CH3-CH-OH Cooh

1.
INTRODUCTION
Lactic acid, 2-hydroxyopropanoic acid, is the simplest
hydroxycarboxylic acid with asymmetric carbon atom:
CH3-CH-OH
COOH

Lactic acid occurs widely in nature, as the racemic form and as the
optically active acid. The primary uses of lactic acid are in foodstuffs
and in pharmaceutical products; a relatively small volume is used in
industrial applications. The main use of food-grade lactic acid is in the
manufacture of calcium and sodium stearoyl-2-lactylates for the
baking industry. It is also used as a preservative and a pickling agent.
It is used widely to adjust pH in diary products, beer, jams and jellies.
Technical-grade lactic acid has long been in use in the leather tanning
industry and in vegetable tanning.
Other non-food uses of lactic acid include applications in adhesives,
cleaning and polishing formulations, electroplating and
eletropolishing, insecticides and fungicides, plastics and resins and
textiles.
Some of the important physical properties of Lactic acid are listed as
below:
m.p. (pure optical isomers) = 53
o
C.
It is hygroscopic in nature and is normally obtained as a concentrated
1
solution, upto 90% (w/w) which is virtually colorless and odorless. It
is completely soluble in water, ethanol, diethyl ether.
This report is a pre-preliminary feasibility report on a project
involving the setting up of a plant to manufacture 10,000 TPA Lactic
acid from acetaldehyde.

2. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Product: Lactic Acid
Installed Capacity: 10,000 TPA
Location: Vadodara, Gujarat.
Raw Materials:
Material Requirement
(tons /ton of
product)
Cost
(Rs./ton)
Acetaldehyde 0.5316 20000
Acetone Cyanohydrin 0.94 95000
Utilities:
Utility Requirement
(per ton of
product)
Steam 1.00 ton
Cooling Water 57.77 m
3
Chilled Water 20.31 m
3
Project Cost Estimates:
2
Total Project Cost 531.02
Term Loan @ 14% p.a. interest 265.51
Total Equity 265.51
(All figures are in Rs. lakhs)

Product Price: Rs.1, 13,000/- per ton
Estimated Working Results:
Return on Investment = 77.95%.
Payback period = 15.4 months.
3. PROCESS SELECTION
The methods for the preparation of lactic acid fall in two groups:
1) Biochemical and
2) Chemical.
Lactic acid has in the past been available by fermentation processes
utilizing carbohydrates as raw material. This has been the major route
for production of lactic acid. Recently, a few chemical methods have
been developed for manufacture of lactic acid. These chemical
methods include hydrolysis of lactonitrile, carboxylation of
acetaldehyde, the alkaline degradation of sugar and a new method
from propene and nitrogen oxides with lactic acid nitrate as
intermediate.
The present report deals with manufacture of lactic acid from
acetaldehyde; so we will concentrate only on those routes for
manufacture of lactic acid that use acetaldehyde as the starting
3
material. Following 4 different routes are available for manufacture of
lactic acid from acetaldehyde:
1) The first process uses hydrogen cyanide as raw-material along with
acetaldehyde, resulting into the formation of lactonitrile, which is then
hydrolysed in presence of hydrochloric acid or PTSA as catalyst to
form lactic acid.
2) This route is similar to the first one, except that acetone
cyanohydrin is used as the raw-material instead of hydrogen cyanide.
The reaction between acetone cyanohydrin and acetaldehyde results
into the formation of lactonitrile as in the previous process, which is
then similarly hydrolysed to lactic acid, the final product.
3) Another route for lactic acid manufacture is through carboxylation
of acetaldehyde. This involves reaction of acetaldehyde with carbon
monoxide and water.
4) One more route starting from acetaldehyde employs an ion-
exchange catalyst. The reaction involves carbonylation of
acetaldehyde on ion-exchange catalyst like Lewatit-100.
Comparison between available routes:
While the first route employing hydrogen cyanide is useful and less
costly than the older fermentation process, it will be recognized that
there is danger and expense associated with the use of hydrogen
cyanide, and an alternate route is therefore desirable. Lactic acid is
widely used as a food ingredient. In particular, this route involves
4
cyanide which is highly poisonous and great care must be taken in the
manufacturing process to ensure that no cyanide remains in the final
product before it can be used as a food ingredient.
The reaction conditions, however, are not severe and the conversions
and selectivity resulting from the process are also very high:
Conversion = 97%.
The second route involving acetone cyanohydrin is comparatively
safer, as it does not involve hydrogen cyanide. Further, the
conversions resulting from the process are similar, and the process
conditions are also ambient. Conversion = 95%. However, there still is
some danger associated with the process, as acetone cyanohydrin has
tendency to dissociate into acetone and hydrogen cyanide.
The third route involving carboxylation of acetaldehyde has not yet
been commercialized. The first 2 routes are already being used for
manufacture of lactic acid. The main reason for the failure of this
route is the low conversion resulting
from the process. Attempts in the laboratory to use this particular
process have resulted only in traces of lactic acid. So, although the
process is very safe and easy to handle, it is not viable to be carried
out on an industrial scale.
The final route using ion-exchange catalyst is carried out at 60
0
C and
60-90 atmospheres to give lactic acid. However, the conversion from
5
this process is still lower than the previous one- only 2-3%.
Thus, considering all these aspects of the processes listed above, we
come to the conclusion that the second process involving the reaction
between acetone cyanohydrin and acetaldehyde is the best process for
manufacture of lactic acid.
4.PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The process selected for manufacture of acetaldehyde involves three
6
main steps:
1) In the first step, acetaldehyde is reacted with acetone cyanohydrin
to give lactonitrile.
2) In the second step, this lactonitrile is hydrolysed with the help of a
catalyst to give lactic acid.
3) The final step is the purification step, in which the crude lactic acid
obtained after second step is purified. This is done by esterification of
crude lactic acid to methyl lactate using methanol. Methyl lactate is
recovered, purified by distillation and hydrolysed by water in presence
of acid catalyst to produce lactic acid, which is further concentrated,
purified and methanol is recovered.
The final product is food grade 90% (w/w) lactic acid.
Reactions and details:
1) The reaction taking place in first step is:
Acetaldehyde + Acetone Cyanohydrin Lactonitrile
+ Acetone.
The above reaction takes place at 15
0
C and atmospheric pressure. It is
a liquid phase homogeneous reaction. A base catalyst can be used for
this reaction; however if acetone cyanohydrin dissociates into acetone
and hydrogen cyanide, then presence of hydrogen cyanide along with
base catalyst (NaOH) may create problems. Also, acetaldehyde is
known to be highly unstable in presence of NaOH, so use of NaOH
should be avoided. Hence, catalyst is not used in the present report; in
7
absence of catalyst, good conversion (95%) is obtained. The residence
time is approximately 25 minutes.
This reaction is carried out in a continuous stirred tank reactor, R101.
It is exothermic reaction with heat of reaction equal to 0.48 kJ/mol.
Acetone is formed as by-product, which can be recovered and then
sold.
The raw-materials acetaldehyde and acetone cyanohydrin are easily
available. Acetaldehyde is available in storage tanks equipped with
cooling facilities in order to keep the temperature below 15
0
C. So, we
can directly use acetaldehyde from the day tank to the main reactor,
through insulated pipeline. For acetone cyanohydrin, a heat exchanger
E101 is required in order to cool it to 15
0
C before feeding it to the
reactor.
Acetaldehyde is used in excess, while acetone cyanohydrin is the
limiting reactant. The output stream contains lactonitrile, acetone and
unreacted acetaldehyde.
This stream is then fed to distillation column D101 where
acetaldehyde and acetone are obtained as top products, while
lactonitrile is obtained as bottom product. The top stream is further fed
to another distillation column D102, in which acetaldehyde and
acetone are separated; recovered acetaldehyde is recycled.
2) Lactonitrile obtained from D101 is fed to the reactor R102. Water
is also fed to the reactor. PTSA (Paratoluene sulphonic acid) is used as
8
catalyst in this reaction. Reaction taking place is:
Lactonitrile + Water Lactic acid +
Ammonia.
Reaction is carried out at 60
0
C and atmospheric pressure. It uses
stirred tank reactor, R102. The output stream from R102 contains
lactic acid, water and solid catalyst. It is assumed that conversion of
lactonitrile is 100%. Ammonia from the reactor is fed to an ammonia
scrubber. The stream containing catalyst is fed to filter F101, where
the catalyst is separated.
3) This is the purification stage. Methanol is used for esterification of
lactic acid to methyl lactate. Lactic acid and methanol run in
countercurrent manner and the ester is carried out of the packed
column by the excess of alcohol vapors, which then are recirculated. It
is an exothermic reaction; heat liberated in reaction is used to vaporize
methyl lactate. The output stream from packed column,R103, contains
methyl lactate, water and excess of methanol. This stream is fed to
distillation column, D103,for separation. Methyl lactate and water,
coming as bottom product from this distillation column, are fed to the
next reactor, R104. Here, hydrolysis of methyl lactate takes place to
give pure lactic acid.
Stream coming out from R104 contains lactic acid, methanol and
water. It is fed to distillation column, D104. Lactic acid and water
9
come from bottom of the distillation column, and are fed to evaporator
so that required amount of water is vaporized and 90% (w/w) lactic
acid is obtained.

4. SITE SELECTION
Proposed Site: Vadodara, Gujarat.
The selection of site affects profitability as well as productivity of the
project. The following factors deciding site selection were examined:
1. Location with respect to marketing area:
Lactic acid is widely used as a food ingredient. The general use
pattern of lactic acid worldwide can be summarized by the following
table:
Used in: Percentage Use
Food and Beverage Industry 55
Chemicals (lactates, adhesives) 25
10
Plastics and textiles 15
Leather Processing 5
Total 100
As seen from the above table, it is clear that lactic acid is mainly used
in food and beverage industry. The present report hence deals with the
manufacture of food grade lactic acid.
Food industry is the main consumer of lactic acid. Due to the presence
of large number of food and beverage industries in Gujarat, setting up
of this plant in Gujarat naturally becomes a commercially viable
option.
In fact, there are already a few lactic acid manufacturers across India,
and food industries in Gujarat are dependent on these industries for
their demand of lactic acid. These manufacturers are:
i) Lactochem Limited, Chennai.
ii) Niphad Sahakari Sakhar Karkhana Limited, Nashik.
iii) Sangita Biochem Ltd., Mumbai.
However, transportation charges are incurred if lactic acid is bought
from one of these manufacturers for a food/beverage industry in
Gujarat. Hence, rather than setting up the plant in Mumbai or
elsewhere in Maharashtra, it would be wise to set up the plant in
Gujarat.
The next question is: where exactly in Gujarat should this plant be set
up?
2 Raw material supply :
11
The basic raw materials required are Acetaldehyde and Acetone
cyanohydrin.
Acetaldehyde is manufactured all over India, and will be easily
available.
However, acetone cyanohydrin has only one major manufacturer in
India: Gujarat State Fertilizers and Chemicals Limited, Vadodara,
Gujarat.
Also, Allied Chemical Corporation (ACC), Vadodara can easily
supply acetaldehyde.
Thus, raw-materials are available in plenty as well at reasonable prices
in Vadodara.
3. Transportation facilities:
The area is reasonably well connected by roadways and railways due
to the extensive development of infrastructure by the GIDC authorities
for the industrial belt. Facilities for the transportation of equipment
and for the travel of plant personnel are available. Several new
projects have received government approval for the improvement of
the transportation system.
4. Availability of labor :
Labor for plant construction and operation is available locally and
cheaply.
12
5. Availability of utilities :
The utilities water and power are supplied by the GIDC at reasonable
rates.
6. Availability of suitable land
There is no problem for acquiring land as it is an industrial zone. The
terrain is flat and the soil has a good bearing capacity. The topography
and meteorology of the site also permit normal dispersion of the air
borne pollutants.
8. Local community considerations :
Adequate housing, educational, recreational facilities are available
near the site.
9. Climate :
The region has a suitable climate and experiences moderate seasonal
rainfall. It is not prone to high winds.
10. Political and strategic considerations :
There are no restrictions on development of industry at the location as
it is allotted for industrial development. Besides above factors,
communication, industrial infrastructure, medical, fire-fighting
services are well available.
Thus, taking into consideration all the above factors, it is decided that
Vadodara, Gujarat would be the best site for the proposed project of
manufacture of lactic acid from acetaldehyde.
13

6. MATERIAL BALANCE
Basis: 1 hour.
1) R101:
Reaction:
+ Acetone.
Conversion = 95%.
Component In(kg/hr) Out(kg/hr)
Acetaldehyde 578.95 28.95
Acetone Cyanohydrin 1062.5 0.0
Lactonitrile 0.0 887.5
Acetone 0.7 725.7
Total 1642.15 1642.15
2) D101:
Component In (kg/hr) Top Product
(kg/hr)
Bottom Product
(kg/hr)
Acetaldehyde 28.95 28.95 -
Acetone 725.7 724.75 0.95
Lactonitrile 887.5 - 887.5
Total 1642.15 753.7 888.45
3) D102:
14
Component In(kg/hr) Top Product
(kg/hr)
Bottom Product
(kg/hr)
Acetone 724.75 0.7 724.05
Total 753.7 29.65 724.05
4) R102:
Lactonitrile 887.5 -
Lactic Acid - 1125
Water 645.54 195.54
PTSA (catalyst) 1.5 1.5
Ammonia - 212.5
Acetone 0.95 0.95
Total 1535.49 1535.49
5) F101: It is assumed that there are no losses across the filter. Even if
in practice, there are some losses, they are too small to be considered
in calculations.
Component In (kg/hr) Out(kg/hr)
Lactic acid 1125 1125
Water 195.54 195.54
PTSA 1.5 1.5
Total 1322.04 1322.04
6) R103:
Lactic acid 1125 -
Water 195.54 420.54
Methanol 498.5 98.5
Methyl lactate - 1300
Acetone
0.95 0.95
Total
1821.49 1821.49
7) D103:
15
(kg/hr)
Bottom Product
(kg/hr)
Methyl lactate 1300 - 1300
Water 420.54 0.421 420.12
Methanol 100 99 1
Acetone 0.95 0.95 -
Total 1821.49 100.371 1721.12
8) R104:
Component In (kg/hr) Out (kg/hr)
Methyl lactate 1300 -
Water 645.12 420.12
Lactic acid - 1125
Methanol 1 401
Total 1946.12 1946.12
9) D104:
(kg/hr)
Bottom Product
(kg/hr)
Lactic acid 1125 - 1125
Water 420.12 0.42 419.7
Methanol 401 396.99 4.01
Total
1946.12 397.41 1548.71
16
7. ENERGY BALANCE
Specific heat is considered as a function of temperature, while doing
calculations.
Heats of reaction are calculated using group contribution method, as
the heats of reaction and heats of formation of a few compounds were
not reported in literature.
1) E101:
This heat exchanger is required to cool acetone cyanohydrin, one of
the raw-materials to cool from 27
0
C to 15
0
C. Chilled water is used
for the same.
Heat required to be removed from acetone cyanohydrin = m x C
p
x
( 27-15)
= 1.71 x 10
4
kJ/hr.
Inlet temperature of chilled water = 10
0
C.
Outlet temperature of chilled water = 13
0
C.
So, mass flow-rate of chilled water required = 1362 kg/hr.
2) R101:
17
The reaction taking place in this reactor is exothermic; the value is
0.48 kJ/mol.
The rate of production of lactonitrile = 887.5 kg/hr
= 12500 moles/hr.
Rate of evolution of heat = 6 x 10
6
J/hr.
This heat is to be removed using chilled water, so that reaction
temperature of 15
0
C is maintained.
We use chilled water at an inlet of 10
0
C, which goes out at 12
0
C.
So, flow-rate of chilled water required = 653.4 kg/hr.
The stream going out of R-101 is at 15
0
C and contains lactonitrile,
acetone and unreacted acetaldehyde.
3) D101:
Component In (kg/hr) Top Product
(kg/hr)
Bottom Product
(kg/hr)
Acetone 725.7 724.75 0.95
Lactonitrile 887.5 - 887.5
Total 1642.15 753.7 888.45
Average relative volatility is calculated for this system using the
correlation given by Wagle:
( )
'
,
_

2 1
2 1
1 1
25164 . 0 exp
b b
T T
where,
T
b1
and T
b2
are the boiling points of the 2 components in K and
18
1
and
2
are latent heats of vaporization in kcal/kmol.
Substituting the appropriate values, we get = 17.50.
Now, R
min
is calculated using the following formula:
( )
( )
'
Fa
Da
Fa
Da
x
x
x
x
R
1
1
1
1
min

where, x
Da
and x
Fa
represent the molar fraction of more volatile
component in top product D and feed F, respectively.
So, we get R
min
= 0.1
Now, optimum reflux ratio is calculated by multiplying the minimum
reflux ratio by 1.5
R
optimum
= 0.15.
The condenser load is calculated by the following formula:
Q
c
= D (R+1)
In this case, = 7058 kcal/kmol.
D= 13.15 kmol/hr.
Q
c
= 1.06 x 10
5
kcal/hr.
For calculating the reboiler load, we have to calculate the enthalpies of
feed, top and bottom products.
For this, we take 15
0
C as the reference temperature.
Enthalpy of feed, H
f
= 0.0
19
Now, enthalpy of the top product , H
D
= Enthalpy of acetaldehyde +
Enthalpy of acetone.
H
D
= (724.75 x 1.376 x 1000 x 25) + (28.95 x 1410 x 25)
= 1.02 x 10
6
J/hr.
Now, enthalpy of bottom product, H
B
= 12.5 x 212.30 x 165
H
B
= 4.37 x 10
5
J/hr.
Finally, reboiler load, Q
R
= Q
C
- H
F
+ H
D
+ H
B
.
Q
R
= 4.69 x 10
8
J/hr.
4) D102:
(kg/hr)
Bottom Product
(kg/hr)
Acetone 724.75 0.7 724.05
Total 753.7 29.65 724.05
As described in energy balance shown for D101,
= 3.36.
From , R
min
= 8.375.
R
optimum
= 12.56.
20
The condenser load is now calculated as:
Q
c
= D (R+1)
= 13.56 x 29.65 x 133.86
Q
C
= 5.38 x 10
4
kcal/hr.
Now, to calculate the enthalpies of feed, top and bottom products.
Enthalpy of feed, H
F
= (724.75 x 1.376 x 1000 x 25) + (28.95 x 1410
x 25)
= 1.02 x 10
6
J/hr.
H
D
= (380 x 28.95 x 5) + (1310 x 0.7 x 5)
= 2.05 x 10
5
J/hr.
H
B
= 724.05 x 1.428 x 1000 x 41
= 4.24 x 10
7
J/hr.
Now, Q
R
= Q
C
- H
F
+ H
D
+ H
B
.
Q
R
= 2.42 x 10
8
J/hr.
5) R102:
The reaction taking place in this reactor is an endothermic one, and the
value of heat of reaction is 3444.5 J/mol.
Production rate of lactic acid = 1125 kg/hr = 12500 moles/hr.
Rate of supply of heat required = 3444.5 x 12500 = 4.306 x 10
4
kJ/hr.
The reaction takes place at 60
0
C; steam is required to be supplied in
the jacket to maintain the temperature at 60
0
C.
21
To calculate the flow-rate of steam:
m x = 4.306 x 10
4
kJ/hr.
m = 19.1 kg/hr.
6) R103:
The reaction in this reactor takes place at 60
0
C; it is an exothermic
reaction and the value of heat of reaction is 3500 J/mol.
Rate of production of methyl lactate = 1300 kg/hr = 12500 moles/hr.
Rate of evolution of heat = 4.375 x 10
4
kJ/hr.
This heat is used to vaporize methyl lactate and water, thus methyl
lactate and water vapors come out of the reactor along with excess of
methanol vapors.
7) D103:
(kg/hr)
Bottom Product
(kg/hr)
Methyl lactate 1300 - 1300
Water 420.54 0.421 420.12
Methanol 100 99 1
Acetone 0.95 0.95 -
Total 1821.49 100.371 1721.12
As shown earlier, calculations are done and results obtained are:
= 11.58
From , R
min
= 1.03
R
optimum
= 1.54
22
Q
c
= D (R+1)
= 1128.8 x 100.7 x 12.58
Q
C
= 1.43 x 10
6
kJ/hr.
Enthalpy of feed, H
F
= (420.54 x 1000 x 1.0 x 45)
+ (1300 x 1000 x 0.7 x 4.184 x 45)
+ (100 x 1000 x 2.53 x 45)
= 2.62 x 10
8
J/hr.
H
D
= 100.7 x 1000 x 2.53 x 30
= 1.02 x 10
7
J/hr.
H
B
= 1720 x 1000 x 2.93 x 100
= 5.04 x 10
8
J/hr.
Now, Q
R
= Q
C
- H
F
+ H
D
+ H
B
.
Q
R
= 2.54 x 10
8
J/hr.
8) R104:
The reaction taking place in this reactor is exactly reverse of that
taking place in R-103, so it is an endothermic reaction with value of
heat of reaction equal to 3500 J/mol.
Rate of supply of heat required = 4.34 x 10
7
J/hr.
This heat is supplied by steam, the flow-rate of which is calculated
23
below:
m x = 4.306 x 10
4
kJ/hr. m = 19.4 kg/hr.
9) D104:
(kg/hr)
Bottom Product
(kg/hr)
Lactic acid 1125 - 1125
Water 420.12 0.42 419.7
Methanol 401 396.99 4.01
Total
1946.12 397.41 1548.71
As described earlier, we calculate and it is obtained as:
= 9.84
From , R
min
= 0.3
R
optimum
= 0.45
Q
c
= D (R+1)
= 1.5 x 396 x 1128.8
Q
C
= 6.71 x 10
5
kJ/hr.
Reference temperature taken for doing enthalpy calculations is 60
0
C,
so enthalpy of feed will be zero.
Now, enthalpy of top product,
H
D
= (1125 x 1000 x 0.7 x 63 x 4.184) + (195. 34 x 1000 x 63 x
4.184)
24
= 2.59 x 10
8
J/hr.
H
B
= 396 x 1000 x 0.61 x 5 x 4.184
= 5.06 x 10
6
J/hr.
Now, Q
R
= Q
C
- H
F
+ H
D
+ H
B
.
Q
R
= 9.33 x 10
8
J/hr.
10) E106:
This heat exchanger is required to cool acetaldehyde, one of the raw-
materials to cool from 20
0
C to 15
0
C. Chilled water is used for the
same.
Heat required to be removed from acetaldehyde = m x C
p
x ( 20-15)
= 6.75 x 10
3
kJ/hr.
Inlet temperature of chilled water = 10
0
C.
Outlet temperature of chilled water = 13
0
C.
So, mass flow-rate of chilled water required = 537.8 kg/hr.
11) E107 (Used to cool feed to R102):
This heat exchanger is required to cool lactonitrile, the bottom product
of D101 and to be fed to R102.
Cooling water is used for the same.
Heat required to be removed from lactonitrile = m x C
p
x ( 184-60)
= 2.76 x 10
5
kJ/hr.
Inlet temperature of cooling water = 32
0
C.
25
Outlet temperature of cooling water = 45
0
C.
So, mass flow-rate of cooling water required = 8253.75 kg/hr.
12) E108 (Used to heat feed water to R102):
This heat exchanger is required to heat water from 27
0
C to 60
0
C.
Steam is used for the same.
Heat required to be supplied to water = m x C
p
x ( 60-27)
= 1.18 x 10
5
kJ/hr.
So, mass flow-rate of steam required = 52.23 kg/hr.
13) E111 (Used to cool the feed to R104):
This heat exchanger is required to cool the mixture of lactic acid and
water from 130
0
C to 60
0
C.
Cooling water is used for the same.
Heat required to be removed from the mixture = m x C
p
x (130-60)
= 1.48 x 10
6
kJ/hr.
Inlet temperature of cooling water = 32
0
C.
Outlet temperature of cooling water = 40
0
C.
So, mass flow-rate of cooling water required = 22108 kg/hr.
26
8. PROCESS DESIGN
I) R-101:
The reaction taking place in R-101 is:
+ Acetone.
Material balance over this reactor can be shown as below:
Acetaldehyde 578.95 28.95
Acetone Cyanohydrin 1062.5 0.0
Lactonitrile 0.0 887.5
Acetone 0.7 725.7
Total 1642.15 1642.15
Total volumetric feed entering the reactor
= (550+28.95)/650 + (1062.5/680)
= 2.46 m
3
/hr.
We can use the typical values of residence time reported in the
patents.
The reaction is kinetically controlled.
The residence time reported in patent is 26 minutes.
Reactor Dimensions:

F
V

27
where,
V = volume of the reaction mixture (m
3
).
F = volumetric flow rate entering the reactor = 2.46 m
3
/hr.
is the residence time = 0.433 hours.
V = 1.066 m
3
.
Now, let us fix H/D = 1.0
Cylindrical Volume + bottom volume = Total volume
Hence
066 . 1 135 . 0 2
4
3 2
+ D H D
D = H = 1.003 m.
However, we must provide some extra height.
H = 1.003 x 1.2 = 1.2 m.
Impeller Design:
A standard pitch-blade type of impeller is used for this purpose.
Diameter of impeller = 0.4 x Diameter of Vessel
d = 0.4 x 1.003 = 0.4012 m = 40.12 cm.
Now, we have to calculate the speed at which the mixing of liquids
will be efficient.
As reported in the patent, the power consumed per unit volume of the
reaction mixture is constant and it is roughly 1.32 HP per m
3
of the
reactor volume. This much power is sufficient to mix the liquids
efficiently.
28
The reactor volume, as we have calculated is 1.066 m
3
.
Power required for the process = 1.408 HP.
The reynolds number is given as:
2
Re
75 . 10 d N S
N

where,
S is the specific gravity,
is the viscosity of mixture in centipoise.
N
Re
= 2926.83 N ----(1)
Power consumption is given by the following equation:
5 3
d N N P
P

In terms of HP,
( )
5 3
13
75 . 15 9 . 0
10 523 . 1

N
P
N
P
3
7
10 458 . 2
N
N
P

-----(2)
Solving equations (1) and (2) and by using the graph of power number
against reynolds number for pitch blade turbine, iterations are
performed as described below:
A value of speed is assumed; this value is substituted in equation (1)
to get a value of N
Re
. From graph of N
Re
against N
p
, power number is
found. Now, using equation (2) and the above obtained value of N
P
,
29
another value of speed is obtained.
The iterations are performed till the value of speed matches for both
N
Re
and N
p.
We first start our assumption from a value of speed of 50 rpm.
Following values are obtained in iterations:
N N
Re
N
P
(from graph) N (from eq.2)
50 146341.5 1.2 273.61
273.61 8 x 10
5
1.15 277.52
277.52 8.12 x 10
5
1.15 277.52
So, we will use an agitator speed of 280 rpm.
Now,
Impeller blade width = (diameter of vessel)/15.
= 6.67 cm 7.0 cm.
Impeller level above bottom = D/3
= 0.33 m = 33 cm.
Number of baffles = 4
Width of baffle = D/10
= 0.1 m = 10 cm.
Calculation of Heat Transfer Area:
The reaction taking place in this reactor is exothermic; the value is
0.48 kJ/mol.
30
The rate of production of lactonitrile = 887.5 kg/hr
= 12500 moles/hr.
Rate of evolution of heat = 6 x 10
6
J/hr.
This heat is to be removed using chilled water, so that reaction
temperature of 15
0
C is maintained.
The internal heat transfer coefficient is given as:
h
i
= k 0.54 (Re)
0.67
(Pr)
0.25
( /
w
)
0.14
-----------(1)
D
i

Using the speed of agitator, we calculate the Reynolds number.
N d
N
2
Re

N
Re
= 8.2 x 10
5
.
k
C
P
Pr
k = 0.195 J/m s K
= 0.82 cP = 0.82 x 10
-3
kg/m s.
C
p
= 1.56 J/g K
Pr = 6.56
Also, we have D
i
= 1.003 m.
Substituting the obtained values of N
Re
, Pr and D
i
in equation (1), we
get-
h
i
= 1324.76 kcal/hr m
2
K.
Typical values of h
o
in such cases range from 1700 J/s m
2
K to 2000
31
J/s m
2
K.
So, we assume h
o
= 1800 J/s m
2
K = 1548 kcal/hr m
2
K.
Now, overall heat transfer coefficient,
d
o i d
R
h h U
+ +
1 1 1
Employing dirt factor of 0.001, we get
U
D
= 434.65 kcal/hr m
2
K.
We use chilled water, with an inlet temperature of 10
0
C and an outlet
temperature of 12
0
C.
Reaction temperature = 15
0
C.
( T)
LMTD
= 3.92 K.
So, area required for heat transfer can be calculated as:
LMTD D
T U
Q
A
A = 0.8430 m
2
.
From this, we calculate the height of jacket required for heat transfer:
x D x h
j
= 0.8430
h
j
= 26.75 cm.
We can definitely provide this jacket height, as generally, jacket
height is 0.75 times the vessel height.
The vessel height in this case is 1.2 m, which makes use of 90 cm of
vessel height for jacket possible.
Further, if we use chilled water so that the outlet temperature of
32
chilled water is 13
0
C, then the area required for heat transfer by the
jacket will be still less.
The process control and instrumentation for this reactor is shown in
Chapter 10. Process Selection.
Detailed mechanical design of this reactor is done in Chapter 9,
Mechanical Design.
II) D-102:
This distillation column is used to separate acetaldehyde and acetone,
so that acetaldehyde can be recycled back and acetone can be
recovered and sold back.
Material balance over the distillation column can be shown as below:
(kg/hr)
Bottom Product
(kg/hr)
Acetone 724.75 0.7 724.05
Total 753.7 29.65 724.05
The feed is at its boiling point, hence q=1.
x-y data for acetaldehyde-acetone system is given below:
X
acetaldehyde
Y
acetaldehyde
0.05 0.1627
0.1 0.2916
0.15 0.3961
0.2 0.4825
0.25 0.555
33
0.3 0.6168
0.35 0.6699
0.4 0.716
0.45 0.7563
0.5 0.7919
0.55 0.8236
0.60 0.8518
0.65 0.8771
0.70 0.8999
0.75 0.9206
0.80 0.9394
0.85 0.9565
0.90 0.9722
0.95 0.9866
The x-y graph is plotted.
R
min
= 8.38
Generally, optimum reflux ratio is 1.5 times the minimum reflux ratio;
hence we take optimum reflux ratio as 1.5 times the minimum reflux
ratio.
R
optimum
= 12.56
Using the above graph of x Vs. y, the theoretical number of plates
required is calculated.
Theoretical number of plates = 10.
But, actually, plate efficiency is never 100%.
We assume a plate efficiency of 75%.
Actual no. of plates = 10/0.75 = 13.33 14.0
Let us calculate tower diameter:
The value of tower diameter will tell us whether to use plate column
or a packed column.
34
2 / 1 2 / 1
1

,
_
,
_
g
g
g l
g
l
R
R
G
L

= 0.027.
From the graph, G
/
is calculated. However, it is the flooding velocity.
Actual G
/
= 0.8 x 1.6625
= 1.33
Now, cross-sectional area of the column,
/
G
G
A
A = 0.5449 m
2
.
5449 . 0
4
2
D
D = 83.3 cm.
As the diameter is less than 1.0 m, we use packed column.
The packing used is Ceramic Intalox Saddle type of packing.
The diameter of the packing used is 25 mm.
Total height of the tower = HETP x Theoretical number of stages.
For the packing being used, HETP = 0.46 m.
Total height of the column = 10 x 0.46 m = 4.6 m.
Pressure drop in the column, P = P/Z x height of column
= 6300 N/m
2
.
Condenser Design (E104):
Condenser load, Q
c
= 5.38 x 10
4
kcal/hr = 2.25 x 10
5
kJ/hr.
35
Flow-rate of chilled water required:

T C
Q
p

m = 7685.7 kg/hr.
Hot Fluid
(Acetaldehyde)
Cold Fluid
(Chilled Water)
Difference
20 Higher
Temperature
17 7
20 Lower
Temperature
10 10
0 Difference 7 3
T
LMTD
= 5.81
0
C.
The condenser is in true counterflow, since the shell-side fluid is
isothermal. So, we need not provide any correction the log mean
temperature difference.
The condenser design is done by using trial method.
We first assume that U
D
= 976 kcal/hr m
2
K.
The tubes used in the exchanger have in. outside diameter, 16 BWG
on 15/16 in. triangular pitch.
The tubes have length of 8 feet.
36
LMTD D
T U
Q
A
from assumed overall heat-transfer coefficient,

A = 9.5 m
2
.
For the tubes being used, outside surface area per linear foot = 0.1963
ft
2
/ft.
1963 . 0 3048 . 0 8
5 . 9
2

N
= 66 tubes (approximately).
The water flow-rate we are using is not very large, so we can use
single-pass heat exchanger.
Now, from the tube counts: 62 tubes, 1 pass, in. outside diameter,
16 BWG on 15/16 in. triangular pitch, the nearest count is = 62 tubes
and the shell inside = 10 inches.
we use 62 tubes in single-pass manner in a 10 inch (25.4 cm) ID
shell.
A= 62 x 8 x 0.1963 x 0.3048
2
A = 9.05 m
2
.
So, corrected overall heat-transfer coefficient,
U
D
= 1020 kcal/hr m
2
K.
Let us proceed for calculations on tube side, cold fluid:
Flow area, a
t
/
= 1.95 cm
2
.
n
a N
a
t
t
/
37
= 120.77 cm
2
.
t
t
a
water chilled of rate flow mass
G
= 176.77 kg/ sec m
2
.
Now, velocity,
t
G
V
= 0.176 m/sec.
Now, the average temperature for the chilled water,
t
a
= 13.5
0
C.
At t
a
, = 0.663 x 10
-3
Pas.
Inside diameter of tube, D = 1.58 cm.
t
DG
Re
= 4155.93
From graph of h
i
vs. Re at 14
0
C, we get:
h
i
= 2272.74 kcal/hr m
2
K.
h
io
= 2272.74 x ID/OD
= 1878.8 kcal/hr m
2
K.
Hot Fluid-Shell Side:
Assume maximum baffle space.
Shell side flow area (a
s
),
38
Pitch
B C ID
a
s
/
where, C
/
B is the baffle spacing.
a
s
= 129.14 cm
2
.
s
s
a
rate flow Vapor
G
G
s
= 0.6227 kg/ sec m
2
.
Now, loading,
3 / 2
//
N L
Rate Flow Vapor
G
= 0.7575 kg/ sec m

Now, assume h
o
= 3500 kcal/ hr m
2
K.
) (
a v
o io
o
a w
t T
h h
h
t t
+
+
t
w
= 17.74
0
C.
2
w v
f
t T
t
+
t
f
= 65.97
0
C 66
0
C.
At this temperature, the values of thermal conductivity, density and
viscosity are found as:
K = 0.2595 W/m K
= 0.21 x 10
-3
Pas.
= 780 kg/m
3
.
39
Now, from the graph of condensing coefficient against condensing
load, we get
h
o
= 4150 kcal/ hr m
2
K.
Clean overall coefficient U
c
:
o io
o io
c
h h
h h
U
+
U
c
= 1293.3 kcal/hr m
2
K.
Now, let us calculate the dirt factor and find out whether it is under
acceptable limits:
D C
D c
d
U U
U U
R
R
d
= 0.0002 hr m
2
K/kcal.
This value of dirt factor is acceptable; hence the first trial condenser is
satisfactory and will be:
Shell Side Tube Side
ID = 10 inches = 25.4 cm.
Baffle space = 25.4 cm (approx.)
Passes = 1
Number and length = 62, 8
/
0
//
OD, BWG, pitch = in., 16 BWG,
15/16-in. triangular pitch.
Passes = 1
40
Reboiler Sizing (E105):
Reboiler load, Q
R
= 2.42 x 10
5
kJ/hr.
T
LMTD
= 35
0
C.
Typically, overall heat-transfer coefficient for reboilers ranges from
1000 to 1500 kcal/hr m
2
K.
So, we take U
D
= 1100 kcal/hr m
2
K.
Reboiler area, A = 1.5 m
2
.
9. MECHANICAL DESIGN OF STIRRED TANK
REACTOR R101
In the stirred tank reactor a flanged joint connects the shell and
the head. The shell and the bottom head are welded together. A jacket
is provided for efficient heat transfer. The agitator system includes a
41
pitched blade turbine, a stuffing box and gland arrangement and a hub
and key arrangement.
The vessel is designed in the following steps
Shell:
Internal Diameter 1.003 m
Material of construction Stainless Steel
Reactor temperature 15C
Internal pressure 1.03 kg/cm
2
Permissible stress at 15C 1330 kg/cm
2
Youngs Modulus 2 x 10
6
kg/cm
2
Head and bottoms flanged and shallow dished:
Internal Diameter 1003 mm
Crown Radius 1003 mm
Knuckle radius 50.2 mm
Flange for head:
Permissible Stress 1330 kg/cm
2
Gasket Material Asbestos
Gasket Thickness 3.2 mm
Bolts:
Material of construction Low Carbon Steel
42
Permissible Stress 540 kg/cm
2

Nozzles: welded to head
Jacket Design:
Material of construction MS
Allowable Stress 963.24 kg/cm
2
.
Agitator shaft design:
Permissible elastic limit 1330 kg/cm
2
Design of Shell:
Design pressure = 1.03 x 1.1
= 1.133 kg/cm
2
The thickness of shell is found by using the formula
t
s
=
P 2f.J
P.D
=
133 . 1 85 . 0 2 1330
1000 003 . 1 133 . 1

= 0.503 mm.
But, minimum thickness for reaction vessel, being 6.0 mm, we
use 6.0 mm thick plates. So, further stress checking is done for
thickness of 6.0 mm.
Testing for other stresses
a) Circumferential stress:
43

2t
t) P(D
f
i
t
+
=
0 . 6 2
) 0 . 6 (1003 1.133
+
= 95.27 kg/cm
2
b) Axial stress
i) Due to internal pressure
t . 4
P.D
f
i
1
=
0 . 6 4
1003 1.133
= 47.35 kg/cm
2
(tensile)
ii) Due to weight of vessel and contents
) t (D t
W
f
s i s
2
+
Where W = Weight of Vessel

=
2493 1.5 7800) L t D ( i +
= 2757.8 kg
( ) 0 . 6 1003 0 . 6
8 . 2757
f2
+
= 0.145 kg/cm
2
(compressive)
iii) Due to wind or piping
s
2
i
3
t D
M
f
44
Assume M = 3500 kgm
f
3
= 18.54 kg/cm
2
(tensile)
Total stress in axial direction
f
a
= f
1
+ f
2
+ f
3
= 66.04 kg/cm
2
c) Stress due to offset piping or wind
t) (D D t
2T
f
i i
s
+
T = Torque about vessel axis = 50 x 10

2
0.006) (1.003 10 6 003 . 1
100 50 2
f
3
s
+

= 5.24x10
5
kg /m
2
f
s

=52.42 kg/cm
2
.
Combining the above stresses the equivalent stress is:
2
s
2
a a t
2
t R 3f f f f f f + +
2 2 2
3(52.42) (66.04) ) 04 . 66 )( 27 . 95 ( ) 27 . 95 ( + +
= 124.1 kg/cm
2
(tensile stress)
For satisfactory design the following conditions must be
satisfied
f
R
(tensile) f
t
(permissible)
f
a
(tensile) f
t
(permissible)
We have found that
f
R
= 124.1 kg/cm
2
f
a
= 66.04 kg/cm
2
f (permissible for SS) = 1330 kg/cm
2
45
Therefore the shell design is satisfactory.
Head Design:
The head is to be flanged to the shell. The head is a
torispherical head.
Crown Radius R
c
= 1.003 m
Knuckle Radius R
I
= 5% of Rc
= 50.15 mm
The thickness of the torispherical head is given as
2f.J
.W P.R
t
c
h
where W = stress intensification factor

]
R
R
3 [
4
1
i
c
+
= 1.868
t
h
= 0.939 mm
For structural stability, the minimum head thickness must be
equal to the shell thickness.
t
h
= 5 mm.
Flange Design:
Gasket Design
Asbestos gaskets are provided of 3.2 mm.
Internal diameter of gasket = 1.003 mm
Gasket factor = 2
Minimum design seating stress (Y
a
) = 115 kg/cm
2
External gasket diameter is calculated as
46
1)P (m - Y
mP - Y
G
G
a
a
i
o
+
G
o
= 1033 mm
Basic gasket seating width is
b
o
=
) G - G (
4
1
i o
b
o
= 7.5 mm
as b
o
< 6.3 mm , b = b
o
+ 6 = 13.5 mm.
b = 14 mm (approximately).
Number of bolts
Under atmospheric conditions bolt load due to gasket reaction
is given by:
W
m1
= A
g
Y
a
= b G Y
a
Where G = (G
1
+ G
o
)/2
= 1018 mm
W
m1
= 7.35 x 10
4
kg.
A
m1
=
a
m1
f
W
Where f
a
is permissible stress under atmospheric
conditions
(1970
kg/cm
2
)
A
m1
= 37.34 cm
2
minimum no. of bolts is =
47
5 . 2
cm in diameter gasket mean
=
5 . 2
101.8
= 40.72
41
Bolt area =
N d
4
2
d = bolt diameter

N
A 4
m1
= 1.08 cm = 10.8 mm.

But, minimum bolt diameter = 15 mm
Pitch circle diameter (B) = G
o
+ 2x diameter of bolt +12
= 1075 mm
outside diameter of flange (A) = B + 2x bolt diameter
= 1105 mm
Flange Design
Flange thickness is given by
f K
P
G tf
where
1
g m
]
H.G
h W
5 . 1 3 . 0 [ K

+
W
m
= total bolt load = 7.35 x 10
4
kg.
h
g
= Radial distance from gasket load reaction
to basket circle
= (B - G)/2
= 28.5 mm
48
H = Total hydrostatic end force
=
P G
4
2
= 9221.8 kg
K = 1.58.
t
f
= 19.45 mm
20 mm
Nozzle Design:
We assume minimum nozzle diameter as 100 mm and proceed with
calculations for nozzle thickness.
The design procedure for all nozzles is the same
Minimum nozzle thickness
t
h
=
P - 2fJ
d P i
= 0.05 mm
Actual thickness taken = 3 mm
To check whether compensation is to be provided.
H
1
= 2.5 t
n
= 7.5 mm
The area for which compensation is required is
A = d t
s
= 600 mm
2
Area available for compensation
i) The portion of the shell or head as excess thickness
A
s
= d (t
s
t
s
`)
Where t
s
` = theoretical shell thickness = 0.615 mm
A
s
= 540 mm
2
ii) The portion of nozzle external to vessel
A
o
= 2 H
1
(t
n
t
n
`)
49
= 44.25 mm
2
Since area of compensation available is
A
s
+ A
o
= 584.25 mm
2
> A, compensation need not
be provided.
Jacket Design:
We use a plain jacket for heat transfer.
Internal pressure = 1.033 kg/cm
2
Design pressure = 1.133 kg/cm
2
Jacket internal diameter = 1003 mm
The thickness of jacket is calculated as
P - 2fJ
PD
t
t
j
= 0.694 cm
But, minimum jacket thickness = 5 mm, so we use jacket of 5mm
thickness.
Agitator System:
Diameter of agitator = 400 mm
Maximum Speed = 300 rpm
Width of blade = 70 mm
Power being used is 1.408 HP.
Shaft Design
Material of construction: Stainless steel
N 2
60 75 hp
Tc
= 3.36 kg m
50
T
m
= 1.5 x T
c
= 5.04 kg m
Z
p
=
s
m
f
T
= 0.379 cm
3
379 . 0
16
d
3
d = 1.25 cm
F
m
=
b
m
R 0.75
T
= 33.6 kg.
where R
b
is radius of blade =
2
40
cm = 20 cm
M = F
m
x L
Where L = effective length between agitator and
bearing = 1.4 m.
M = 47.04 kg m
M
e
=
) T M (M
2
1
2
m
2
+ +
= 47.17 kg m
Using this value, we calculate tension as:

3
) ( 32 /
100 17 . 47
d
At diameter value = 1.25 cm, tension = 24600 kg/cm

2
, which is
greater than the permissible value of 1330 kg/cm
2
.
Use diameter = 4.0 cm, for which permissible value of stress
is not crossed.
10. PROCESS CONTROL
51
The smooth working of any continuous plant is normally ensured by
the employment of intelligent and suitable control strategies. It is
imperative that all aspects regarding working of the system are
understood before an attempt is made to control the process, or the
results may be disastrous. Here we discuss the control strategies
required for the main reactor R101 and for the distillation columns
D101, D102, D103 and D104 in general.
1) R101:
This reactor plays a key role in the manufacture of lactic acid, as it
involves formation of lactonitrile, which is later hydrolyzed to lactic
acid. It is essential to have intense mixing and good temperature
control in this reactor. The temperature in this reactor should not
exceed 15
0
C. Chilled water in jacked is used to ensure cooling.
The operating objectives are:
1) To keep the conversion in the reactor at the designated value
(95%).
2) To maintain constant production rate.
3) To achieve constant composition in the effluent.
4) To maintain temperature as predecided.
The conversion level in the reactor has been decided by the residence
time provided by the reactor volume. So the input flow rates in the
reactor need to be monitored. This will also ensure a constant
production rate. Hence, flow controllers need to be installed at the
52
input streams for acetaldehyde and acetone cyanohydrin.
The temperature inside the reactor has to be maintained at 15
0
C.
Temperature control can be achieved by cascading the reactor
temperature with the temperature of chilled water. Cascading provides
good safety, which is very much desirable as it takes into
consideration even the utility temperature. The control configuration
is shown in Fig.1
2) Distillation Columns (D101, D102, D103 and D104):
Cascade control is usually employed to regulate the temperature and
subsequently the composition at the top and the bottom of the column.
In both the cases, the secondary loop is used for compensating the
flow rate changes. The control configuration is shown in Fig. 2

53
54
55
11. PROCESS EQUIPMENT DATA SHEET
1) Distillation Column D101: (Ludwig, 1997)
This is a packed tower.
Twelve theoretical stages are required.
Optimum reflux ratio for this column = 0.2
The calculations are similar to those in the process design of D102.
The results are as follows:
Packing type: IMTP #25 mm.
Diameter of column: 0.90m
Packed height: 5.6 m
Material of construction: SS 304
2) E102 (Condenser for D101):
Type: Shell and tube type construction.
Streams:
Shell side: Cooling water
Tube side: Condensing stream of acetaldehyde and acetone.
Temperatures:
Shell side
In
32
0
C
Out
38
0
C
56
Tube side 40
0
C 40
0
C

Heat Duty: 4.43 x 10
5
kJ/hr.
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient: 730 kcal/hr m
2
K
Area of Heat Transfer: 18 m
2
.
Material of Construction:
Shell Side: Carbon Steel
Tube Side: Carbon Steel
3) E103 (Reboiler for D101):
Type: Kettle type.
Streams:
Shell side: Lactonitrile.
Tube side: Condensing steam.
Heat Duty: 4.7 x 10
5
kJ/hr.
Overall heat transfer coefficient: 976 kcal/hr m
2
K
Area of Heat Transfer: 6.1 m
2
.
4) R102:
Type: Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR)
Material of Construction: SS 316
Design Temperature: 60
0
C.
Design Pressure: 1 atmosphere.
57
Volume of Reactor: 0.967 m
3
.
Diameter: 0.97 m.
Height: 1.17 m.
Jacket for Heat Transfer:
Height of jacket provided: 36.7 cm.
Area of heat transfer: 1.12 m
2
.
Material of Construction: Carbon Steel.
5) R103:
Type: Packed bed reactor.
Type of Packing: IMTP
Material of Construction: SS 316 (Reactor as well as packing)
0
C.
3
.
Diameter: 1.65 m.
Height: 1.98 m.
6) Distillation Column D103:
Seven theoretical stages are required.
Optimum reflux ratio for this column: 1.54
As shown earlier, calculations are done and results are:
58
Material of construction: Mild Steel
Streams:
Tube side: Condensing methanol.
Temperatures:
Shell side
Tube side
In
32
0
C
65
0
C
Out
40
0
C
65
0
C

6
kJ/hr.
2
K
Area of Heat Transfer: 50 m
2
.
Type: Kettle type.
Streams:
Shell side: Methyl lactate and water.
5
kJ/hr.
2
K
59
2
.
Shell Side: Mild Steel
Steam used at: 4 atmospheres; so steam condenses at 141
0
C.
9) R104:
Type: Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR)
Material of Construction: SS 316
0
C.
3
.
Diameter: 1.07 m.
Height: 1.29 m.
Jacket for Heat Transfer:
Height of jacket provided: 36.1 cm.
Area of heat transfer: 1.22 m
2
.
Material of Construction: Carbon Steel.
10) D104:
Eight theoretical stages are required.
The calculations are done similarly and the results are as follows:
60
Material of construction: SS 316
Streams:
Tube side: Condensing methanol.
Temperatures:
Shell side
Tube side
In
32
0
C
65
0
C
Out
40
0
C
65
0
C

5
kJ/hr.
2
K
2
.
Type: Kettle type.
Streams:
Shell side: Lactic acid and water.
5
kJ/hr.
2
K
2
.
61
Shell Side: SS 316
Steam used at: 4 atmospheres; so steam condenses at 141
0
C.
13) E101 (Cooler used to cool acetone cyanohydrin):
Type:
Double pipe heat exchanger
Streams:
Annulus side: Chilled water
Tube side: Acetone Cyanohydrin
Temperatures:
Annulus side
Tube side
In
10
0
C
27
0
C
Out
13
0
C
15
0
C
4
kJ/hr
2
C
2
Annulus: Carbon Steel
Tube: SS 316
14) E106 (Cooler used to cool acetaldehyde):
Type:
Streams:
Annulus side: Chilled water
Tube side: Acetaldehyde
Temperatures:
Annulus side
Tube side
In
10
0
C
20
0
C
Out
13
0
C
15
0
C
3
kJ/hr
2
C
62
2
Tube: Carbon Steel
Type:
Streams:
Annulus side: Cooling water
Tube side: Lactonitrile
Temperatures:
Annulus side
Tube side
In
32
0
C
184
0
C
Out
45
0
C
60
0
C
5
kJ/hr
2
C
2
Tube: Mild Steel
16) E108 (Used to heat feed water):
Type:
Streams:
Annulus side: Water
Tube side: Condensing steam
Temperatures:
Annulus side
Tube side
In
27
0
C
100
0
C
Out
60
0
C
100
0
C
63
5
kJ/hr
2
C
2
Tube: Carbon Steel
Type:
Shell and tube heat exchanger
Streams:
Tube side: Methyl lactate and water
Temperatures:
Shell side
Tube side
In
32
0
C
130
0
C
Out
40
0
C
60
0
C
6
kJ/hr
2
C
2
Shell: Carbon Steel
Tube: Mild Steel
18) F101 A/B:
Type: Sparkler Filter.
Two sparkler filters are employed to ensure continuity of operation.
64
Diameter: 0.4 m.
Height: 0.8 m.
Material of Construction: SS 316.
19) EV101:
Type: Agitated Thin Film Evaporator
2
K.
Flow-rate of steam required = 295 kg/hr.
Area: 2.5 m
2
Material of Construction: SS 316.
12. UTILITIES AND STORAGE FACILITIES
Utilities:
65
Utilities required in the present plant are:
i) Cooling Water
ii) Steam
iii) Chilled Water
iv) Power.
In this section, an analysis of requirement of utilities in the plant is
given.
i) Cooling Water:
The requirement of cooling water in various equipments is as follows:
Equipment Number Cooling Water requirement in
kg/hr.
E107 8253.75
E109 21809
E111 22108
E112 20047
Total 72217.75
Total cooling water requirement per year = 72348.45 x 8000/1000
tons
= 577742 tons = 577742
m
3
.
ii) Steam:
The requirement of steam in various equipments is as follows:
Equipment Number Steam Requirement in kg/hr.
E103 220
66
E105 107
E108 52.23
E110 119
R104 19.4
E113 438
EV101 295
Total 1250.63
Thus, total requirement of steam per year = 10005 T.
So, annual steam requirement is about 10,000 T.
iii) Chilled Water:
The requirement of chilled water in various equipments is as follows:
Equipment Number Chilled Water Requirement in
kg/hr
E101 1362
R101 654
E102 15143
E104 7686
E106 538
Total 25383
So, total requirement of chilled water = 2,03,064 TPA.
iv) Power:
Power is required for operation of pumps, motor drives, lighting and
general use, may be generated on site, but more usually will be
purchased. There are eighteen total pumps in the battery limit plant
(including stand-by pumps).
Storage Facilities:
Storage facility is required for raw-materials as well as the products.
The outside battery limit (OSBL) storage facilities required are:
67
i) Acetaldehyde: Acetaldehyde is stored in metal drums, stainless
steel or equivalent phenolic resin lined drums. The drums equipped
with cooling facilities in order to keep the temperature below 15
0
C,
and also with an inert-gas sealing system.
Thus, a facility is required to store 213 T of acetaldehyde, which is the
raw-material inventory for 15 days.
ii) Acetone Cyanohydrin: A storage facility is required to store 383
T of acetone cyanohydrin, which is again the raw-material inventory
for 15 days.
iii) Lactic Acid: Lactic acid inventory for 15 days is 406 T. A facility
is required to store this. As lactic acid is highly corrosive, special care
has to be taken while storing this.
iv) Acetone: A facility to store 150 T of acetone, which is the product
inventory for 15 days, is required.
13. SAFETY, HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT
Any organization has a legal and moral obligation to safeguard the
health and welfare of its employees and also of the general public.
Safety is also good business: the good management practices needed
to ensure safe operation will also ensure efficient operation.
68
The organization will also have to consider loss prevention. The
term loss prevention is an insurance term, the loss being the
financial loss caused by an accident. This loss will not only be the cost
of replacing damaged plant and third party claims but also the loss of
earnings from lost production cost and lost sales opportunity.
All manufacturing processes are to some extent hazardous, but in
chemical processes, there are additional hazards associated with the
chemicals used and the process conditions employed. The awareness
of these hazards and the application of sound engineering to keep the
risks associated to a minimum is an engineers job.
In the manufacture of lactic acid from acetaldehyde, the present
project, there are many risks involved mainly due to the presence of 3
chemicals: Acetaldehyde, Acetone cyanohydrin and Lactic acid.
Acetaldehyde is highly flammable; hence extreme care must be taken
to ensure that no explosion takes place.
Acetone cyanohydrin poses problems because of its tendency to
dissociate into hydrogen cyanide, which is highly poisonous.
Further, lactic acid is a highly corrosive acid and causes severe burns
if it comes into contact with skin or any other body parts.
Among effluents, ammonia is the gas evolved during the reaction of
hydrolysis of lactonitrile. It must be scrubbed, as it cannot be let out to
the atmosphere.
In the following section, we consider the characteristics like toxicity,
69
flammability, chemical instability, reactivity, corrosive properties, etc.
in order to analyze the hazards and provide safe and healthy working
conditions.
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET
1) Acetaldehyde:
i) Physical and Chemical Properties:
It is a clear, colorless liquid, which rapidly volatilizes at about 21
0
C. It
has a pungent and irritating odor, however, at low concentrations, it
might be fruity and pleasant. Its melting point is 123.5
0
C, while
boiling point is 21
0
C. It is miscible with water.
It is highly reactive and unstable; it can be easily oxidized and
reduced. It forms acetic acid while liberating heat in the presence of
air and moisture. It may form unstable peroxides, which may
spontaneously explode and burst container. It may also polymerize
liberating heat.
Conditions to avoid:
Heat, flame, ignition sources, air, incompatibles like amines, strong
bases, polymerization catalysts, sodium hydroxide and oxidizing
agents.
ii) Potential Health Effects:
Inhalation:
Exposure to vapors causes irritation to the mucous membranes and
respiratory tract, coughing, dizziness, light sensitivity, sore throat and
70
labored breathing. Large exposures may cause irregular heartbeat,
narcosis, delayed pulmonary edema and death by respiratory failure.
Ingestion:
It causes irritation to the gastrointestinal tract. Symptoms may include
nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. It may also cause systemic poisoning
with symptoms paralleling those of inhalation.
Skin Contact:
Vapor and liquid cause irritation, redness and pain. Prolonged contact
with liquid may cause erythema and burns; although rapid evaporation
limits this possibility.
Eye Contact:
Vapors cause irritation, redness and pain. Liquid splashes may cause
burning sensation, severe irritation, blurred vision and temporary eye
damage.
Chronic Exposure:
Repeated exposure to vapors may cause dermatitis and conjunctivitis.
Liver and kidney damage is associated with chronic exposure to
acetaldehyde. There is inadequate evidence for the carcinogenicity of
acetaldehyde to humans, but there is sufficient evidence for
carcinogenicity of acetaldehyde to animals.
iii) First Aid Measures:
Inhalation:
Remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If
71
breathing is difficult, give oxygen, call physician.
Ingestion:
Induce vomiting immediately as directed by medical personnel. Never
give anything by mouth to unconscious person, call a physician.
Skin Contact:
In case of contact, immediately flush skin with plenty of water for at
least 15 minutes. Remove contaminated clothing and shoes. Wash
clothing before reuse. Call a physician.
Eye Contact:
Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes,
lifting lower and upper eyelids occasionally. Get medical attention
immediately.
iv) Fire Fighting Measures:
Fire:
Flash Point: -38
0
C.
Autoignition temperature: 175
0
C.
Flammable limits in air by volume: lel: 4; uel: 60.
Reactive and extremely flammable liquid.
Fire may produce poisonous gases.
Explosion:
Above flash point, air-vapor mixtures are explosive within flammable
limits given above. Vapors can flow along surfaces to distant ignition
source and flash back. It may oxidize rapidly in air to form peroxides
72
that may explode spontaneously. Contact with strong oxidizers or
incompatibilities may cause fires and explosions. Closed containers
exposed to heat may explode. It is sensitive to static discharge.
Fire extinguishing media:
Dry chemical, foam or carbon dioxide. Water may be ineffective.
Water spray may be used to keep fire exposed containers cool, dilute
spills to nonflammable mixtures, protect personnel attempting to stop
leak and disperse vapors.
Special Information:
This highly flammable liquid must be kept from sparks, open flame,
hot surfaces, and all sources of heat and ignition. In the event of a fire,
wear full protective clothing and NIOSH-approved self-contained
breathing apparatus with full facepiece operated in the pressure
demand or other positive pressure mode. Fight fires from a safe
distance. Structural firefighters' clothing provides only limited
protection to the combustion products of this material.
v) Handling and Storage:
Wear special protective equipment for maintenance break-in or where
exposures may exceed established exposure levels. Wash hands, face,
forearms and neck while exiting restricted areas. Shower; dispose of
outer clothing, change to clean garments at the end of the day. Avoid
cross-contamination of street clothes. Wash hands before eating and
73
do not eat, drink or smoke in workplace. Protect against physical
damage.
Store bulk quantities outside in detached tanks provided with
refrigeration and inert gas blanket, such as nitrogen, in void space
above liquid level. Smaller container storage should be in a detached
noncombustible building, provided with cooling facilities, proper
ventilation and free of source of ignition; no alkaline materials,
halogens, alcohols, acids, ketones, nor oxidizing materials, permitted
in storage room. Inside storage should be in standard flammable
liquids storage room or cabinet. Containers should be bonded and
grounded for transfers to avoid static sparks. Drums containing
acetaldehyde should never be stored in direct sunlight or other warm
areas.
vi) Personal Protection:
A system of general and/or local exhaust is recommended to keep
employee exposures below the airborne exposure limits. As far as
possible, use explosion-proof equipment.
If the exposure limit is exceeded, a full facepiece respirator with
organic vapor cartridge may be worn upto 50 times the exposure limit
or the maximum use concentration specified by the appropriate
regulatory agency or respirator supplier, whichever is lowest.
For skin protection, wear impervious protective clothing, including
boots, gloves, lab coat, apron or coveralls, as appropriate, to prevent
74
skin contact.
For eye protection, use chemical safety goggles and/or a full face
shield where splashing is possible. Maintain eye wash fountain and
quick-drench facilities in work area.
vii) Disposal Considerations:
Whatever cannot be saved for recovery or recycling should be handled
as hazardous waste and sent to incinerator or disposed in an approved
waste facility. Processing, use or contamination of this product may
change the waste management options. Dispose of container and
unused contents in accordance with federal, state and local
requirements.
2) Lactic Acid:
It is colorless to slightly yellow, syrupy liquid. It has got a slightly
acrid odor. It is completely miscible with water. Its melting point is
17
0
C, while boiling point is 122
0
C at 15 mm Hg.
It is stable under ordinary conditions of storage and use. Carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide may form when heated to
decomposition.
Conditions to Avoid:
Heat, incompatibles like hydrofluoric acid, oxidizing agents, iodides,
albumin.
75
Inhalation:
Inhalation of dust or vapors may be corrosive to the mucous
membranes. Symptoms may include coughing, sore throat and
shortness of breath.
Ingestion:
It is highly corrosive. It causes burns in the mouth, stomach and
throat. It may cause diarrhea, vomiting, nausea, perspiration and
shortness of breath. Severe cases may produce cyanosis and vascular
collapse.
Skin Contact:
Causes severe irritation. May have corrosive effects, producing skin
burns.
Eye Contact:
Causes severe irritation. May cause redness, pain, blurred vision, and
eye damage.
Inhalation:
Remove fresh air, if not breathing, give artificial respiration. If
breathing is difficult, give oxygen. Get medical attention immediately.
Ingestion:
If swallowed, do not induce vomiting. Give large quantities of water.
Never give anything by mouth to an unconscious person. Get medical
attention immediately.
76
Skin Contact:
Immediately flush skin with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes
while removing contaminated clothing and shoes. Get medical
attention immediately. Wash clothing before reuse. Thoroughly clean
shoes before reuse.
Eye Contact:
lifting lower and upper eyelids occasionally. Get medical attention
immediately.
Fire:
Flash Point > 122
0
C.
It burns when exposed to heat or flame.
It is not considered to be an explosion hazard.
Fire extinguishing media:
Water spray, dry chemical, alcohol foam, or carbon dioxide.
Special Information:
In the event of a fire, wear full protective clothing and NIOSH-
approved self-contained breathing apparatus with full facepiece
operated in the pressure demand or other positive pressure mode.
Keep in a tightly closed container, stored in a cool, dry, ventilated
77
area. Protect against physical damage. Isolate from any source of heat
or ignition. Containers of this material may be hazardous when empty
since they retain product residues(vapors, liquid); observe all
warnings and precautions listed for the product.
vi) Personal Protection:
A system of local and/or general exhaust is recommended to keep
employee exposures as low as possible.
For conditions of use where exposure to the substance is apparent,
consult an industrial hygienist. For emergencies, or instances where
the exposure levels are not known, use a full-facepiece positive-
pressure, air-supplied respirator.
For skin protection, wear impervious protective clothing, including
boots, gloves, lab coat, apron or coveralls, as appropriate, to prevent
skin contact.
For eye protection, use chemical safety goggles and/or a full face
shield where splashing is possible. Maintain eye wash fountain and
quick-drench facilities in work area.
vii) Disposal Considerations:
Whatever cannot be saved for recovery or recycling should be
managed in an appropriate and approved waste facility. Although not
a listed RCRA hazardous waste, this material may exhibit one or more
characteristics of a hazardous waste and require appropriate analysis
to determine specific disposal requirements. Processing, use or
78
contamination of this product may change the waste management
options. Dispose of container and unused contents in accordance with
federal, state and local requirements.
viii) Accidental Release Measures:
Ventilate area of leak or spill. Remove all sources of ignition. Wear
appropriate personal protective equipment. Isolate hazard area. Keep
unnecessary and unprotected personnel from entering. Contain and
recover liquid when possible. Use non-sparking tools and equipment.
Collect liquid in an appropriate container or absorb with an inert
material (e. g., vermiculite, dry sand, earth), and place in a chemical
waste container. Do not use combustible materials, such as saw dust.
3) Acetone Cyanohydrin:
It is a colorless liquid, having bitter-almond odor.
Melting Point: -19
0
C.
Boiling Point: 69
0
C.
Autoignition Temperature: 688
0
C.
It is freely soluble. Its specific gravity is 0.932.
It is stable under normal temperatures and pressures.
Conditions to Avoid:
Oxidizing agents, ignition sources, excess heat.
Hazardous Decomposition Products:
Hydrogen cyanide, carbon monoxide, irritating and toxic
79
fumes and gases, carbon dioxide.
Eye:
May cause eye irritation. May cause chemical
conjunctivitis and corneal damage.
Skin:
May be fatal if absorbed through the skin. May be
metabolized to cyanide which in turn act by inhibiting
cytochrome oxidase impairing cellular respiration. May
cause irritation and dermatitis. May cause cyanosis of
the extremities.
Ingestion:
May be fatal if swallowed. May cause gastrointestinal
irritation with nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. May cause
liver and kidney damage. Metabolism may release cyanide,
which may result in headache, dizziness, weakness,
collapse, unconsciousness and possible death. Human
fatalities have been reported from acute poisoning.
Ingestion may result in symptoms similar to cyanide
poisoning which is characterized by asphyxiation.
Inhalation:
May cause respiratory tract irritation. May cause liver
and kidney damage. Aspiration may lead to pulmonary
edema. May be metabolized to cyanide which in turn act
by inhibiting cytochrome oxidase impairing cellular
respiration.
80
Chronic Exposure:
May cause liver and kidney damage. May be metabolized to
cyanide which in turn act by inhibiting cytochrome
oxidase impairing cellular respiration.
Eyes:
Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least
15 minutes, occasionally lifting the upper and lower
eyelids. Get medical aid immediately.
Skin:
Flush skin with plenty of soap and water for at least 15
minutes while removing contaminated clothing and shoes.
Discard contaminated clothing in a manner which limits
further exposure.
Ingestion:
Do not induce vomiting. If victim is conscious and
alert, give 2-4 cupfuls of milk or water. Never give
anything by mouth to an unconscious person. Get medical
aid immediately.
Inhalation:
Get medical aid immediately. Remove from exposure to
fresh air immediately. If not breathing, give artificial
respiration. If breathing is difficult, give oxygen. Do
not use mouth-to-mouth respiration. If breathing has
ceased apply artificial respiration using oxygen and a
81
suitable mechanical device such as a bag and a mask.
General Information:
As in any fire, wear a self-contained breathing
apparatus in pressure-demand, and full protective gear.
Use water spray to keep fire-exposed containers cool.
Water may be ineffective. Material is lighter than water
and a fire may be spread by the use of water. It is a
combustible liquid. Vapors may be heavier than air. They
can spread along the ground and collect in low or
confined areas. Containers may explode when heated.
Extinguishing Media:
In case of fire, use water, dry chemical, chemical foam,
or alcohol-resistant foam. Use water spray to cool fire-
exposed containers. Water may be ineffective.
Handling:
Wash thoroughly after handling. Wash hands before
eating. Remove contaminated clothing and wash before
reuse. Use only in a well ventilated area. Empty
containers retain product residue, and can be dangerous.
Keep container tightly closed. Avoid contact with heat,
sparks and flame. Do not get on skin or in eyes. Do not
ingest or inhale. Do not pressurize, cut, weld,
braze,solder,drill, or expose empty containers to heat,
82
sparks or open flames.
Storage:
Keep away from heat, flame and sparks. Keep away from
sources of ignition. Store in a cool, dry place. Store
in a tightly closed container. Store in a cool, dry,
well-ventilated area away from incompatible substances.
vi) Accidental Release Measures:
Spills/Leaks:
Absorb leak with inert material, (e.g. dry sand or
earth), then place into a chemical waste container.
Avoid run-off into storm sewers and ditches which lead
to waterways. Clean up spills immediately. Remove all
sources of ignition. Use a spark-proof tool. Provide
ventilation.
vii) Personal Protection:
Facilities storing or utilizing acetone cyanohydrin
should be equipped with an eyewash facility and a safety
shower. Use adequate ventilation to keep airborne
concentrations low.
Personal protective equipment:
Eyes:
Wear appropriate protective eyeglasses or chemical
safety goggles.
Skin:
Wear appropriate protective gloves to prevent skin
exposure.
4) Acetone:
83
It is a clear, colorless, volatile liquid. It has a
fragrant, mint-like odor. It is miscible in water in all
proportions.
Melting Point: -95
0
C.
Boiling Point: 56.5
0
C.
It is stable under ordinary conditions of storage and
use. Carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide may form when
heated to decomposition.
Conditions to avoid:
Heat, flames, ignition sources and incompatibles like
oxidizing materials, chloroform, alkalies, acids and
chlorine compounds.
Inhalation:
Inhalation of vapors irritates the respiratory tract. May cause
coughing, dizziness, dullness, and headache. Higher concentrations
can produce central nervous system depression, narcosis, and
unconsciousness.
Ingestion:
Swallowing small amounts is not likely to produce harmful effects.
Ingestion of larger amounts may produce abdominal pain, nausea and
vomiting. Aspiration into lungs can produce severe lung damage and
is a medical emergency. Other symptoms are parallel to inhalation.
Skin Contact:
Irritating due to defatting action on skin. Causes redness, pain, drying
84
and cracking of the skin.
Eye Contact:
Vapors are irritating to the eyes. Splashes may cause severe irritation,
with stinging, tearing, redness and pain.
Chronic Exposure:
Prolonged or repeated skin contact may produce severe irritation or
dermatitis.
Inhalation:
Remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If
breathing is difficult, give oxygen. Get medical attention.
Ingestion:
Aspiration hazard. If swallowed, vomiting may occur spontaneously,
but do not induce. If vomiting occurs, keep head below hips to
prevent aspiration into lungs. Never give anything by mouth to an
unconscious person. Call a physician immediately.
Skin Contact:
Immediately flush skin with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes.
Remove contaminated clothing and shoes. Get medical attention.
Wash clothing before reuse. Thoroughly clean shoes before reuse.
Eye Contact:
85
lifting upper and lower eyelids occasionally. Get medical attention.
Fire:
Flash Point: -20
0
C.
Autoignition temperature: 465
0
C.
It is an extremely flammable liquid and vapor. Vapor may cause flash
fire.
Explosion:
Above flash point, vapor-air mixtures are explosive within flammable
limits noted above. Vapors can flow along surfaces to distant ignition
source and flash back. Contact with strong oxidizers may cause fire.
Sealed containers may rupture when heated. This material may
produce a floating fire hazard. Sensitive to static discharge.
Fire Extinguishing Media:
Dry chemical, alcohol foam or carbon dioxide. Water may be
ineffective. Water spray may be used to keep fire exposed containers
cool, dilute spills to nonflammable mixtures, protect personnel
attempting to stop leak and disperse vapors.
Protect against physical damage. Store in a cool, dry well-ventilated
location, away from any area where the fire hazard may be acute.
Outside or detached storage is preferred. Separate from incompatibles.
Containers should be bonded and grounded for transfers to avoid static
86
sparks. Storage and use areas should be No Smoking areas. Use non-
sparking type tools and equipment, including explosion proof
ventilation. Containers of this material may be hazardous when empty
since they retain product residues; observe all warnings and
precautions listed for the product.
vi) Accidental Release Measures:
Ventilate area of leak or spill. Remove all sources of ignition. Wear
appropriate personal protective equipment. Isolate hazard area. Keep
unnecessary and unprotected personnel from entering. Contain and
recover liquid when possible. Use non-sparking tools and equipment.
Collect liquid in an appropriate container or absorb with an inert
material (e. g., vermiculite, dry sand, earth), and place in a chemical
waste container. Do not use combustible materials, such as saw dust.
Do not flush to sewer! If a leak or spill has not ignited, use water
spray to disperse the vapors, to protect personnel attempting to stop
leak, and to flush spills away from exposures.
vii) Personal Protection:
A system of local and/or general exhaust is recommended to keep
employee exposures below the Airborne Exposure Limits. Local
exhaust ventilation is generally preferred because it can control the
emissions of the contaminant at its source, preventing dispersion of it
into the general work area.
Personal Respirators:
87
If the exposure limit is exceeded, a half-face organic vapor respirator
may be worn for up to ten times the exposure limit or the maximum
use concentration specified by the appropriate regulatory agency or
respirator supplier, whichever is lowest. A full-face piece organic
vapor respirator may be worn up to 50 times the exposure limit or the
maximum use concentration specified by the appropriate regulatory
agency or respirator supplier, whichever is lowest. For emergencies or
instances where the exposure levels are not known, use a full-face
piece positive-pressure, air-supplied respirator.
Skin Protection:
Wear impervious protective clothing, including boots, gloves, lab
coat, apron or coveralls, as appropriate, to prevent skin contact.
Eye Protection:
Use chemical safety goggles and/or a full face shield where splashing
is possible. Maintain eye wash fountain and quick-drench facilities in
work area.
88
14. PLANT LAYOUT
Proper layout of the plant is very important to ensure trouble free
operation. The process units and ancillary buildings should be laid to
give the most economical flow of materials as well as personnel
around the site. Hazardous processes must be located at a safe distance
from other buildings. Consideration must also be given to future
expansion of plant. The ancillary buildings and services required are:
Storage, Maintenance workshops, Stores for maintenance,
Laboratories for quality control, Fire Station, Utilities, water treatment
plant, Administration Office, Canteen, car parks and medicinal
facilities.
While roughing the preliminary site layout the process units will
normally be sited first and arranged to give a smooth flow of materials
through the various processing steps from raw materials to final
89
product. Storage process units are normally spaced at least 30 m apart.
The cost of construction can be minimized by adopting a layout that
gives the shortest run of connecting people between equipment, and
the least amount of structural steel work.
Considerations in Layout:
Process Requirements: An example of need is the need to elevate the
bases to provide the necessary net positive suction head to the pump
and operating head for the thermosyphon reboiler.
Operation:
Equipment that needs to have frequent operator attention like R101
and R102 needs to be closer to the control room. Equipments that
require dismantling such as large pumps should be placed under
cover.
Administrative Offices:
They should be close to the main entrance so as to facilitate movement
of personnel
working there. Canteen should be close to management service
buildings and time office.
Tank Farms and Utilities:
They should be close to the roads connecting main roads.
90
91
15. FINANCIAL ANALYSIS AND COST
ESTIMATION
Raw material costs: -
Acetaldehyde Rs.20/kg.
Acetone Cyanohydrin Rs.95/kg
92
Product Selling Price:
Lactic Acid Rs.113/kg.
Assumptions: -.
Annual rate of inflation = 6 %
The interest rate for term loan from financial institutes = 14
%
The interest rate for bank borrowings = 20 %
The relation cost (Capacity )
n
holds good with appropriate
value of n.
Calculation of working capital is based on assumption of
full capacity utilization.
Estimation of Plant and Machinery Cost: -
A. Equipment Cost
Consider Reactor R-101.
MOC: - Stainless steel
Density: - 7800 kg. /m
3
Thickness of shell: - 6 mm
Diameter of vessel: - 1.003 m
Height of Vessel: - 1.2 m
Volume of Reactor:- 1.2 m
3
Weight of material (MOC) being used = 201.52 kg.
Cost of SS-316 = Rs.250/kg
Cost of reactor = Rs.0.504 lacs.
93
Height of jacket = 26.75 m
Diameter of jacket = 1.009 m
MOC: Carbon Steel.
Cost of jacket = 0.16 lacs
A pitch blade turbine is used.
Total cost of agitation system (impeller+ stuffing box and
gland + hub and key) = Rs.0.11 lacs.
Total cost of reactor = Rs.0.774 lacs.
Considering the cost of nozzles etc. as 10 % of it = 0.0774
lacs,
Cost of reactor = 0.8514 lacs.
Similar type of evaluation is done for other equipments.
Equipment No. Cost (Lacs)
R-102 1.12
R-103 3.61
R-104 1.06
D-101 2.90
D-102 2.15
D-103 2.48
D-104 2.69
F-101 0.80
EV-101 1.13
E-101 0.97
E-102 1.96
E-103 1.13
E-104 1.44
E-105 0.67
E-106 0.53
E-107 1.34
E-108 0.86
E-109 3.81
E-110 1.05
E-111 1.46
E-112 2.41
94
E-113 1.80
The total cost of pumps is taken as 0.5 x 18 = Rs.9.0 lacs.
Adding altogether, the total equipment cost = 47.22 lacs.
30% cost of the cost of equipments is allotted for packing,
forwarding and instrumentation.
Hence, total equipment cost for inside battery limit plant =
61.39 lacs.
To estimate outside battery unit costs:
Unit Cost (lacs)
Effluent Treatment Facilities 15.0
Power receiving station 15.2
Safety equipments 7.0
Cooling Towers 6.5
Boilers 9.0
Main Storage Tanks 4.5
Hence, outside battery unit cost = 57.2 lacs.
Thus, total delivered cost (DC) is calculated as
DC = 61.39 + 57.2
DC = 118.59 lacs
Installed Cost of Equipments: -
Elements Cost (lacs)
Piping (30 % of DC) 35.58
Instrumentation (20 % of DC) 23.72
Electricity (15% of DC) 17.79
Installation (10 % of DC) 11.86
95
Insulation and Painting (1.5% of DC) 1.779
Spares (5% of DC) 5.93
Excise (10 % of DC) 11.86
Sales (10 % of DC) 11.86
Hence, total Installed cost of equipments = 120.37 lacs
Hence,
Total plant and machinery cost = DC + Installed Cost of
Equipments
= 118.59 + 120.37
= 238.96 lacs
Assuming the plant and machinery cost to be 45 % of total
project cost,
Total project cost = 531.02 lacs
Project Cost (PC) is distributed among its various components
as
Component % of project cost Cost, lacs
Land and site development 3 15.93
Building and civil works 10 53.10
Plant and machinery 45 238.96
Know-how and Engineering 12 63.72
Miscellaneous Fixed Assets 5 26.55
Pre-operative expenses 9 47.79
Contingencies 9 47.79
Preliminary and Capital issue
related expenses
2 10.62
Margin money 5 26.55
Total 100 531.02
Estimation of cost of production:
A) Cost of Raw materials: -
Raw material Requirement (TPA) Cost (lacs)
96
Acetaldehyde 4631.6 926
Acetone Cyanohydrin 8500 8075
Methanol 8 2.0
PTSA (Catalyst) 12 8.5
Total 9011.5
B) Cost of Utilities: -
The cost of utilities can be taken as 10 % of that of the raw materials.
Hence, Utility cost = 901.15 lacs
Its distribution among various utilities is made as
Utility % of Utility cost Cost, lacs
Power 35 315.40
Steam 20 180.23
Chilled water 30 270.35
Cooling water 15 135.17
Total 100 901.15
Raw material and Utility cost is 9912.65 lacs.
C) Maintenance Cost: -
Operating Labor Cost (OLC) (8 % of PC) 50.30 lacs
Maintenance and repairs (5 % of PC) 30.23 lacs
Supervision (15 % of OLC) 7.1 lacs
Labor Charges (15 % of OLC) 7.1 lacs
Operating Supplier (15 % of maintenance) 7.1 lacs
Total 101.83 lacs
D) Fixed Charges: -
97
Local Taxes (4% of PC) 24.65 lacs
Insurance 21.00 lacs
Total 45.65 lacs
E) Plant Overheads
These are 40 % of (Operating labor cost, supervision and
maintenance cost)
Hence, these are equal to 36.0 lacs.
F) General Expenses: -
Administrative Expenses (25 % of operating labor cost) 16.89
lacs
Distribution and selling cost
50.0 lacs
Total
66.89 lacs
Hence, gross cost of production (GCOP) = A + B + C + D + E
+ F
= 10163.02
lacs
Estimation of Working Capital: -
Component Cost, lacs
Raw material Inventory for 15 days 150.0
Utilities for 15 days 15.0
Product Stock for 15 days 140.0
Salary and Wages for 1 month 130.0
Cash in hand 50.0
98
Maintenance and spares 10.0
Packing material for 1 week 5.0
Total 500.00
Working capital (WC) 500 lacs
Margin money (25 % of WC) 125 lacs
Project cost 531.02 lacs
Debt: Equity ratio 1:1
Debt = 265.51 lacs
Equity = 265.51 lacs
Equity Participation: -
Promoters holding (51 %) = 135.41 lacs
Share Holders holding (49 %) = 130.10 lacs
Margin money = 125 lacs
Working capital borrowed (WCB) = 375 lacs
Interest rate on term loan (TL) = 14 %
Interest rate on working capital (WC) = 20 %
Profitability: -
Sales realization (SR): -
TPA of product = 10,000 TPA
Selling price of Lactic acid = Rs.113/kg.
Total price for 10,000 T of lactic acid = Rs.11300 lacs.
Also, acetone is formed as a by-product, which can be sold.
Acetone is formed at a rate of 2050 TPA.
Selling price of acetone = Rs.22/kg.
99
Total price for acetone in year = Rs.451 lacs.
SR = 11300 + 1325
SR = 11751 lacs.
Financial Expenses: -
FE = 0.14 x TL + 0.2 x WCB
= 0.14 x 265.51 + 0.2 x 375
FE = 112.17 lacs
14 % of the project cost is non-depreciable (It includes land and site
development, preliminary and capital issue related expenses and
margin money)
Depreciable Cost = 456.68 lacs
SLM contribution (10% of depreciable cost) = 45.67 lacs
WDV contribution (30 % of depreciable cost) = 137.0 lacs
Gross profit (GP) = SR GCOP
= 11751 10163.02
GP = 1587.98 lacs.
Operating Profit (OP) = GP (SLM + FE)
= 1587.98 (45.67 + 112.17)
OP = 1405.31 lacs
Taxable Profit (TP) = OP + SLM WDV
= 1405.31 + 45.67 137
TP = 1313.97 lacs
Corporate Tax (CT) = 38.5 % of TP
100
CT = 505.88 lacs
Net Profit = OP CT
= 9093.25 3256.95
NP = 899.43 lacs
Dividend = 30 % of NP
= 269.83 lacs
Tax on Dividend = 10 % of Dividend
= 26.98 lacs
Total Dividend = 296.81 lacs
Balance = NP total Dividend
= 899.43 296.81
= 602.62 lacs
Net Cash Accruals (NCA) = balance + SLM
= 602.62 + 45.67
NCA = 648.29 lacs
Performance Ratios: -
1. Return on investment (ROI)
= (NCA x 100)/ (investment)
= (NCA x 100)/ (WCB +
depreciable project cost)
= 648.29 x 100 / (831.68)
= 77.95 %
2. Pay-back period = (1 / ROI)
101
= (1/ 0.7795)
= 1.28 years 15.4 months.
16. CONCLUSIONS
The design and economic aspects of a plant to manufacture
10000 TPA of lactic acid from acetaldehyde have been considered.
Although lactic acid till now has been exclusively manufactured by
fermentation methods, the route involving acetaldehyde and acetone
cyanohydrin presents a very good alternative for manufacture of lactic
acid. It can be concluded that based on the present market conditions
and price structure, the project is attractive. The Payback period for
this project is quite small and it makes the project rather attractive.
Under the prevalent structure and technology available, this plant
offers to be an attractive investment.
102
17. REFERENCES
1) Coulson, J. M. and Richardson, J. F., Chemical Engineering Vol.
2, 1
st
ed., Pergamon Press, 1983.
2) Coulson, J. M. and Richardson, J. F., Chemical Engineering Vol.
6, 1
st
ed., Pergamon Press, 1983.
3) Holten, C.H., Lactic Acid-Properties and Chemistry of Lactic Acid
and Derivatives, Stichting ILRA,1980.
4) Joshi, M. V. and Mahajani, V.V., Process Equipment Design, 3
rd
ed., Macmillan India Limited, India, 1996.
5) Kern, D. Q., Process Heat Transfer, McGraw Hill Book Company,
1965.
6) Ludwig, E. E., Applied Process Design for Chemical and
Petrochemical Plants Vol. 1, 3
rd
ed., Gulf Publishing Co., Houston,
1997
7) Ludwig, E. E., Applied Process Design for Chemical and
Petrochemical Plants Vol. 2, 3
rd
ed., Gulf Publishing Co., Houston,
1997
8) Markov, V.I., Mishchenko, A.I., Karpishchenko, L.S., Bondarenko,
S.V., USSR S.U. 1,011, 630, Cf., C.A., 99, 53144a, 1983.
9) McCabe, W.L., Smith J.C., and Harriot, P., Unit Operations of
Chemical Engineering, 5
th
ed., McGraw Hill Inc., 1993.
97
10) Mcketta, J. J. (Ed.), Heat Transfer Design Methods, Marcel
Dekker Inc., 1992.
11) Mcketta, J. J. and Cunningham, W.A., Encyclopedia of Chemical
Processing and Design, Marcel Dekker Inc., 1990.
12) Perry, R. H., Chilton C. H. and Kirkpatrick, S. D., Perrys Chemical
Engineers Handbook, 4
th
ed., McGraw Hill Inc., 1963.
13) Stephanopoulous, G., Chemical Process Control An Introduction
to Theory and Practice, Prentice-Hall India Pvt. Ltd., 1997.
14) Ullmann, Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, VCH Germany,
Vol.A-1, 33-40,1985.
Vol.A-15, 97-106,1985.
Vol.A-16, 465-468,1985.
Vol.A-8, 159-163,1985.
18) Van Ness, J.H., Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 3
rd
ed.,
Wiley , Volume 13, 80-103, 1981.
19) Walas, S.M, Chemical Process Equipment Selection and Design,
Butterworth Heinemann Press, Boston, 1990.
97

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1.

from assumed overall heat-transfer coefficient,

= 0.7575 kg/ sec m

Where W = Weight of Vessel

T = Torque about vessel axis = 50 x 10

= 1.08 cm = 10.8 mm.

At diameter value = 1.25 cm, tension = 24600 kg/cm

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