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Deptt Of Electronics

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Ohms Law
The relationship between Voltage, Current and Resistance in any DC electrical circuit was firstly discovered by the German physicist Georg Ohm, (1787 - 1854). Georg Ohm found that, at a constant temperature, the electrical current flowing through a fixed linear resistance is directly proportional to the voltage applied across it, and also inversely proportional to the resistance. This relationship between the Voltage, Current and Resistance forms the bases of Ohms Law and is shown below. Ohms Law Relationship

By knowing any two values of the Voltage, Current or Resistance quantities we can use Ohms Law to find the third missing value. Ohms Law is used extensively in electronics formulas and calculations so it is "very important to understand and accurately remember these formulas". To find Voltage (V) [V = I x R] V (volts) = I (amps) x R ( ) To find Current (I) [I = V R] I (amps) = V (volts) R ( ) To find Resistance (R) [R = V I] R ( ) = V (volts) I (amps) It is sometimes easier to remember Ohms law relationship by using pictures. Here the three quantities of V, I and R have been superimposed into a triangle (affectionately called the Ohms Law Triangle) giving voltage at the top with current and resistance at the bottom. This arrangement represents the actual position of each quantity in the Ohms law formulas. Ohms Law Triangle

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Deptt Of Electronics

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Then by using Ohms Law we can see that a voltage of 1V applied to a resistor of 1 and the greater the resistance, the less current will flow for any applied voltage

will cause a current of 1A to flow

Kirchoff's First Law - The Current Law, (KCL) Kirchoff's Current Law or KCL, states that the "total current or charge entering a junction or node is exactly equal to the charge leaving the node as it has no other place to go except to leave, as no charge is lost within the node". In other words the algebraic sum of ALL the currents entering and leaving a node must be equal to zero, I(exiting) + I(entering) = 0. This idea by Kirchoff is known as the Conservation of Charge. Kirchoff's Current Law

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Here, the 3 currents entering the node, I1, I2, I3 are all positive in value and the 2 currents leaving the node, I4 and I5 are negative in value. Then this means we can also rewrite the equation as; I1 + I2 + I3 - I4 - I5 = 0 The term Node in an electrical circuit generally refers to a connection or junction of two or more current carrying paths or elements such as cables and components. Also for current to flow either in or out of a node a closed circuit path must exist. We can use Kirchoff's current law when analysing parallel circuits. Kirchoff's Second Law - The Voltage Law, (KVL) Kirchoff's Voltage Law or KVL, states that "in any closed loop network, the total voltage around the loop is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops within the same loop" which is also equal to zero. In other words the algebraic sum of all voltages within the loop must be equal to zero. This idea by Kirchoff is known as the Conservation of Energy. Kirchoff's Voltage Law

Starting at any point in the loop continue in the same direction noting the direction of all the voltage drops, either positive or negative, and returning back to the same starting point. It is important to maintain the same direction either clockwise or anti-clockwise or the final voltage sum will not be equal to zero. We can use Kirchoff's voltage law when analysing series circuits. When analysing either DC circuits or AC circuits using Kirchoff's Circuit Laws a number of definitions and terminologies are used to describe the parts of the circuit being analysed such as:

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Deptt Of Electronics

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node, paths, branches, loops and meshes. These terms are used frequently in circuit analysis so it is important to understand them.
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Circuit - a circuit is a closed loop conducting path in which an electrical current flows. Path - a line of connecting elements or sources with no elements or sources included more than once. Node - a node is a junction, connection or terminal within a circuit were two or more circuit elements are connected or joined together giving a connection point between two or more branches. A node is indicated by a dot. Branch - a branch is a single or group of components such as resistors or a source which are connected between two nodes. Loop - a loop is a simple closed path in a circuit in which no circuit element or node is encountered more than once. Mesh - a mesh is a single open loop that does not have a closed path. No components are inside a mesh. Components are connected in series if they carry the same current. Components are connected in parallel if the same voltage is across them.

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Example No1 Find the current flowing in the 40 Resistor, R3

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The circuit has 3 branches, 2 nodes (A and B) and 2 independent loops. Using Kirchoff's Current Law, KCL the equations are given as; At node A :I1 + I2 = I3 At node B :I3 = I1 + I2 Using Kirchoff's Voltage Law, KVL the equations are given as; Loop 1 is given as :10 = R1 x I1 + R3 x I3 = 10I1 + 40I3 Loop 2 is given as :20 = R2 x I2 + R3 x I3 = 20I2 + 40I3 Loop 3 is given as :10 - 20 = 10I1 - 20I2 As I3 is the sum of I1 + I2 we can rewrite the equations as; Eq. No 1 :10 = 10I1 + 40(I1 + I2) = 50I1 + 40I2 Eq. No 2 :20 = 20I2 + 40(I1 + I2) = 40I1 + 60I2 We now have two "Simultaneous Equations" that can be reduced to give us the value of both I1 and I2 Substitution of I1 in terms of I2 gives us the value of I1 as -0.143 Amps
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Substitution of I2 in terms of I1 gives us the value of I2 as +0.429 Amps As :I3 = I1 + I2 The current flowing in resistor R3 is given as :-0.143 + 0.429 = 0.286 Amps and the voltage across the resistor R3 is given as : 0.286 x 40 = 11.44 volts The negative sign for I1 means that the direction of current flow initially chosen was wrong, but never the less still valid. In fact, the 20v battery is charging the 10v battery. Application of Kirchoff's Circuit Laws These two laws enable the Currents and Voltages in a circuit to be found, ie, the circuit is said to be "Analysed", and the basic procedure for using Kirchoff's Circuit Laws is as follows:
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1. Assume all voltage sources and resistances are given. (If not label them V1, V2 ..., R1, R2etc) 2. Label each branch with a branch current. (I1, I2, I3etc) 3. Find Kirchoff's first law equations for each node. 4. Find Kirchoff's second law equations for each of the independent loops of the circuit. 5. Use Linear simultaneous equations as required to find the unknown currents. Mesh Analysis Circuit

One simple method of reducing the amount of math's involved is to analyse the circuit using Kirchoff's Current Law equations to determine the currents, I1and I2 flowing in the two resistors. Then there is no need to calculate the current I3 as its just the sum of I1and I2. So Kirchoff's second voltage law simply becomes:
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Equation No 1 : 10 = 50I1 + 40I2 Equation No 2 : 20 = 40I1 + 60I2


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Deptt Of Electronics

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therefore, one line of math's calculation have been saved. Mesh Current Analysis A more easier method of solving the above circuit is by using Mesh Current Analysis or Loop Analysis which is also sometimes called Maxwells Circulating Currents method. Instead of labelling the branch currents we need to label each "closed loop" with a circulating current. As a general rule of thumb, only label inside loops in a clockwise direction with circulating currents as the aim is to cover all the elements of the circuit at least once. Any required branch current may be found from the appropriate loop or mesh currents as before using Kirchoffs method. For example: :i1 = I1 , i2 = -I2 and I3 = I1 - I2 We now write Kirchoff's voltage law equation in the same way as before to solve them but the advantage of this method is that it ensures that the information obtained from the circuit equations is the minimum required to solve the circuit as the information is more general and can easily be put into a matrix form. For example, consider the circuit from the previous section.

These equations can be solved quite quickly by using a single mesh impedance matrix Z. Each element ON the principal diagonal will be "positive" and is the total impedance of each mesh. Where as, each element OFF the principal diagonal will either be "zero" or "negative" and represents the circuit element connecting all the appropriate meshes. This then gives us a matrix of:

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Where:
y y y

[ V ] gives the total battery voltage for loop 1 and then loop 2. [ I ] states the names of the loop currents which we are trying to find. [ R ] is called the resistance matrix. and this gives I1 as -0.143 Amps andI2 as -0.429 Amps As :I3 = I1 - I2 The current I3 is therefore given as :-0.143 - (-0.429) = 0.286 Amps which is the same value of 0.286 amps, we found usingKirchoffs circuit law in the previous tutorial. Mesh Current Analysis Summary. This "look-see" method of circuit analysis is probably the best of all the circuit analysis methods with the basic procedure for solving Mesh Current Analysis equations is as follows:

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1. Label all the internal loops with circulating currents. (I1, I2, ...ILetc) 2. Write the [ L x 1 ] column matrix [ V ] giving the sum of all voltage sources in each loop.

3. Write the [ L x L ] matrix, [ R ] for all the resistances in the circuit as follows; o R11 = the total resistance in the first loop. o Rnn = the total resistance in the Nth loop. o RJK = the resistance which directly joins loop J to Loop K. y 4. Write the matrix or vector equation [V] = [R] x [I] where [I] is the list of currents to be found. Nodal Voltage Analysis As well as using Mesh Analysis to solve the currents flowing around complex circuits it is also possible to use nodal analysis methods too. Nodal Voltage Analysis complements the previous mesh analysis in that it is equally powerful and based on the same concepts of matrix analysis.
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As its name implies, Nodal Voltage Analysis uses the "Nodal" equations of Kirchoff's first law to find the voltage potentials around the circuit. By adding together all these nodal voltages the net result will be equal to zero. Then, if there are "N" nodes in the circuit there will be "N-1" independent nodal equations and these alone are sufficient to describe and hence solve the circuit. At each node point write down Kirchoff's first law equation, that is: "the currents entering a node are exactly equal in value to the currents leaving the node" then express each current in terms of the voltage across the branch. For "N" nodes, one node will be used as the reference node and all the other voltages will be referenced or measured with respect to this common node. For example, consider the circuit from the previous section. Nodal Voltage Analysis Circuit

In the above circuit, node D is chosen as the reference node and the other three nodes are assumed to have voltages, Va, Vb and Vc with respect to node D. For example;

As Va = 10vandVc = 20v ,Vb can be easily found by:

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again is the same value of 0.286 amps, we found using Kirchoff's Circuit Law in the previous tutorial. From both Mesh and Nodal Analysis methods we have looked at so far, this is the simplest method of solving this particular circuit. Generally, nodal voltage analysis is more appropriate when there are a larger number of current sources around. The network is then defined as: [ I ] = [ Y ] [ V ] where [ I ] are the driving current sources, [ V ] are the nodal voltages to be found and [ Y ] is the admittance matrix of the network which operates on [ V ] to give [ I ]. Nodal Voltage Analysis Summary. The basic procedure for solving Nodal Analysis equations is as follows:
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1. Write down the current vectors, assuming currents into a node are positive. ie, a (N x 1) matrices for "N" independent nodes.

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2. Write the admittance matrix [Y] of the network where: o Y11 = the total admittance of the first node. o Y22 = the total admittance of the second node. o RJK = the total admittance joining node J to node K. y 3.For a network with "N" independent nodes, [Y] will be an (N x N) matrix and that Ynn will be positive and Yjk will be negative or zero value. 4. The voltage vector will be (N x L) and will list the "N" voltages to be found.

y y

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Thevenins Theorem
Thevenins equivalent circuit.

As far as the load resistor RL is concerned, any "one-port" network consisting of resistive circuit elements and energy sources can be replaced by one single equivalent resistance Rs and equivalent voltage Vs, where Rs is the source resistance value looking back into the circuit and Vs is the open circuit voltage at the terminals. For example, consider the circuit from the previous section.

Firstly, we have to remove the centre40 resistor and short out (not physically as this would be dangerous) all the emfs connected to the circuit, or open circuit any current sources. The value of resistor Rs is found by calculating the total resistance at the terminals A and B with all the emfs removed, and the value of the voltage required Vs is the total voltage across terminals A and B with an open circuit and no load resistor Rs connected. Then, we get the following circuit.

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Find the Equivalent Resistance (Rs)

Find the Equivalent Voltage (Vs)

We now need to reconnect the two voltages back into the circuit, and as VS = VAB the current flowing around the loop is calculated as:

so the voltage drop across the 20 resistor can be calculated as:

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Deptt Of Electronics

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VAB = 20 - (20 x 0.33amps) = 13.33 volts. Then the Thevenins Equivalent circuit is shown below with the 40 resistor connected.

and from this the current flowing in the circuit is given as:

which again, is the same value of 0.286 amps, we found using Kirchoffs circuit law in the previous tutorial. Thevenins theorem can be used as a circuit analysis method and is particularly useful if the load is to take a series of different values. It is not as powerful as Mesh or Nodal analysis in larger networks because the use of Mesh or Nodal analysis is usually necessary in any Thevenin exercise, so it might as well be used from the start. However, Thevenins equivalent circuits of Transistors, Voltage Sources such as batteries etc, are very useful in circuit design. Thevenins Theorem Summary The basic procedure for solving a circuit using Thevenins Theorem is as follows:
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1. Remove the load resistor RL or component concerned. 2. Find RS by shorting all voltage sources or by open circuiting all the current sources. 3. Find VS by the usual circuit analysis methods. 4. Find the current flowing through the load resistor RL. Nortons Theorem
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Nortons Theorem states that "Any linear circuit containing several energy sources and resistances can be replaced by a single Constant Current generator in parallel with a Single Resistor". As far as the load resistance, RL is concerned this single resistance, RS is the value of the resistance looking back into the network with all the current sources open circuited and ISis the short circuit current at the output terminals as shown below. Nortons equivalent circuit.

The value of this "constant current" is one which would flow if the two output terminals where shorted together while the source resistance would be measured looking back into the terminals, (the same as Thevenin). For example, consider our now familiar circuit from the previous section.

To find the Nortons equivalent of the above circuit we firstly have to remove the centre40 load resistor and short out the terminals A and B to give us the following circuit.

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When the terminals A and B are shorted together the two resistors are connected in parallel across their two respective voltage sources and the currents flowing through each resistor as well as the total short circuit current can now be calculated as: with A-B Shorted Out

If we short-out the two voltage sources and open circuit terminals A and B, the two resistors are now effectively connected together in parallel. The value of the internal resistor Rs is found by calculating the total resistance at the terminals A and B giving us the following circuit.

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Deptt Of Electronics

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Find the Equivalent Resistance (Rs)

Having found both the short circuit current, Is and equivalent internal resistance, Rs this then gives us the following Nortons equivalent circuit. Nortons equivalent circuit.

Ok, so far so good, but we now have to solve with the original 40 load resistor connected across terminals A and B as shown below.

Again, the two resistors are connected in parallel across the terminals A and B which gives us a total resistance of:

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The voltage across the terminals A and B with the load resistor connected is given as:

Then the current flowing in the 40

load resistor can be found as:

which again, is the same value of 0.286 amps, we found using Kirchoffs circuit law in the previous tutorials. Nortons Theorem Summary The basic procedure for solving a circuit using Nortons Theorem is as follows:
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1. Remove the load resistor RL or component concerned. 2. Find RS by shorting all voltage sources or by open circuiting all the current sources. 3. Find IS by placing a shorting link on the output terminals A and B. 4. Find the current flowing through the load resistor RL. Maximum Power Transfer Maximum Power Transfer is another useful analysis method to ensure that the maximum amount of power will be dissipated in the load resistance when the value of the load resistance is exactly equal to the resistance of the power source. The relationship between the load impedance and the internal impedance of the energy source will give the power in the load. Consider the circuit below. Thevenin's Equivalent Circuit.

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In our Thevenin equivalent circuit above, the maximum power transfer theorem states that "the maximum amount of power will be dissipated in the load resistance if it is equal in value to the Thevenin or Norton source resistance of the network supplying the power" in other words, the load resistance resulting in greatest power dissipation must be equal in value to the equivalent Thevenin source resistance, then RL = RS but if the load resistance is lower or higher in value than the Thevenin source resistance of the network, its dissipated power will be less than maximum. For example, find the value of the load resistance, RL that will give the maximum power transfer in the following circuit. Example No1.

Where: RS = 25 RL is variable between 0 - 100 VS = 100v

Then by using the following Ohm's Law equations:

We can now complete the following table to determine the current and power in the circuit for different values of load resistance.
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Graph of Power against Load Resistance

From the above table and graph we can see that the Maximum Power Transfer occurs in the load when the load resistance, RL is equal in value to the source resistance, RS so then: RS = RL = 25 . This is called a "matched condition" and as a general rule, maximum power is transferred from an active device such as a power supply or battery to an external device occurs when the impedance of the external device matches that of the source. Improper impedance matching can lead to excessive power use and dissipation.

Star to Delta Transforms


We can now solve simple series, parallel or bridge type resistive networks using Kirchoffs Circuit Laws, mesh current analysis or nodal voltage analysis techniques but in a balanced 3phase circuit we can use different mathematical techniques to simplify the analysis of the circuit and thereby reduce the amount of math's involved which in itself is a good thing. Standard 3phase circuits or networks take on two major forms with names that represent the way in which the resistances are connected, a Star connected network which has the symbol of the letter, (wye) and aDelta connected network which has the symbol of a triangle, (delta). If a 3-phase, 3-wire supply or even a 3-phase load is connected in one type of configuration, it can be easily transformed or changed it into an equivalent configuration of the other type by using either the Star Delta Transformation or Delta Star Transformation process. A resistive network consisting of three impedances can be connected together to form a T or "Tee" configuration but the network can also be redrawn to form a Star or type network as shown below.
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T-connected and Equivalent Star Network

As we have already seen, we can redraw the T resistor network to produce an equivalent Star or type network. But we can also convert a Pi or type resistor network into an equivalent Delta or type network as shown below. Pi-connected and Equivalent Delta Network.

Having now defined exactly what is a Star and Delta connected network it is possible to transform the into an equivalent circuit and also to convert a into an equivalent circuit using a the transformation process. This process allows us to produce a mathematical relationship between the various resistors giving us a Star Delta Transformation as well as a Delta Star Transformation. These transformations allow us to change the three connected resistances by their equivalents measured between the terminals 1-2, 1-3 or 2-3 for either a star or delta connected circuit. However, the resulting networks are only equivalent for voltages and currents external to the star
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or delta networks, as internally the voltages and currents are different but each network will consume the same amount of power and have the same power factor to each other. Delta Star Transformation To convert a delta network to an equivalent star network we need to derive a transformation formula for equating the various resistors to each other between the various terminals. Consider the circuit below. Delta to Star Network.

Compare the resistances between terminals 1 and 2.

Resistance between the terminals 2 and 3.

Resistance between the terminals 1 and 3.

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This now gives us three equations and taking equation 3 from equation 2 gives:

Then, re-writing Equation 1 will give us:

Adding together equation 1 and the result above of equation 3 minus equation 2 gives:

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From which gives us the final equation for resistor P as:

Then to summarize a little the above maths, we can now say that resistor Pin a Star network can be found as Equation 1 plus (Equation 3 minus Equation 2) or Eq1 + (Eq3 - Eq2). Similarly, to find resistor Q in a star network, is equation 2 plus the result of equation 1 minus equation 3 or Eq2 + (Eq1 - Eq3) and this gives us the transformation of Q as:

and again, to find resistor R in a Star network, is equation 3 plus the result of equation 2 minus equation 1 or Eq3 + (Eq2 - Eq1) and this gives us the transformation of R as:

When converting a delta network into a star network the denominators of all of the transformation formulas are the same: A + B + C, and which is the sum of ALL the delta resistances. Then to convert any delta connected network to an equivalent star network we can summarized the above transformation equations as: Delta to Star Transformations Equations

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Example No1 Convert the following Delta Resistive Network into an equivalent Star Network.

Star Delta Transformation We have seen above that when converting from a delta network to an equivalent star network that the resistor connected to one terminal is the product of the two delta resistances connected to the same terminal, for example resistor P is the product of resistors A and B connected to terminal 1. By rewriting the previous formulas a little we can also find the transformation formulas for converting a resistive star network to an equivalent delta network giving us a way of producing a star delta transformation as shown below. Star to Delta Network.

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The value of the resistor on any one side of the delta, network is the sum of all the two-product combinations of resistors in the star network divide by the star resistor located "directly opposite" the delta resistor being found. For example, resistor A is given as:

with respect to terminal 3 and resistor B is given as:

with respect to terminal 2 with resistor C given as:

with respect to terminal 1. By dividing out each equation by the value of the denominator we end up with three separate transformation formulas that can be used to convert any Delta resistive network into an equivalent star network as given below. Star Delta Transformation Equations

One final point about converting a star resistive network to an equivalent delta network. If all the resistors in the star network are equal in value then the resultant resistors in the equivalent delta network will be three times the value of the star resistors and equal, giving: RDELTA = 3RSTAR .

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