.

4
The Bernoulli-
Euler Beam
41
Chapter 4: THE BERNOULLI- EULER BEAM 42
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
4.1. Introduction 43
4.2. The Beam Model 43
4.2.1. Field Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.2.2. Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.2.3. The SF Tonti Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.3. The TPE (Primal) Functional 45
4.4. The TCPE (Dual) Functional 47
4.5. The Hellinger-Reissner Functional 49
4. Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
42
43 4.2 THE BEAM MODEL
4.1. Introduction
Fromthe Poisson equation we move to elasticity and structural mechanics. Rather than tackling the
full 3D problem rst this Chapter illustrates, in a tutorial style, the derivation of Variational Forms
for a one-dimensional model: the Bernoulli-Euler beam.
Despite the restriction to 1D, the mathematics offers a newand challenging ingredient: the handling
of functionals with second space derivatives of displacements. Physically these are curvatures of
deected shapes. In structural mechanics curvatures appear in problems involving beams, plates
and shells. In uid mechanics second derivatives appear in slow viscous ows.
4.2. The Beam Model
The beam under consideration extends from x = 0 to x = L and has a bending rigidity EI , which
may be a function of x. See Figure 4.1(a). The transverse load q(x) is given in units of force per
length. The unknown elds are the transverse displacement w(x), rotation (x), curvature (x),
bending moment M(x) and transverse shear V(x). Positive sign conventions for M and V are
illustrated in Figure 4.1(b).
Boundary conditions are applied only at A and B. For deniteness the end conditions shown in
Figure 4.1(c) will be used.
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
B
(a)
(b)
(c)
Prescribed transverse
displacement w and
rotation at left end A.
Note sign conventions
Prescribed bending
moment M and
transverse shear V
at right end B.
Note sign conventions
q(x)
EI(x)
z, w(x)
x
L
+M
+M
+V
+V
^
^
^
^
+w
+
Internal forces.
Note sign conventions
Beam and
applied load
Figure 4.1. The Bernoulli-Euler beam model: (a) beam and transverse load; (b)
positive convention for moment and shear; (c) boundary conditions.
4.2.1. Field Equations
In what follows a prime denotes derivative with respect to x. The eld equations over 0 x L
are as follows.
43
Chapter 4: THE BERNOULLI- EULER BEAM 44
(KE) Kinematic equations:
=
dw
dx
= w

, =
d
2
w
dx
2
= w

, (4.1)
where is the rotation of a cross section and the curvature of the deected longitudinal axis.
Relations (4.1) express the kinematics of an Bernoulli-Euler beam: plane sections remain plane
and normal to the deected neutral axis.
(CE) Constitutive equation:
M = EI , (4.2)
where I is the second moment of inertia of the cross section with respect to y (the neutral axis).
This moment-curvature relation is a consequence of assuming a linear distribution of strains and
stresses across the cross section. It is derived in elementary courses of Mechanics of Materials.
(BE) Balance (equilibrium) equations:
V =
dM
dx
= M

,
dV
dx
q = V

q = M

q = 0. (4.3)
Equations (4.3) are established by elementary means in Mechanics of Materials courses.
1
4.2.2. Boundary Conditions
For the sake of specicity, the boundary conditions assumed for the example beam are of primary-
variable (PBC) type on the left and of ux type (FBC) on the right:
(PBC) at A (x = 0) : w = w
A
, =

A
,
(FBC) at B (x = L) : M =

M
B
, V =

V
B
,
(4.4)
in which w
A
,

A
,

M
B
and

V
B
are prescribed. If w
A
=

A
= 0, these conditions physically
correspond to a cantilever (xed-free) beam. We will let w
A
and

A
be arbitrary, however, to further
illuminate their role in the functionals.
Remark 4.1. Note that a positive

V
B
acts downward (in the z direction) as can be seen from Figure 4.1(b),
so it disagrees with the positive deection +w. On the other hand a positive

M
B
acts counterclockwise, which
agrees with the positive rotation +.
1
In those courses, however, +q(x) is sometimes taken to act downward, leading to V

+q = 0 and M

+q = 0.
44
45 4.3 THE TPE (PRIMAL) FUNCTIONAL
BE:
CE:
PBC:
FBC:
w
q

M = EI
M q = 0
''
= w'
KE: = w''
w
^
A

^
A
M
V = M '
at A
at B
B
B
^
^
M
V
A
A
^
^
w = w
=
B
B
^
^
M = M
V = V
Figure 4.2. Tonti diagram of Strong Form of Bernoulli-Euler beam model.
4.2.3. The SF Tonti Diagram
The Strong Form Tonti diagram for the Bernoulli-Euler model of Figure 4.1 is drawn in Figure 4.2.
The diagram lists the three eld equations (KE, CE, BE) and the boundary conditions (PBC, FBC).
The latter are chosen in the very specic manner indicated above to simplify the boundary terms.
2
Note than in this beam model the rotation = w

and the transverse shear V = M

play the
role of auxiliary variables that are not constitutively related. The only constitutive equation is the
moment-curvature equation M = EI . The reason for the presence of such auxiliary variables is
their direct appearance in boundary conditions.
3
4.3. The TPE (Primal) Functional
Select w as only master eld. Weaken the BE and FBC connections to get the Weak Form (WF)
diagram of Figure 4.4 as departure point. Choose the weighting functions on the weak links BE,
FBC on M and FBC on V to be w,
w
and w, respectively. The weak links are combined as
follows:
=
_
L
0
_
(M
w
)

q
_
wdx +(M
w

M)
w

B
(V
w

V) w

B
= 0. (4.5)
Why the different signs for the moment and shear boundary terms? If confused, read Remark 4.1.
2
In fact 2
4
= 16 boundary condition combinations are mathematically possible. Some of these correspond to physically
realizable support conditions, for example simply supports, whereas others do not.
3
In the Timoshenko beam model, which accounts for transverse shear energy, appears in the constitutive equations.
45
Chapter 4: THE BERNOULLI- EULER BEAM 46
Next, integrate
_
L
0
(M
w
)

wdx twice by parts:

_
L
0
(M
w
)

wdx =
_
L
0
(M
w
)

dx +
_
(M
w
)

w
_
B
A
=
_
L
0
M
w
w

dx +
_
(M
w
)

w
_
B
A

_
M
w
w

_
B
A
=
_
L
0
M
w

w
dx + V
w
w

B
M
w

B
.
(4.6)
PBC:
FBC:
Master
Slave Slave KE:
M
V = (M )'
w w
CE:
BE:
at A
_
L
0

M
q
w
w
w
= w''
w w
M = EI
B
w
(M M ) = 0
^
B
(V V ) w = 0
^
at B
B
B
^
^
M
V
A
A
^
^
w = w
=
(M'' q) w dx = 0
= w'
^
^
A
A
w

Figure 4.3. Weak Form used as departure point to derive the TPE functional for
the Bernoulli-Euler beam.
The disappearance of boundary terms at A in the last equation results fromw
A
= 0, w

A
=
w
A
=
0 on account of the strong PBC connection at x = 0. Inserting (4.6) into (4.5) gives
=
_
L
0
(M
w

w
q w) dx

M
w

B
+

V w

B
=
_
L
0
(EI w

q w) dx

M w

B
+

V w

B
.
(4.7)
This is the rst variation of the functional

TPE
[w] =
1
2
_
L
0
EI (w

)
2
dx
_
L
0
qwdx

M
B
w

B
+

V
B
w
B
. (4.8)
This is called the Total Potential Energy (TPE) functional of the Bernoulli-Euler beam. It was used
in the Introduction to Finite Element Methods course to derive the well known Hermitian beam
element in Chapter 12. For many developments it is customarily split into two terms
[w] = U[w] W[w], (4.9)
46
47 4.4 THE TCPE (DUAL) FUNCTIONAL
in which
U[w] =
1
2
_
L
0
EI (w

)
2
dx, W[w] =
_
L
0
qwdx +

M
B
w

B


V
B
w
B
. (4.10)
Here U is the internal energy (strain energy) of the beam due to bending deformations (bending
moments working on curvatures), whereas W gathers the other terms that collectively represent the
external work of the applied loads.
4
Remark 4.2. Using integration by parts one can show that if = 0,
U =
1
2
W. (4.11)
In other words: at equilibrium the internal energy is half the external work. This property is valid for any
linear elastic continuum. (It is called Clapeyrons theorem in the literature of Structural Mechanics.) It has a
simple geometric interpretation for structures with nite number of degrees of freedom.
Ignorable
PBC:
FBC:
Master
Slave
M
V =M
M

M
q
_
L
0
w M
( ) M dx = 0
CE:
KE:
M
= M/(EI)
B
B
^
^
M
V
at B
B
B
^
^
M = M
V = V
at A
A
A
^
^
w = w
=
w
w
= w'
^
^
A
A
w

BE: M'' q = 0
Figure 4.4. Weak form used as departure point to derive the TCPE functional
for the Bernoulli-Euler beam.
4.4. The TCPE (Dual) Functional
The Total Complementary Potential Energy (TCPE) functional is mathematically the dual of the
primal (TPE) functional.
Select the bending moment M as the only master eld. Make KE weak to get the Weak Form
diagram displayed in Figure 4.4. Choose the weighting function on the weakened KE to be M.
The only contribution to the variation of the functional is
=
_
L
0
(
M

w
) M dx =
_
L
0
(
M
w

) M dx = 0. (4.12)
4
Recall that work and energy have opposite signs, since energy is the capacity to produce work. It is customary to write
= U W instead of the equivalent = U + V, where V = W is the external work potential. This notational
device also frees the symbol V to be used for transverse shear in beams and voltage in electromagnetics.
47
Chapter 4: THE BERNOULLI- EULER BEAM 48
Integrate
_
w

M dx by parts twice:
_
L
0
w

M dx =
_
L
0
w

dx +
_
w

M
_
B
A
=
_
L
0
w M

dx +
_
w

M
_
B
A

_
w M

_
B
A
=
_
L
0
w M

dx

M

A
+ w V
M

A
.
(4.13)
The disappearance of the boundary terms at B results fromenforcing strongly the free-end boundary
conditions M =

M
B
and V =

V
B
, whence the variations M
B
= 0, V
M
= M

B
= 0. Because of
the strong BE connection, M

q = 0, M

vanishes identically in 0 x L. Consequently

_
L
0
w

M dx =

A
+ w V
M

A
. (4.14)
Replacing into (4.12) yields
=
_

M
M dx +

M

A
w V
M

A
= 0. (4.15)
This is the rst variation of the functional
[M] =
1
2
_
L
0

M
M dx + M

A
V
M
w
A
, (4.16)
and since
M
= M/EI , we nally get

TCPE
[M] =
1
2
_
L
0
M
2
EI
dx + M

A
V
M
w
A
. (4.17)
This is the TCPE functional for the Bernoulli-Euler beam model. As in the case of the TPE, it is
customarily split as
[M] = U

[M] W

[M], (4.18)
where
U

=
1
2
_
L
0
M
2
EI
dx, W

= M

A
+ V
M
w
A
. (4.19)
Here U

is the internal complementary energy stored in the beam by virtue of its deformation, and
W

is the external complementary energy that collects the work of the prescribed end displacements
and rotations.
Note that only M (and its slaves),

A
and w
A
remain in this functional. The transverse displacement
w(x) is gone and consequently is labeled as ignorable in Figure 4.5. Through the integration by
parts process the WF diagram of Figure 4.4. collapses to the one sketched in Figure 4.5. The
reduction may be obtained by invoking the following two rules:
48
49 4.5 THE HELLINGER-REISSNER FUNCTIONAL
Master
Slave
_
L
0
w M
( ) M dx = 0 KE:
CE:
M
= M/(EI)
^
^
A
A
w

M
V = M'
M
M
Figure 4.5. The collapsed WF diagram for the TCPE functional, showing only
leftovers boxes.
(1) The ignorable box w, of Figure 4.4 may be replaced by the data box w
A
,

A
because only
the boundary values of those quantities survive.
(2) The data boxes q and

M,

V of Figure 4.4 may be removed because they are strongly connected
to the varied eld M.
The collapsed WF diagram of Figure 4.5 displays the ve quantities (M, V
M
,
M
, w
A
,

A
) that
survive in the TCPE functional.
Remark 4.3. One can easily show that for the actual solution of the beam problem, U

= U, a property valid
for any linear elastic continuum. Furthermore U

=
1
2
W

.
4.5. The Hellinger-Reissner Functional
The TPE and TCPE functionals are single-eld, because there is only one master eld that is varied:
displacements in the former and moments in the latter. We next illustrate the derivation of a two-
eld mixed functional, identied as the Hellinger-Reissner (HR) functional
HR
[w, M], for the
Bernoulli-Euler beam. Here both displacements w and moments M are picked as master elds and
thus are independently varied.
The point of departure is the WF diagram of Figure 4.6. As illustrated, three links: KE, BE and
FBC, have been weakened. The master (varied) elds are w and M. It is necessary to distinguish
between displacement-derived curvatures
w
= w

and moment-derived curvatures

M
= M/EI ,
as shown in the gure. The two curvature boxes are weakly connected, expressing that the equality
w

= M/EI is not enforced strongly.

The mathematical expression of the WF, having chosen weights M, w, w

=
w
and w for
the weak connections KE, BE, moment M in FBC and shear V in FBC, respectively, is
[w, M] =
_
L
0
(
w

M
) M dx +
_
L
0
(M

q) wdx +

(M

M)
w

(V

V) w

B
.
(4.20)
49
Chapter 4: THE BERNOULLI- EULER BEAM 410
CE:
PBC:
BE:
FBC:
B B
w
at A
_
L
0
KE: = w''
Master fields
(w and M)
Slave fields

M
q
w
w

w
_
L
0
w M
( ) M dx = 0
M
= M/(EI)
(M M ) = 0
^
B B
(V V ) w = 0
^
at B
M
V = M'
M
B
B
^
^
M
V
A
A
^
^
w = w
=
(M'' q) w dx = 0
= w'
^
^
A
A
w

Figure 4.6. The WF Tonti diagram used as departure point for deriving the
Hellinger-Reissner (HR) functional.
Integrating
_
L
0
M

w twice by parts as in the TPE derivation, inserting in (4.20), and enforcing the
strong PBCs at A, yields
[w, M] =
_
L
0
_
(w

M
) M + M w

_
dx
_
L
0
q wdx +

V w

M
w

B
, (4.21)
This is the rst variation of the Hellinger-Reissner (HR) functional

HR
[w, M] =
_
L
0
_
Mw

M
2
2EI
qw
_
dx +

V
B
w
B


M
B

w
B
. (4.22)
Again this can be split as
HR
= U W, in which
U[w, M] =
_
L
0
_
Mw

M
2
2EI
_
dx, W[w] =
_
L
0
qwdx

V
B
w
B
+

M
B

w
B
, (4.23)
represent internal energy and external work, respectively.
Remark 4.4. If the primal boundary conditions (PBC) at A are weakened, the functional (4.22) gains two
extra boundary terms.
410
411 4.5 THE HELLINGER-REISSNER FUNCTIONAL
Remark 4.5. The Mw

= M
w
term in (4.23) may be transformed by applying integration by parts once:
_
L
0
Mw

dx = Mw

L
0

_
L
0
M

dx =

M
B

w
B
M
A

w
A

_
L
0
M

dx (4.24)
to get an alternative form of the HR equation with balanced derivatives in w and M. Such transformations
are common in the nite element applications of mixed functionals. The objective is to exert control over
interelement continuity conditions.
411
Chapter 4: THE BERNOULLI- EULER BEAM 412
Homework Exercises for Chapter 4
The Bernoulli- Euler Beam
EXERCISE 4.1 [A:25] Anassumed-curvature mixedfunctional. The WFdiagramof a two-elddisplacement-
curvature functional (w, ) for the Bernoulli-Euler beam is shown in Figure E4.1.
CE:
CE:
PBC:
M

FBC:

M = EI
_
L
0
( M

M
w
) dx = 0
M
w
M
w
= E I
w
Master
Master
Slave
Slave
Slave
MM:

V = (M )'
BE:
B
B
w
at A
_
L
0
KE: = w''
q
w
w

w
(M M ) = 0
^
B B
(V V ) w = 0
^
at B
B
B
^
^
M
V
A
A
^
^
w = w
=
(M'' q) w dx = 0
= w'
^
^
A
A
w

Figure E4.1. The WF Tonti diagram used as departure point for deriving the
Hellinger-Reissner (HR) functional.
Starting from this form, derive the functional
[w, ] =
_
L
0
(M
w

1
2
M

) dx
_
L
0
q wdx

M
w

V w

B
. (E4.1)
Which extra term appears if link PBC is weakened?
Hints: The integral
_
L
0
(M
w
+ M

) dx is the variation of
_
L
0
M
w
dx (work it out, it is a bit tricky)
whereas the integral
_
L
0
M

dx is the variation of
1
2
_
L
0
M

dx.
EXERCISE 4.2 [A:15] Prove the property stated in Remark 4.2.
412
413 Exercises
EXERCISE 4.3 [A:30] The most general mixed functional in elasticity is called the Veubeke-Hu-Washizu or
VHW functional. The three internal elds: displacements w, curvatures and moments M, are selected as
masters and independently varied to get
[w, , M] =
_
L
0
_
1
2
M

+ M(
w
)
_
dx
_
L
0
qwdx

M
w

Vw

B
. (E4.2)
Derive this functional starting from the WF diagram shown in Figure E4.2.
w
M

= EI

_
L
0
( M

M) dx = 0
M
Master
Master
Master
Slave
MM:

w
CE:
PBC:
FBC:
at A
KE: = w''
w
w
_
L
0
M
V = M'
M
B
B
^
^
M
V
A
A
^
^
w = w
=
= w'
^
^
A
A
w

B
B
w
(M M ) = 0
^
B B
(V V ) w = 0
^
at B
BE:
_
L
0
(M'' q) w dx = 0
(M M) dx = 0
Figure E4.2. Starting WF diagram to derive the three-master-eld Veubeke-Hu-
Washizu mixed functional, which is the topic of Exercise 4.3.
EXERCISE 4.4 [A:35] (Advanced, research paper level) Suppose that on the beam of Figure 4.1, loaded
by q(x), one applies an additional concentrated load P at an arbitrary cross section x = x
P
. The additional
transverse displacement under that load is w
P
. The additional deection elsewhere is w
P
(x), where (x)
is called an inuence function, whose value at x = x
P
is 1. For simplicity assume that the end forces at B
vanish:

M
B
=

V
B
= 0. The TPE functional can be viewed as function of two arguments:
[w, w
P
] =
1
2
_
L
0
EI (w

+w
P

)
2
dx
_
L
0
_
q + P(x
P
)
_
(w +w
P
) dx, (E4.3)
where w = w(x) denotes here the deection for P = 0 and (x
P
) is Diracs delta function.
5
Show that if the
5
This is denoted by (.) instead of the usual (.) to avoid confusion with the variation symbol.
413
Chapter 4: THE BERNOULLI- EULER BEAM 414
beam is in equilibrium (that is, = 0):
P =
U[w, w
P
]
w
P
. (E4.4)
This is calledCastiglianos theoremonforces (alsoCastiglianos rst theorem).
6
Inwords: the partial derivative
of the internal (strain) energy expressed in terms of the beamdeections with respect to the displacement under
a concentrated force gives the value of that force.
7
6
Some mathematical facility with integration by parts and delta functions is needed to prove this, but it is an excellent
exercise for advanced math exams.
7
This energy theorem can be generalized to arbitrary elastic bodies (not just beams) but requires fancy mathematics. It
also applies to concentrated couples by replacing displacement of the load by rotation of the couple. This result is
often used in Structural Mechanics to calculate reaction forces at supports. Castiglianos energy theorem on deections
(also called Castiglianos second theorem), which is w
Q
= U

/ Q in which U

is the internal complementary energy,

is the one normally taught in undergraduate courses for Structures. Textbooks normally prove these theorems only for
systems with nite number of degrees of freedom. Proofs for arbitrary continua are usually faulty because singular
integrals are not properly handled.
414