewed as an indicator of clinical depression (Martin, Abramson and Alloy, 1984). Financial optimism. The Financial Optimism contrasts are signicant for all pairings, but reversed in direction from Financial Insecurity. The most pronounced difference is again between the Expressive and Analytic groups, with Expressives reporting highest

206

KENNETH O. DOYLE AND SEOUNMI YOUN

optimism (M = 13.06), Analytics lowest (M = 9.62). This nding is consistent with Dember and Brooks (1989), Scheier and Carver (1992, 1993) and Seligman (1991) in the sense that happy people are usually optimistic. Health concerns. The only signicant contrast for Health Concerns was between the Expressive group (M = 10.79) on the one hand, and the Analytic, Driver, and Amiable groups on the other (M = 11.73, 11.32, and 11.31, respectively). Expressives the nancial optimists were also the most positive about their health. This nding seems consistent with, for example, Edwards and Klemmacks (1973) and Larsons (1978) sizable relationship between good health and life satisfaction, as well as occasional negative connections between physical discomfort and happiness (e.g., Argyle, 1987; Diener, 1984).

DISCUSSION

This exploration of the correlates of happiness in various personality types conrms some traditional ndings and provides some new ones. It also adds some new interpretations to old ndings. What it conrms is the widely accepted connection between happiness and extraverted traits like optimism and sociability (e.g., Diener et al., 1992), as well as the disjuncture between happiness and negative experiences (e.g., Diener, 1984; Argyle, 1987). What it adds, in general, is specication of the connections between these variables and personality type dened through a synthesis of psychoanalytic and psychometric thinking. In particular, we introduce a Tough/Tender dimension that is common in the personality literature but uncommon in happiness research. This study showed that the Tough/Tender dimension is a meaningful correlate of happiness, indicating that Tendermindeds will generally feel happier than Toughmindeds. The lions share of signicant variation in the overall set of personality types, except for Good Eating Habits, is attributable to the Expressive/Analytic dimension. Doyle (1999) denes this dimension in terms of optimism/pessimism, exibility/rigidity, and expression/reservation in psychoanalytic terms, expulsion vs.

EXPLORING THE TRAITS OF HAPPY PEOPLE

207

retention. This is not surprising, because Anxiety/Tension, Financial Security, Financial Optimism, and even Health Concerns seem united by a freedom/control dimension. Much of the happiness, or life satisfaction, research seems to be consistent with these psychoanalytic interpretations. At the same time, many of the differences also occur on the Driver/Amiable dimension, just not so markedly. Future research on happiness could protably look for life arenas in which the variables underlying Driver/Amiable might especially relate to happiness, e.g., acquisitiveness/afliativeness and competition/cooperation. This study also suggests a new interpretation of old data. Doyle (1999) has connected these four personality types to the four kinds of character disorder described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-IV) of the American Psychiatric Association. Of particular interest here is the connection between the Expressive type and such disorders as hysteria and narcissism, both of which contain a denial component denying the negative side of life and the connection between the Analytical type and obsessive/compulsive and avoidant disorders, both of which contain a hypervigilance component watching too closely for lifes troubles. If this link can be strengthened by further research, the fundamental explanation for the observed differences may be that Expressives deny dissatisfaction while Analytics dwell on it. These inclinations, in turn, may be related to such neurophysiological conditions as greater or lesser amounts of dopamine in the brain. Doyle (1999, Ch. 9) and Cloninger et al. (1993) provide further elaboration. On the methodological level, while our sample is quite strong, our measurement is simple self-report scales. Future research might employ alternative measures (e.g., depth interview or open-ended questions). It might also explore the vexing question of response style in happiness research: Is the observed correlation between happiness and optimism due not to a true underlying association but to a pattern of yea-saying in optimist ratings, nay-saying in pessimist ratings, or are yea-saying and nay-saying just another pair of variables that correlated with happiness?

208

KENNETH O. DOYLE AND SEOUNMI YOUN

REFERENCES Andrews, F. M. and S. B. Withey: 1976, Social Indicators of Well-Being: Americas Perception of Life Quality (Plenum Press, New York). Argyle, M.: 1987, The Psychology of Happiness (Methuen and Co, New York). Argyle, M. and L. Lu: 1990, The happiness of extraverts, Personality and Individual Difference 11(10), pp. 10111017. Bradburn, N. M.: 1969, The Structure of Psychological Well-Being (Aldine, Chicago). Campbell, A.: 1981, The Sense of Well-being in America: Recent Patterns and Trends (McGraw-Hill, New York). Campbell, A., P. E. Converse and W. L. Rodgers: 1976, The Quality of American Life (Sage, New York). Costa, Paul T., Jr., R. R. MaCrae and A. B. Zonderman: 1987, Environmental and dispositional inuences on well-being: Longitudinal follow-up of an American national sample, British Journal of Psychology 78, pp. 299306. Cloninger, C. R., D. M. Svrakic and M. Przybeck: 1993, A psychobiological model of temperament and character, Archives of General Psychiatry 50, pp. 975990. Dember, W. N. and J. Brooks: 1989, A new instrument for measuring optimism and Pessimism: Test-retest reliability and relations with happiness and religious Commitment, Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 27, pp. 365366. Diener, E.: 1984, Subjective well-being, Psychological Bulletin 95(3), pp. 542 575. Diener, E., E. Sandvik, W. Pavot and F. Fujita: 1992, Extraversion and subjective well-being in a U.S. national probability sample, Journal of Research in Personality 26, pp. 205215. Doyle, K. O.: 1999, The Social Meanings of Money and Property: In Search of a Talisman (Sage, Thousand Oaks CA). Edwards, N. J. and D. L. Klemmack: 1973, Correlates of life satisfaction: A re-examination, Journal of Gerontology 28, pp. 497502. Emmons, R. A. and E. Diener: 1986, Inuence of impulsivity and sociability on subjective well-being, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50, pp. 12111215. Eysenck, H.: 1953/1970, The Structure of Human Personality (Wiley, New York). Freud, S.: 1930/1961, Civilization and Its Discontents (tr. J. Strachey) (Norton, New York), p. 23. James, W.: 1911, Pragmatism (Longmans Green, New York). Langer, E. J.: 1975, The illusion of control, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32, pp. 311328. Langer, E. J.: 1983, The Illusion of Control (Sage, Beverly Hills, CA). Larson, R.: 1978, Thirty years of research on the subjective well-being of elder Americans, Journal of Gerontology 33(1), pp. 109125. Larson, R.: 1989, Is feeling in control related to happiness in daily life?, Psychological Reports 64, pp. 775784.

EXPLORING THE TRAITS OF HAPPY PEOPLE

209

MacIntyre, A.: 1984, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory, 2nd edn. (Notre Dame University Press, Notre Dame IN). Martin, D. J., L. Y. Abramson and L. B. Alloy: 1984, Illusion of control for self and others in depressed and nondepressed college students, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46, pp. 125136. Merrill, D. and R. Reid: 1981, Personal Styles and Effective Performance (Chilton, Radnor PA). Myers, D. G. and E. Diener: 1995, Who is happy?, Psychological Science 6(1), pp. 1019. Scheier, M. F. and C. S. Carver: 1992, Effects of optimism and psychological and physical well-being: Theoretical overview and empirical update, Cognitive Therapy and Research 16(2), pp. 201228. Scheier, M. F. and C. S. Carver: 1993, On the power of positive thinking: The benets Of being optimistic, Current Directions in Psychological Science 2(1), pp. 2630. Seligman, M. E. P.: 1991, Learned Optimism (Random House, New York). Shin, D. C. and D. M. Johnson: 1978, Avowed happiness as an overall assessment of the quality of life, Social Indicators Research 5, pp. 475492. Tatarkiewicz, W.: 1976, Analysis of Happiness. (Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Netherlands). Veenhoven, R.: 1984, Conditions of Happiness (D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrechy, Holland).

School of Journalism and Mass Communication University of Minnesota, Twin Cities 111 Murphy Hall 206 Church St. S.E. Minneapolis, MN 55455, U.S.A. E-mail: KenDoyle@umn.edu and hanyo001@gold.tc.umn.edu