INTRODUCTION The spinal cord is the portion of the vertebrate Central Nervous system (CNS) that is encased in the

vertebral column, extending from the caudal end of the medulla. It is composed of a core gray matter and an outer layer of white matter. It is the site of reflex centers where conduction takes place. The principal functions of the spinal cord in maintaining homeostasis are nerve impulse propagation and integration of information. The major pathway for a stimulus is that it travels through the sensory neurons as sensory input via the white matter tracts towards the brain processed by the gray matter tracts which receive and integrate the incoming and outgoing information. The motor output will then go again through the white tracts and proceed to the skeletal muscles and other effector tissues. As said earlier, one of the principal functions of th e spinal cord is the integration of information which involves reflex and reflex arcs. Reflex is an autonomic, involuntary response of an organism to a stimulus. It is an action that is generated without the participation of the highest neuronal centers and thus is not entirely voluntary. An example of a reflex is spinal reflex which takes place in the gray matter of the spinal cord; cranial reflex if it occurs in the brain stem; somatic reflex if it happens in the skeletal muscles; and autonomic reflexes in visceral organs. Nerve impulses travel through specific pathways depending on its origin, kind of information and destination. The way of a nerve impulse which produces a reflex is called Reflex arc. Reflex arc is the major functional unit of the nervous system. It is a neuronal pathway which connects sensory input and motor output. It is consists of the afferent nerve, efferent nerve and effector organ. It allows organisms to quickly respond to different external or internal stimuli and is important because they react to different stimuli thus, protecting the body from the future harm or a way of preserving the organism. Reflex arc is #composed of a sensory receptor which translates external and internal information into impulses to be passed on the CNS; Afferent or sensory neurons which transmits impulses from other parts of the body to the CNS ; Control or integration center within CNS; Efferent or motor neuron which transmits impulses away from the CNS to the other parts of the body; synapse which is the junction between axon terminals and receiving cells; effector receptor which responds to afferent impulses with specific motor responses with a particular reflex; and effector organ which reacts on a nerve stimulation. If the effector is the skeletal muscle the reflex is called Somatic reflex, on the other hand, if effectors are smooth muscle, cardia c or gland, it is called autonomic reflex. The predictable reflexes show the normal and healthy condition of the nervous system. These would help to distinguish damage or abnormality in the nervous system if different reflexes are observed. It is also important for the diagnosis of diseases concerning the nervous system.

METHODOLOGY In this exercise, the reflex activity in the toad was observed by testing the spinal reflex, muscle tonus, reflex time and inhibition reflex. Using four types of toad: normal, spinal, decerebrate and double-pithed toads the spinal reflex was tested. Posture, respiration rate, righting reflex, swimming reflex, withdrawal reflex and scratch reflex were observed for the four toads. Toads were placed on the table and were observed for the position of the limbs, head, eyes and the belly for posture. Respiration rate was determined by counting the raising and lowering of the throat area per minute. The toads were positioned ventral side up and observed for the righting reflex. The swimming reflex was observed by placing the toads in a large water-container. Toads were also hooked up on its lower jaw and the left toes# were pinched and the leg which would flex or extend was observed. Scratch reflex was

tested by suspending by hooking the toads to its lower jaws and placing cotton soaked with 8% acetic acid to its belly, the reaction of the toads legs toward the irritation were observed. For the muscle tonus part, a spinal toad was used. The spinal roots were exposed by opening the abdomen and removing the viscera and it was constantly moistened using Ringer s solution. The toad was suspended in an iron stand and was allowed to relax to lessen the shock. After which, the bends of the hip, knee, ankle and toes were observed, as well as the gastrocnemius, if it was flaccid or firm. The right sciatic nerve was cut and the bends and gastrocnemius were then again observed. Finally, the spinal cord was totally destroyed through pithing and was hanged again for observation of the bends and gastrconemius. Reflex time was determined using a spinal animal hooked on its lower jaw. Its left long toe was subjected to different concentrations of HCl starting from the strongest to weakest (1%, 0.5%. 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1% and 0.05%) and it was made sure that no other parts of the foot were in contact and just only the long toe. After every treatment, the toe was washed with 1% NaHCO 2 followed by tap water, dried using coarse filter paper and a minute of rest. For the last part of the experiment, inhibition of reflexes, a spinal toad was used and was suspended on its lower jaw. A concentration of 0.3% HCl was used to determine the reflex time. Steps for this part were also the same for the reflex time part. If the reaction time was less than three seconds, the concentration was made to be less concentrated until the reaction time exceeded three seconds. The toad was allowed to rest after which, the same long toe was dipped into the dilute solution while the other toe was pinched. The reflex time of the toe was recorded.