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The Earth in the Solar System Class 6 Notes Chapter 1
Solar System
The sun, nine planets, satellites, asteroids and meteoroids form the solar system.
The Sun
• The sun is in the center of the solar system.

• It is made up of extremely hot gases.
• The sun is about 150 million km away from the earth.
Planets
• There are nine planets in our solar system.

• The nine planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto.
• Planets move around the sun in a fixed orbit.
• Mercury is the nearest planet.
• Pluto is the farthest planet.
• A new planet 2003 UB313 has been discovered. It is bigger than Pluto and is farthest
from the sun.
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Earth
• It is the third nearest planet to the sun and fifth largest planet of our solar system.
• The earth is a unique planet because it supports life.
• It is also called the blue planet.
• Its shape is Geoid.
The Moon
• It is the only satellite of the earth.

• Its diameter is one-quarter of the earth. ‘
• It is about 3.84,400 km away from us.
• It moves around the earth in about 27 days.
• Only one side of the moon is visible to us on the earth.
• No life exists on moon as it has neither water nor air.
Asteroids
• They are numerous tiny bodies which move around the sun between the orbits of Mars
and Jupiter.
• The largest asteroid is the Ceres.
Meteoroids
• The small pieces of rocks which move around the sun are called meteoroids.
• Our solar system is a part of the Milky Way galaxy.
• Milky Way galaxy was named Akash Ganga.
• There are millions of galaxies that make the Universe.
The Stars and the MOON are celestial bodies which are visible only at night in the sky.
During daytime, the power of the sun’s light renders them invisible.
The moon appears differently on different nights—like the Full Moon only once a month,
on the poornima night whereas on the fifteenth night after that, there is no moon in the sky
(amavasya).
Some celestial bodies are big and hot since they are made of gases. They are called
Stars. The sun is also a star. We do not feel the heat and light of the stars other than the
sun since they are very far away from us.
Groups of stars that are visible in definite patterns are called Constellations. Ursa Major
(the Big Bear), The Small Bear (Saptarishi), etc are some well-known constellations
The Pole Star is known to retain the same position every night in the sky. It is also called
the North Star since it helps in knowing the North direction.
There are celestial bodies that do not have their own heat and light. They reflect the light they
get from stars. Such bodies are the Planets. We live on the earth, a planet. Most planets have
Satellites, which are celestial bodies that revolve around a particular planet. The moon is the
only satellite of the earth.
The earth and moon are part of a bigger system (or family) of celestial-bodies, called the
Solar System. The sun is the “head” of this system and is present at its centre. The planets
revolve around the sun, while the satellite revolves around the placets. The planets, in
addition to revolving around the sun, also rotate about their own axis.
The sun is made of extremely hot gases, and it provides heat and light to the rest of the solar
system. It is about 150 million kilometres away from the earth.
All the planets of the solar system are listed below: (in the order of their distance from sun)
• Mercury (planet nearest to the Sun)

• Venus
• Earth
• Mars
• Jupiter
• Saturn
• Uranus
• Neptune
Mnemonic:
to memorise the names of the eight planets in the order of their distance from the sun
My Very Efficient Mother Just Served Us Nuts
where the beginning of each word is the same as the first letter of the planet existing at that
position in the order (check the list above)
Till August 2006, Pluto was also a planet. But it is now recognised as a “dwarf planet”.
The shape of the earth is called a Geoid. This means it is not perfectly spherical, since it is
flattened at the poles. The earth is probably the only planet that can support life. This is
because its temperature, resources like water and oxygen, etc are present in the proportions
appropriate for life. The earth, with its 2/3 rd of surface covered with water, appears blue from
space and is called Blue Planet.
The Moon’s diameter is 1/4 th of that of the earth. It is 3,84,400 km away from earth. It
completes a revolution around the earth in about 27 days. Incidentally, it also takes around
the same time for a rotation about its own axis. It does not support life.
There are several other tiny bodies in space (the Asteroids) that move around the sun. There
is a “belt” of such objects, called the Asteroid Belt, between Mars and Jupiter.
There exist small pieces of rocks (Meteroids) which also move around the sun.
The Milky Way is the galaxy (a huge system of billions of stars) we live in. The Milky Way is
further a part of a bigger collection of galaxies, called the Universe, (refer Flow¬Learning)
Celestial Body: An object in the universe (but not on the earth) is said to be a celestial body.
Examples are sun, earth, moon, stars, etc.
Star: A celestial body that is characterized by being very hot and big, and made of gases is a
star. A star typically has its own heat and light.
Full Moon Night: A night when the moon is visible from the earth as a full sphere is called
the Full Moon night, and it occurs once a month.
New Moon Night: The fifteenth night after the Full Moon night, when the moon is not visible
at all in the sky, is called the New Moon night.
Constellation: A group of several stars which can usually be recognized by a definite pattern
is called a constellation. An example is Ursa Major.
Planets: A celestial body which revolves around a particular star in an orbit, and gets all its
light from that star, is called a planet. Earth is a planet.
Satellites: A celestial body which revolves around a planet in a particular orbit is called a
satellite. The moon is a satellite of the Earth.
Orbit: The particular and definite elliptical path in which a planet (or satellite) always remains,
is called the orbit of that planet (or satellite).
Sun: The Sun is a star that acts as the “head” of the solar system and around which all
planets revolve: Note that the sun is not at the center of the orbit, instead it is like in the figure
above.
Inner Planets: The Inner Planets are the planets that orbit around the sun between the sun
and the asteroid belt, that is, are close to the sun. These are: Mercury, Venus, Earth and
Mars.
Outer Planets: The Outer Planets are the planets that orbit the sun beyond the asteroid belt,
that is, are very far away from the sun. These are: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
Geoid: The shape of the earth is called a geoid. A geoid is spherical except for the flattening
at two places diametrically opposite to each other.
Poles: The two places diametrically opposite to each other and which lie on the axis about
which a spherical body rotates are called poles.
Asteroids: A large number of tiny celestial bodies which move around the sun, and are
mainly present in a belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, are called Asteroids.
Meteoroid: Small pieces of rocks which move around the sun are called meteoroids.
Galaxy: A galaxy is a collection of innumerable stars. Most stars have their own families like
the solar system. The Milky Way is the galaxy in which we live.
Universe: The Universe is the largest unit in which we live. It is a collection of galaxies. There
is only one Universe and everything that exists in this Universe itself.
Globe Latitudes and Longitudes Class 6 Notes Chapter 2
Globe is a true model of the Earth.
A needle is fixed through the globe in a tilted manner, which is called its axis.
The imaginary line running on the globe divides it into equal parts. This line is known as the
Equator.
All parallel circles from the Equator up to the poles are called parallels of latitude. Latitude is
measured in degrees.
As we move away from the Equator, the size of the parallels of latitude decreases.
The four important parallels of latitude are :
• Tropic of Cancer (2312°N)

• Tropic of Capricorn (23122°S)
• Arctic of Circle (6612°N)
• Antarctic Circle (6612°S)
Heat Zones of the Earth
• Torrid zone receives the maximum heat.

• The temperate zone has a moderate temperature.
• The frigid zone has a cold climate as the sun rays are always slanting.
Longitudes
• The line of reference running from the North Pole to the South Pole is called Meridians
of Longitude.
• The distance between them is measured in ‘degrees of longitude’.
• All meridians are of equal length.
• The meridian which passes through Greenwich, where the British Royal Observatory is
located, is called the Prime Meridian.
• The value of Prime Meridian is 0° longitude and from it, we count 180° Eastward as well
as 180° Westward.
• Prime Meridian divides the earth into two equal halves, the Eastern Hemisphere and the
Western Hemisphere.
• 180° East and 180° West meridians are on the same line.
• We can locate any point on the globe if we know its latitude and longitude.
Longitude and Time
• As the earth rotates from West to East, those places East of Greenwich will be ahead of
Greenwich time and those to the West will be behind it.
• The earth rotates 360° in about 24 hours.
• At any place, a watch can be adjusted to read at 12 o’clock when the Sun is at the
highest point in the sky.
Standard Time
• The local time various places are different, so it is necessary to adopt the local time of
some central meridian of a country as the Standard Time.
• 8212°E is treated as the Standard Meridian of India. The local time at this meridian is
known as the Indian Standard Time (IST).
• India located East of Greenwich at 82° 30’E, is 5 hours and 30 minutes ahead of GMT.
• Some countries have a great longitudinal extent and so they have adopted more than
one standard time.
The Globe is a true model of the earth, in a small form. A needle, called the Axis is fixed
through the globe in a tilted manner.
The axis of the globe passes through two extreme points: known as the Poles (the North Pole
and the South Pole). This axis is shown in the form of a needle on the globe. The real earth
has no such axis.
The circle passing through the centre of the earth, and perpendicular to the axis, is called the
Equator. It divides the earth into two Hemispheres, the Northern and the Southern. We can
imagine a number of more circles parallel to the equator, having their centres on the axis and
having different radii. These circles are called Parallels of Latitudes.
The parallels are identified with the help of degrees. The equator represents the zero degrees
latitude. The latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere are designated as degrees north (°N), e.g.
10°N, 20°N, and so on till 90°N (which is the North Pole). Similarly the latitudes in the
Southern Hemisphere are designated as degrees south (°S), and 90°S is the South Pole.
The circle passing through Greenwich in Britain, and perpendicular to the equator, and
parallel to the axis, is called the Prime Meridian. It divides the earth into two Hemispheres, the
Eastern and the Western. Together, the Equator and the Prime Meridian divide the earth into
four equal parts. We can imagine a number of more circles parallel to the Prime Meridian,
having their centre at the centre of the earth, and having equal radii. These circles are called
Degrees of Longitudes.
The longitudes are identified with the help of degrees. The Prime Meridian represents
the zero degrees longitude. The longitudes in the Eastern Hemisphere are designated as
degrees east (°E), e.g. 10°E, 20°E, and so on till 180°. Similar is the case with the Western
Hemisphere.
Degrees are further divided into minutes and minutes into seconds. Note that the symbol
for a minute is an apostrophe (‘) and that for a second is a double apostrophe (“). 60′ (60
minutes) make up a degree and 60″ (60 seconds) make up a minute. So 30’ means half a
degree and 40” means two-thirds of a minute.
Two points on earth can lie on the same latitude but still be far away from each other. Also,
two distant points may lie on the same longitude. But only one point lief on a particular pair of
latitude and longitude. So latitudes and longitudes are helpful in locating a point on earth.
The Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle are studied as special latitudes in the Northern
Hemisphere. They are at 23 1/2° N and 6612° N respectively.
The Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle are studied as special latitudes in the
Southern Hemisphere. They are at 23 12° S and 66 12° S respectively.
The area between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn receive maximum heat
from the Sun and this region is called the Torrid Zone.
The area between the Artie Circle and the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere, and
that between the Antarctic Circle and the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern, have moderate
temperatures. These regions are the Temperate Zones.
The area north to the Arctic Circle and that south to the Antarctic Circle is close to the Poles
and receive the sunlight of very low intensity. So it is very cold here. These regions are called
the Frigid Zones.
The Frigid Zones, the Temperate Zones, and the Torrid Zone are called the Heat Zones.
The sun does not shine equally on all longitudes at a time. When it is 12 noon at a time, it
means that the sun is not at all visible at the place on the other side of the earth. ‘So it must
be midnight there. In fact, we can say that the time difference is 24 hours at 360 degrees
longitudes apart. So every longitude brings a difference of 4 minutes. This gives us the
concept of Time Zones. Two consecutive time zones differ by an hour. The time at a
particular place is said to be the local time.
It may happen that a certain country extends over a long range of longitudes, thus giving a
large amount of time difference. E.g. Russia extends over eleven time zones. India actually
extends over a range of a 2-hour time difference. But this is not too much, so for convenience
and for uniformity, we have a standard meridian set at Allahabad (82° 30’), which gives the
time for all over India. This time is called the Indian Standard Time (IST).
Globe: The globe is a model of the earth, as it is, but in a very small and convenient form. It
shows all continents, countries, and oceans, labeled.
Axis: The imaginary line about which the earth rotates once in 24 hours is called its axis.
Poles: The two extreme points of the axis are called the Poles. One of them is the North Pole
and the other is the South Pole.
Equator: The circle passing through the center of the earth, and perpendicular to the axis, is
called the equator.
Prime Meridian: The circle passing through Greenwich in Britain, and perpendicular to the
equator, and parallel to the axis, is called the Prime Meridian.
Latitude: One of the imaginary circles parallel to the Equator is called latitude. The latitudes
have their centers on one common line and they have different radii.
Longitude: One of the imaginary circles parallel to the Prime Meridian is called longitude.
The longitudes have their centers at the center of the earth and have the same radius as the
Earth.
Hemisphere: One of the two equal halves of the earth’s spherical shape is called a
hemisphere. If the earth is halved along the equator, we get the Northern and the Southern
Hemispheres. If we halve it perpendicular to the equator, we get the Eastern and the Western
Hemispheres.
Heat Zones: Heat zones are the different zones of the earth, where the sun’s rays fall
differently, thus causing different climate patterns. These zones are called the Torrid Zone,
the two Temperate Zones, and the two Frigid Zones.
Greenwich: Greenwich is a place in the United Kingdom, near London, whose time is used
as a standard all over the world. The Prime Meridian passes through this place, and so it is
the place which divides the earth into the Eastern and the Western Hemispheres.
Standard Time: Standard time of a country or region is the time regarded as a standard for
that place, despite the fact that there exists time difference geographically across that region.
It is used only for convenience.
Motions of the Earth Class 6 Notes Chapter 3
Rotation
• Rotation is the movement of the Earth, on its axis.
• The axis of the Earth, which is an imaginary line, makes an angle of 66/2° with its orbital
plane.
• The portion facing the Sun experiences day, while the other half away from the Sun
experiences night.
• The circle that divides the day from night on the globe is called the circle of illumination.
• The Earth takes about 24 hrs to complete one rotation around its axis, it is known as
earth day.
Revolution
• The movement of the Earth around the Sun in a fixed path or orbit is called revolution.
• Earth takes 365)4 days to revolve around the Sun.
• Every fourth year, February is of 29 days instead of 28 days. Such a year with 366 days
is called a leap year.
• Earth is going around the Sun in an elliptical-orbit.
• Seasons change due to change in the position of the Earth around the Sun.
• Summer solstice is the position of the Earth when the Northern Hemisphere has the
longest day and the shortest night. It
• occurs on 21st June.
• In the Southern Hemisphere, it is winter season at this time. The days are short and the
nights are long.
• Winter Solstice is the position of the earth when Southern Hemisphere has long days
and shorter nights. In the Northern
• Hemisphere, the days are short and the nights are long. It occurs on 22nd December.
• On 21st March and September 23rd, direct rays of the sun fall on the equator and the
whole earth experiences equal days
• and equal nights. This is called an equinox.
The earth has two types of motions—rotation and revolution.
Rotation is the movement of the earth on its axis. In revolution the earth moves around the
sun in a fixed path or orbit.
The axis of the earth is an imaginary line.
The earth receives light from the sun. As the shape of the earth is spherical, only half of it
gets light from the sun at a time. The other half remains dark. In this way day and night are
caused.
The earth completes one rotation around its axis in about 24 hours. This rotation is the daily
motion of the earth.
The earth takes 365 14 days or one year to complete one revolution around the sun.
There are four seasons in a year—summer, winter, spring and autumn. Seasons change due
to the change in the position of the earth around the sun.
The rays of sun fall directly on the Tropic of Cancer. Hence, these areas are hot.
The areas near the poles receive less heat as the rays of the sun are slanting.
In the Northern Hemisphere the longest day and the shortest night occur on 21st June. In the
Southern Hemisphere the shortest day and the longest night occur on this day. This position
of the earth is known as the summer solstice.
When there is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, Southern Hemisphere enjoys winter
season and vice-versa.
In the Northern Hemisphere the shortest day and the longest night occur on 22nd December.
In the Southern Hemisphere the longest day and the shortest night occur on this day. This
position of the earth is known as the winter solstice.
On 21st March and September 23rd the whole earth experiences equal’days and equal
nights. This is phenomenon is known as equinox.
On 23rd September, it is autumn in the Northern Hemisphere and spring in the Sourthern
Hemisphere.
On 21st March, it is spring in the Northern Hemisphere and autumn in the Sourthern
Hemisphere.
Days and nights occur due to rotation while changes in seasons occur due to revolution.
Rotation: The movement of the earth on its axis is known as rotation.
Revolution: The movement of the earth around the sun in a fixed path or orbit is known as
revolution.
Orbital plane: The plane formed by the orbit is known as the orbital plane.
Circle of illumination: The circle that divides the day from night on the globe is called the
circle of illumination.
Leap year: The year in which February is of 29 days instead of 28 days is called a leap year.
Summer solstice: In the Northern Hemisphere the longest day and the shortest night occur
on 21st June. In the Southern Hemisphere, the shortest day and the longest night occur on
this day. This position of the earth is called summer solstice.
Winter solstice: In the Northern Hemisphere the shortest day and the longest night occur on
22nd December. In the Southern Hemisphere, the longest day and the shortest night occur on
this day. This position of the earth is called winter solstice.
Equinox: On 21st March and September 23rd the entire earth experiences equal days and
equal nights. This is known as the equinox.
Maps Class 6 Notes Chapter 4
A globe can be useful when we want to study the Earth as a whole.
A map is a representation or a drawing of the Earth’s surface or a part of it drawn on a flat

surface according to a scale.
When many maps are put together we, get an Atlas.
Physical maps show natural features of the Earth.
Political maps show different boundaries of different countries and states.
Thematic maps focus on specific information.
There are three components of maps—distance, direction and symbol.
Distance
• The scale is the ratio between the actual distance on the ground and the distance
shown on the map.
• If you know the scale, you will be able to calculate the distance between any two places
on a map.
• When large areas like continents or countries are to be shown on paper, then we use a
small scale map.
• When a small area like your village or town is to be shown on paper, then we use a
large scale map. Direction
• There are four major directions, North, South, East and West. They are called cardinal
points.
• We can find out the direction of a place with the help of a magnetic compass.
Symbols
• The conventional symbols give a lot of information in a limited space.

• The blue colour is used for showing water bodies, brown for mountains, yellow for
plateau and green is used for plains.
Sketch
• A sketch is a drawing mainly based on memory and spot observation and not to scale.
• A rough drawing is drawn without scale is called a sketch map.
Plan
• A plan is a drawing of a small area on a large scale.

• There are certain things which we may sometimes want to know, for example, the
length and breadth of a room.
A map is a representation or a drawing of the earth’s surface or a part of it drawn on a flat

Maps are of different types—physical maps, political maps and thematic maps.
Physical maps show natural features of the earth, political maps show cities, towns, countries
etc. with their boundaries and thematic maps focus on some particular information such as
maps showing distribution of population.
The three components of maps are distance, direction and symbol.
A scale is needed to represent a small distance on paper for a large distance on the ground.
Thus, scale is the ratio between the actual distance on the ground and the distance shown on
the map.
A small scale map is used to show large areas like continents or countries on a paper.
A large scale map is used to show a small area like a village or town on a paper.
There are four major directions—North, South, East and West, known as cardinal points.
There are four intermediate directions—north-east (NE), south-east (SE), south-west (SW)
and north-west (NW).
Symbols are used to show features like buildings, roads, bridges, etc. on the map. By using
symbols we make the map very informative.
Maps have a universal language. There is an international agreement regarding the use of
these symbols. These are called conventional symbols.
A sketch map is a rough drawing without scale.
A plan is a drawing of a small area on a large scale.
Map: It is a representation or a drawing of the earth’s surface or a part of it drawn on a flat

Scale: It is the ratio between the actual distance on the ground and the distance shown on
the map.
Cardinal points: The four directions—North, South, East and West—are called cardinal
points.
Symbols: To represent buildings, roads, bridges, etc. on the map we use symbols. These
symbols are of universal significance.
Sketch: A sketch is a drawing mainly based on memory and spot observation and not to
scale.
Plan: A plan is a drawing of a small area on a large scale.
Major Domains of the Earth Class 6 Notes Chapter 5
There are three main components of the environment – Lithosphere, Atmosphere and
Hydrosphere.
The solid portion of the Earth on which we live is called the Lithosphere.
The gaseous layer that surrounds the Earth is the Atmosphere.
The area covered by water is called Hydrosphere.
The zone which contains all forms of life is called Biosphere.
Lithosphere
• It comprises the rocks of the earth’s crust and the thin layers of soil.
• There are two main divisions of the earth’s surface.
• The large landmasses are known as the continents.
• The huge water bodies are called the ocean basins.
Continents
• There are seven major continents.
• The greater part of the land mass lies in the Northern Hemisphere.
• Asia is the largest continent.
• The combined landmass of Europe and Asia is called Eurasia.
• Africa is the second largest continent. It is the only continent through which the Tropic of
Cancer, the Equator and the Tropic of Capricorn pass.
• North America is the third largest continent of the world.
• South America and North America are linked by a very narrow strip of land called the
Isthmus of Panama.
• Australia is the smallest continent. It is also called an island continent.
• Antarctica is permanently covered with thick ice sheets. ,
• India has a research station named as Maitri and Dakshin Gangotri at Antarctica. .
Hydrosphere
• More than 71 % per cent of the Earth is covered with water, therefore, the Earth is
called the blue planet.
• More than 97% of the Earth’s water is found in the oceans.
Oceans
• The four major oceans are the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean and
the Arctic Ocean.
• The Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean.
• The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest ocean.
• The Indian Ocean is the only ocean named after a country, that is, India.
• The Arctic Ocean is located within the Arctic Circle.
Atmosphere
• The atmosphere protects us from the harmful effects of the sun’s rays.
• The atmosphere extends up to a height of about 1,600 kilometres.
• The atmosphere is divided into five layers—the troposphere, the stratosphere, the
mesosphere, the thermosphere and the exosphere.
• The atmosphere is composed mainly of nitrogen and oxygen.
Biosphere – The Domain of Life
• The biosphere is the narrow zone of contact between the land, water and air.
• All the living organisms including humans are linked to each other and to the biosphere
for survival.
• The organisms in the biosphere may broadly be divided into the plant kingdom and the
animal kingdom.
• Increase in the amount of C02 leads to an increase in global temperature. This is
termed as global warming.
The earth is the only planet where human beings find three life sustaining elements—
land, water and air.
The surface of the earth is a complex zone. Here three main components of the
environment—lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere meet, overlap and interact.
The lithosphere refers to the solid portion of the earth where we live.
The atmosphere refers to the gaseous layers which surrounding the earth.
The hydrosphere refers to the water bodies that exist on the earth’s surface.
The biosphere is the narrow zone where we find land, water and air together. Life exists
here.
The earth’s surface is divided into continents and ocean basins.
Continents are large landmasses of the earth while ocean basins are huge water bodies.
Mount Everest is the highest mountain peak. Its height is 8,848 metres above the sea
level.
The greatest depth of 11,022 metres is recorded at Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean.
There are seven continents—Asia, Europe, Africa, North America, South America,
Australia and Antarctica.
Asia is the largest continent while Australia is the smallest continent.
Antarctica is permanently covered with thick ice sheets. Hence, it is not suitable for human
settlement.
More than 71% of the earth is covered with water and 29% is with land.
More than 97% of the earth’s water is found in the oceans. Ocean water is salty. It is of no
human use. A large proportion of the rest of the water is in the form of ice sheets and
glaciers or under the ground. Only 0.03% of water is available as fresh water which is
usable by human beings.
There are four major oceans—the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean
and the Arctic Ocean in order of their size.
The Indian Ocean is the only ocean named after a country, i.e. India.
The atmosphere is divided into five layers. These layer starting from earth’s surface
are—the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, the thermosphere and the
exosphere.
The atmosphere is composed of several gases—Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), other

gases like carbondioxide, argon and others comprise 1%.
Oxygen is essential for our life. We can not live without it. Nitrogen is essential for the
growth of living organisms. Carbon dioxide absorbs heat radiated by the earth and in this
way it keeps the earth warm. It is also essential for plants.
The biosphere is the zone where life exists. From tiny microbes and bacteria to huge
mammals are found in the biosphere. There is a close link between all these organisms
including humans.
The organisms in the biosphere are divided into plant kingdom and the animal kingdom.
The three domains of the earth interact with each other and affect each other. For example
emission from industries pollute the air.
Increase in the amount of CO2 leads to an increase in global temperatures which is known
as global warming.
Lithosphere: The solid portion of the earth on which we live is termed as the lithosphere.
Atmosphere: The gaseous layers that surround the earth is known as the atmosphere.
Hydrosphere: The water bodies on the earth’s surface is known as hydrosphere.
Biosphere: It is the narrow zone where land, water and air together are found. All forms of
life exists here.
Continents: The large landmasses are called continents.
Ocean basins: The huge water bodies are called the ocean basins.
Strait: It is a narrow passage of water connecting two large water bodies like seas and
oceans.
Isthmus: It is a narrow strip of land joining two landmasses.
Plant Kingdom: The part of biosphere consisting of plants and trees.
Animal Kingdom: The part of biosphere consisting of an animal.
Global warming: Increase in the amount of carbon dioxide leads to an increase in the global
temperatures. This is known as global warming.
Major Landforms of the Earth Class 6 Notes Chapter 6
Mountains
• A mountain is any natural elevation of the earth surface.

• There are permanently frozen rivers of ice. They are called glaciers.
• Mountains may be arranged in a line known as the range.
• The Himalaya, the Alps and the Andes are mountain ranges.
• There are three types of mountains—Fold Mountains, Block Mountains and Volcanic
Mountains.
• The Himalayan Mountains and the Alps are young fold mountains.
• The Aravalli range in India is one of the oldest fold mountain systems.
• Block Mountains are created when large areas are broken and displaced vertically.
• Volcanic mountains are formed due to volcanic activity, e.g. Mt. Kilimanjaro in Africa.
Plateaus
• A plateau is an elevated flat land.

• The Deccan plateau in India is one of the oldest plateaus.
• The Tibet plateau is the highest plateau in the world.
• The African plateau is famous for gold and diamond mining.
• The lava plateaus are rich in black soil that are fertile and good for cultivation.
Plains
• Plains are large stretches of flat land.

• Most of the plains are formed by rivers and their tributaries.
• In India, the Indo-Gangetic plains are the most densely populated region of the country.
Landforms and the People
• Humans have been living in different kinds of landforms in different ways.

• Sometimes, natural calamities such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, storms and
floods cause widespread destruction.
The surface of the earth is not the same everywhere.
Mountains, plateaus and plains are different landforms of the earth.
A mountain is a natural elevation of the earth surface. There are three types of mountains—
Fold mountains, Block mountains and Volcanic mountains.
A plateau is an elevated flat land. It is a flat-topped table land standing above the surrounding
area. A plateau may have one or more sides with steep slopes.
The Deccan plateau is one of the oldest plateaus.
The Tibet plateau is the highest plateau in the world.
Plains are large stretches of flat land. Some plains are extremely level while others may be
slightly rolling and undulating.
Plains are generally thickly populated regions of the world.
Human habitation is found on different kinds of landforms. But population varies on these
landforms. Mountains are generally not thickly populated. But plains are the regions where
the thick population is found.
The land is precious. We must not use it in a wasteful manner. Construction work of any type
should not be carried on fertile land. Also, we should not throw garbage on land. It is our duty
to take care of the land or any other natural gift. If we do this we will be conscious citizens.
Erosion: The wearing away of the earth’s surface is known as erosion.
Mountain: A mountain is a natural elevation of the earth surface.
Glacier: Some mountains have permanently frozen river of ice. They are called glaciers.
Range: When mountains are in an arranged line, it is called a range.
Horsts and graben: The uplifted blocks are known as horsts and the lowered blocks are
known as graben.
Storehouse: A building where things are stored or kept.
Terraces: One of the series of flat areas of ground which are cut into the side of a hill like
steps in order to grow crops there.
Flora: The plants of a particular area.
Fauna: The animals living in an area.
Plateau: A plateau is an elevated flat land. It is a flat-topped table land standing above the
surrounding area.
Plain: A plain is a vast stretch of flat land where the thick population is found.
Our Country India Class 6 Notes Chapter 7
India in the North is bounded by the Himalayas, the Arabian Sea in the West, the Bay of
Bengal in the East and the Indian Ocean in the South.
India has an area of about 3.28 million sq. km.
The North-South extent from Kashmir to Kanyakumari is about 3,200 km. Thus, the west
extent from Arunachal Pradesh to Kuchchh is about 2900 km.
Locational Setting
• The Tropic of Cancer (23°30′ N) passes almost halfway through the country.
• From South to North. India extends between 8°4′ N and 37°6′ N latitudes.
• From West to East, India extends between 68°7′ E and 97°25′ E longitudes.
• The local time changes by four minutes for every one degree of longitude.
• The local time of longitude of 82°30′ E has been taken as the Indian Standard Time.
India’s Neighbours
• There are seven countries that share land boundaries with India.
• The seven countries are Afghanistan, Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan. Myanmar and
Bangladesh.
• Island neighbours are Sri Lanka and the Maldives.
• Sri Lanka is separated from India by the Palk Strait.
Political and Administrative Divisions
• India is divided into 29 states and 7 union territories.

• Delhi is the national capital.
• Rajasthan is the largest state and Goa is the smallest state in terms of area.
Physical Divisions
• The Himalayas in the North are divided into three main parallel ranges.
• The three main parallel ranges are Great Himalaya or Himadri, Middle Himalaya or
Himachal and Shiwalik.
• The Northern Indian plains lie to the South of the Himalayas.
• In the Western part of India lies the Great Indian desert.
• To the South of Northern plains lies the peninsular plateau.
• Aravali Hills is one of the oldest ranges of the world.
• The Western Ghats or Sahyadris border the plateau in the West and the Eastern Ghats
provide the Eastern boundary.
• To the West of the Western Ghats and the East of Eastern Ghats lie the coastal plains.
• The rivers Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri drain into the Bay of Bengal.
• The Sunderban delta is formed where the Ganga and Brahmaputra flow into the Bay of
Bengal.
• Lakshadweep Islands are located in the Arabian Sea.
• The Andaman and the Nicobar Islands lie to the South-East of the Indian mainland.
Our country, India is vast. It has an area of about 3.28 million sq. km. In the north, it is
surrounded by the Himalayas; in the west; there is the Arabian Sea; in the east; the Bay of
Bengal and in the south; the Indian Ocean.
India has diverse landforms—the lofty mountains, the Great Indian Desert, the Northern
plains, the uneven plateau, and the coasts and islands.
The climate of India also varies from region to region.
We also find diversity in flora and fauna as well as in language and culture.
India is the second most populous country of the world after China.
India is located in the Northern hemisphere. The Tropic of Cancer passes through it.
The sun rises two hours earlier in the east, i.e. Arunachal Pradesh than in the west,
i. e. Gujarat.
India’s seven neighbouring countries are—Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri
Lanka and Afganistan.
Sri Lanka is separated from India by the Palk Strait.
India is divided into 28 states and 7 Union Territories. Delhi is the national capital.
Rajasthan is the largest state while Goa is the smallest state in terms of area.
India has diverse physical features—mountains, plateaus, plains, coasts and islands.
The Himalayas mountains are divided into three main parallel ranges—the Great Himalaya or
Himadri, Middle Himalaya or Himachal and the Shiwalik.
To the south of the Himalayas lie the Northern Indian plains.
In the western part of India lies the Great Indian desert with little vegetation.
To the south of northern plains lies the Peninsular plateau. It is triangular in shape. This is a
region with numerous hill ranges and valleys. The Aravali hills, the Vindhyas, the Satpuras
are the important ranges.
The Western Ghats border the plateau in the west and the Eastern Ghats provide the
eastern boundary.
To the west of the Western Ghats and the East of Eastern Ghats lie the Coastal plains.
Lakshadweep islands are located in the Arabian sea while Andaman and Nicobar islands
group lie to the south-east of the Indian mainland in the Bay of Bengal.
Peninsula: A piece of land that is surrounded by water on three sides.
Island: A piece of land that is surrounded by water on all sides.
Desert: A vast sandy stretch of land.
Alluvial deposits: Fine soil brought by rivers and deposited in the river basins.
Tributary: A small river or stream that contributes its water to the main river by discharging it
into the main river from either side.
Delta: An area of land formed at the mouth of the river. It is usually triangular in shape.
Corals: These are skeletons of tiny marine animals called polyps.
Tsunami: A strong and devastating harbour wave, generated due to an earthquake on the
sea floor.
Strait: A narrow passage of water connecting two large water bodies like seas and oceans.
India Climate Vegetation and Wildlife Class 6 Notes Chapter 8
The weather is about day to day changes in the atmosphere.
The major seasons in India are :
• Cold weather season

• Hot weather season
• South-West Monsoon season
• Season of Retreating monsoon
Cold Weather Season or Winter
• During the winter season, cool, dry winds blow from North to the South.
• The sunrays do not fall directly in the region.
Hot Weather Season or Summer
• The sunrays more or less directly fall in this region.

• Hot and dry winds are called loo.
South West Monsoon Season or Rainy Season
• The winds blow from Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal toward the land.
Season of Retreating Monsoon or Autumn
• Winds move back from the mainland to the Bay of Bengal.

• Most of the rain is brought by monsoon winds.
• The climate of a place is affected by its location, altitude, distance from the sea and
relief.
• Mawsynram in Meghalaya receives the world’s highest rainfall.
Natural Vegetation
• The grasses, shrubs and trees, which grow on their own without interference or help
from human beings are called natural vegetation.
• The vegetation of India can be divided into five types-
• Tropical evergreen forest
• Tropical deciduous forest
• Thorny bushes
• Mountain vegetation
• Mangrove forests.
Tropical Rain Forest
• They are found in the areas which receive heavy rainfall.

• Many species of trees are found in this forest, they shed their leaves at different times of
the year. They are called evergreen forests.
• Important trees are mahogany, ebony and rosewood.
Tropical Deciduous Forest
• They are also called monsoon forests.

• Trees of these forests shed their leaves at a particular time of the year.
• Important trees are sal, teak, peepal, neem and shisham.
Thorny Bushes
• They are found in dry areas of the country.

• The leaves are in the form of spines to reduce the loss of water.
• Important trees are cactus, Kaner, babool, keekar, etc.
Mountain Vegetation
• At a height between 1500 metres and 2500 metres, most of the trees are conical in
shape. These trees are called coniferous trees.
• Important trees are chir, pine and deodar.
Mangrove Forests
• These forests can survive in saline water.
• Sundari is a well-known species of trees.
Weather is about day to day changes in the atmosphere. It may be hot or cold, Sunny or
cloudy, windy or calm.
There are four main seasons in India—cold weather season (winter) December to February,
hot weather season (summer) March to May, southwest monsoon season (rainy) June to
September and season of retreating monsoon (autumn) October to November.
The hot wind called loo blows during summer.
Climate is about the average weather condition which has been measured over many years.
The climate of India is a monsoon type. It means, most of the rain is brought by monsoon
winds.
The climate of a place is affected by its location, attitude, distance from the sea and relief.
Jaisalmer and Bikaner in Rajasthan are very hot, Drass and Kargil in Jammu and Kashmir are
very cold and coastal places are moderate. Mawsynram in Meghalaya receives the world’s
highest rainfall.
India has a wide range of natural vegetation—Tropical evergreen forest, Tropical deciduous
forest, Thorny bushes, Mountain vegetation and Mangrove forests.
Tropical rain forests occur in the areas which receive heavy rainfall.
Tropical deciduous forests are also called monsoon forests.
Thorny bushes are found in dry areas of the country.
Mangrove forests are found in Sunderbans in West Bengal and in the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
Forests are very useful for all living beings. They are the natural habitat of wildlife.
Van Mahotsav is a programme which involves more and more people in making the earth
green.
The tiger is our national animal. Gir forest of Gujarat is the home of Asiatic lions.
The peacock is our national bird.
There are several hundreds of species of snakes found in India.
The government has started Project Tiger and Project Elephant to protect these animals.
Weather: Weather is about day to day changes in the atmosphere. It includes changes in
temperature, rainfall and sunshine etc.
Loo: It is a hot and dry wind that blows during the day in Summer.
Climate: Climate is the average weather condition which has been measured over many
years.
Monsoon: The word monsoon has been taken from the Arabic word ‘mansim’ which means
seasons.
Wildlife: All the wild animals and birds found in the forests, national parks and Sanctuaries.
Van Mahotsav: It is a special programme organized from time to time to promote people for
planting more and more trees.
Natural vegetation: The grasses, shrubs and trees that grow on their own without human
interference or help are known as natural vegetation.
Migratory birds: Birds that migrate to our country in the winter season every year. They
arrive in December and stay till early March.
Environment Class 7 Notes Chapter 1
Environment
Nature, place, people, things, etc. that surround the living organisms make the environment.
The environment can broadly be classified into the natural and human environment. It is a
combination of both natural as well as man-made phenomena.
The natural environment comprises biotic (plants and animals) and abiotic-conditions(land,
water, air, etc.), whereas the man-made phenomena comprise the activities and interactions
among human beings (roads, bridges, etc.).
Natural Environment
• Land, water, air, plants and animals comprise the natural environment.
• Lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere are the four domains of the
natural environment.
• The lithosphere is the solid crust or the outermost layer of the earth where we live. It
contains landforms like mountains, plateaus, plains and valleys.
• The hydrosphere is the domain of water. It comprises water bodies like rivers, lakes,
seas, oceans, etc.
• The atmosphere is the thin layer of air that surrounds the earth. It protects us from the
harmful rays and scorching heat of the sun.
• The biosphere is a narrow zone of the earth where land, water and air interact with each
other to support life.
What is Ecosystem?
• The relation between the living organisms as well as the relation between the organisms
and their surrounding form the ecosystem.
• There could be an ecosystem of large rainforest, grassland, desert, mountains, lake,
river, ocean and even a small pond.
Human Environment
• Human beings interact with the environment and modify it according to their needs.
• Early humans adapted themselves to their natural surroundings.
• With time, humans learnt to grow new things, domesticate animals and lead a settled
life.
• The industrial revolution, transportation and information revolution made communication
easier and speedy across the world.
• Man is destroying the environment through deforestation, industrialisation, etc.
The environment in our basic life support system. It provides the air we breathe, the water we
drink, the food we eat and the place where we live. Thus, the environment is the most
important aspect of our life.
The natural environment consists of land, water, air, plants and animals. It refers to both biotic
and abiotic conditions existing on the earth.
While biotic refers to the world of living organisms, such as plants and animals, abiotic refers
to the world of non-living elements, such as land.
The human environment refers to the activities, creations and interactions among human
beings.
Domains of environment—Lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere.
The lithosphere is the solid portion of the earth where we live. It is the domain that provides
us forests, grasslands for grazing, land for agriculture and human settlements. It is where we
find several minerals.
Hydrosphere refers to the water bodies like rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, etc. that exist on the
earth.
The atmosphere is the thin layer of air that surrounds the earth. It protects us from the harmful
rays and searching heat of the Sun. It consists of gases, dust and water vapour.
Biosphere or the living world is comprised of plant and animal life. It is a narrow zone of the
earth where land, water and air interact with each other to support life.
The relation between the living organisms as well as the relation between the organisms and
their surroundings form an ecosystem.
An ecosystem can be found in lakes, mountains, oceans, pond, etc.
Human beings modify the natural environment as per their needs.
Environment: The place, people, things and nature that surround any living organism is
called the environment.
Biotic: It refers to the world of living organisms, such as plants and animals.
Abiotic: It refers to the world of non-living elements such as land.
Lithosphere: It is the solid crust or the hard top layer of the earth.
Hydrosphere: It refers to the water bodies like rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, etc. on the earth.
Atmosphere: It is the thin layer of air that surrounds the earth.
Ecosystem: The relation between the living organisms, as well as the relation between the
organisms and their surroundings, form an ecosystem.
Barter system: A trade in which goods are exchanged without the use of money.
Inside Our Earth Class 7 Notes Chapter 2
What is Earth?
• The earth comprises three layers: crust, mantle and core.

• Constant changes take place inside as well as outside the earth.
What is the Interior of the Earth?
• The earth is made up of three concentric layers-crust, mantle and core.

• The uppermost layer over the earth’s surface is called the crust. It is about 35 km thick
on the continental masses and only 5 km thick on the ocean floor. It is made up of silica
and alumina and thus called sial.
• The oceanic crust mainly consists of silica and magnesium called sima. Just below the
crust is the mantle up to an extent of 2,900 km.
• The innermost layer is the core with a radius of 3,500 km. As it is made of nickel and
iron, it is called nife(ni-nickel and fe-ferrous i.e. iron). The central core has a very high
temperature and pressure.
Rocks and Minerals
• The earth’s crust is made of various types of rocks. Any natural mass of mineral matter
that makes up the earth’s crust is called a rock.
• There are three major types of rocks; igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and
metamorphic rocks.
• When the molten magma cools, it becomes solid. Rocks thus formed are called igneous
or primary rocks. They are of two types, extrusive igneous rocks and intrusive igneous
rocks.
• Rocks roll down and break into small fragments and these smaller particles are called
sediments. These sediments are transported, compressed and hardened to form layers
of rocks. These types of rocks are called sedimentary rock.
• Igneous and sedimentary rocks can change into metamorphic rocks under great heat
and pressure. The process of transformation of the rock from one to another is called
the rock cycle.
• Rocks are made of different minerals. Minerals are naturally occurring substances which
have certain physical properties and definite chemical composition.
The earth is constantly undergoing changes inside and outside. Therefore, it is called a
dynamic planet.
The earth is made up of several concentric layers. The uppermost layer over the earth is the
surface is called the crust. It is the thinnest of all the layers.
The mantle is just beneath the crust.
The innermost layer is the core with a radius of about 3500 km.
The central core has a very high temperature and pressure.
The earth’s crust is made up of several types of rocks.
There are three types of rocks—igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks.
Igneous rocks are also called primary rocks. They are of two types—intrusive rocks and
extrusive rocks.
Extrusive igneous rocks have a very fine-grained structure. For example, basalt.
Intrusive igneous rocks are formed deep inside the earth. Granite is an example of this rock.
Sedimentary rocks are formed by the sediments, which are small fragments of rocks. For
example, sandstone is made from grains of sand.
Igneous and sedimentary rocks can change into metamorphic rocks under great heat and
pressure. For example, clay changes into slate and limestone into marble.
Hard rocks are used for making roads, houses and buildings.
One type of rock changes to another type under certain conditions in a cyclic manner. This
process of transformation of the rock from one to another is known as the rock cycle.
Rocks are made up of various minerals.
Minerals are naturally occurring substances which have certain physical properties and
definite chemical composition. Minerals are very essential for human beings.
Crust: The uppermost layer over the earth’s surface. It is very thin.
Soal: The continental mass of the crust consisting of silica and alumina is called sial (si-silica
and al-alumina).
Sima: The oceanic crust mainly consists of silica and magnesium. It is therefore called sima
(si-silica and ma-magnesium).
Mantle: This layer is just beneath the crust. It extends up to a depth of 2900 km. below the
crust.
Rock: A rock is a natural mass of mineral matter that makes up the earth’s crust.
Igneous rock: These rocks are formed by cooling and solidifying molten magma.
Lava: It is fiery red molten magma coming out from the interior of the earth on its surface.
Extrusive igneous rock: When the molten lava comes on the earth’s surface, it rapidly cools
down and becomes solid. Rocks formed in this way on the crust are called extrusive igneous
rocks.
Intrusive igneous rock: When the molten magma cools down deep inside the earth’s crust
solid intrusive igneous rocks are formed.
Sediments: These are small fragments of rocks.
Sedimentary rock: When loose sediments are compressed and hardened, layers of rocks
are formed. These types of rocks are known as sedimentary rocks.
Rock cycle: The process of transformation of the rock from one to another is known as the
rock cycle.
Mineral: Minerals are naturally occurring substances which have certain physical properties
and definite chemical composition.
Our Changing Earth Class 7 Notes Chapter 3
The lithosphere is broken down into a number of plates known as the Lithosphere plates.
The movement of these plates causes changes on the surface of the earth. The forces that
act in the interior of the earth are called endogenic forces, while the forces that work on the
surface of the earth are called exogenic forces.
Endogenic force causes earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Exogenic force causes weathering, erosion, deposition and gradation.
Weathering is the breaking up of the rocks on the earth’s crust.
Erosion is the breaking away of the landscape by different agents like water, wind and ice.
Sudden movements like earthquake and volcanoes cause most destruction over the surface
of the earth.
A volcano is a vent (opening) in the earth’s crust through which molten material erupts
suddenly.
The vibration in the plates of earth is called an earthquake.
The place in the crust where the movement starts is called the focus.
The place on the surface above the focus is called the epicenter.
It is measured by seismograph and intensity is measured by Richter scale.
Although earthquakes cannot be predicted, the impact can certainly be minimized.
Major Landforms
• The landscapes are continuously worn away by two forces, weathering and erosion.
• Weathering is the breaking down of the rocks on the earth’s surface.
• Erosion is the wearing away of the landscape by different agents like water, wind and
ice.
Work of a River
• When the river tumbles at a steep angle over hard rocks or down a steep valley side, it
forms a waterfall.
• As the river enters the plain, it twists and turns, forming large bends known as
meanders.
• At this point of time, the meander loop cuts off from the river and forms a cut-off called
an ox-bow lake.
• During flooding, the river deposits layer of fine soil and other materials called sediments
along its banks. This leads to the formation of a flat fertile plain called flood plain.
• The raised banks along the river are called levees.
• The collection of sediments from all the mouths forms a delta.
Work of Sea Waves
• The erosion and deposition of the sea waves give rise to coastal landforms.
• Due to sea waves, hollow caves are formed on the rocks. They are called sea caves.
• As cavities become bigger in size, only the roof of the caves remains, thus forming sea
arches.
• The erosion further breaks the roof and only walls are left. It is called stacks.
• The steep rocky coast rising almost vertically above seawater is called sea cliff.
Work of Ice
• Glaciers are rivers of ice which erode the landscape by bulldozing soil and stones to
expose the solid rocks below.
• The materia] carried by the glaciers, such as big and small rocks, sand and silt get
deposited. These deposits form glacial moraines.
Work of Winds
• An active agent of erosion and deposition in the deserts is wind. It makes rocks in shape
of a mushroom, called mushroom rocks.
• When the wind stops blowing, the sand falls and get deposited in low hill-like structures.
These are called sand dunes.
• When the grains of sand is very fine and light, the wind can carry it over long distances.
When such sand is deposited in large areas, it is called loess.
The lithosphere is broken into numerous plates known as the lithospheric plates. These plates
move around very slowly. The movement of these plates causes changes on the surface of
the earth.
The earth movements are divided on the basis of the forces which cause them.
The forces which act in the interior of the earth are known as endogenic forces.
The forces which work on the surface of the earth are called as exogenic forces.
Endogenic forces sometimes produce sudden movements which cause earthquakes and
volcanoes.
A volcano is an opening in the earth’s crust through which molten material erupts suddenly.
When the lithospheric plates move, the surface of the earth vibrates. The vibrations can travel
all round the earth. These vibrations are known as earthquakes.
The place in the crust where the movement starts is known as the focus.
The epicentre of the earthquake is the place on the surface above the focus.
Maximum damage occurs near the epicentre.
Some common earthquake prediction methods include studying animal behaviour, fish in the
ponds get agitated, snakes come to the surface.
The damage caused due to earthquakes can be minimised if we are prepared beforehand.
During an earthquake, one can take shelter under a kitchen counter, table or desk, against an
inside corner or wall. One should be away from fireplaces, areas around chimneys, windows,
etc.
Weathering and erosion are two processes due to which the landscape is being continuously
worn away.
Weathering is the breaking up of the rocks on the earth’s surface. Erosion is the wearing ‘
away of the landscape by different agents like water, wind, etc.
When the river tumbles at a steep angle over very hard rocks or down a steep valley side it
forms a waterfall.
Large bends formed by twisting and turning of the river while entering the plain are called
meanders.
An oxbow lake is a cut-off lake formed due to cut off of a meander loop.
Flood plains are fertile areas formed by the deposition of fine soil and other material
(sediments) during floods.
Levees are the raised banks of the rivers.
The streams which distribute the waters of a river are known as distributaries.
The triangular deposits at the mouth of a river from the delta, which is very fertile.
The erosion and deposition of the sea waves give rise to coastal landforms.
Hallow like caves are formed on the rocks at the coast due to erosional work of sea waves.
These formations are called sea caves. When these cavities become very big, only the roof of
the caves remains, forming sea arches.
This roof sometimes breaks due to erosion and thus only walls are left. These wall-like
features are known as stacks.
The steep rocky coast rising almost vertically above seawater is called sea cliff.
The sea waves deposit sediments along the shores forming beaches.
The landscape is eroded due to glaciers which are rivers of ice. The material carried by the
glacier such as rocks, sand and silt gets deposited and forms glacial moraines.
The wind is an active agent of erosion and deposition in the deserts. When the wind blows, it
lifts and transports said from one place to another. When it stops blowing the sand falls and
gets deposited in low hill-like structures known as sand dunes.
When very fine and light and gets deposited in large areas, it called loess.
Endogenic forces: The forces that act in the interior of the earth are called endogenic forces.
Exogenic forces: The forces that act on the surface of the earth are called as exogenic
forces.
Earthquake: The vibrations caused by the movement of the lithospheric plates are called
earthquakes.
Focus: The place in the crust where the movement starts is called the focus.
Epicentre: The place on the surface above the focus is called the epicentre.
Weathering: The breaking up of the rocks on the earth’s surface is known as weathering.
Erosion: The wearing away of the landscape by different agents like water, wind and ice is
called erosion.
Waterfall: A place where a river or stream fails from a high place for example over a cliff or
rock is known as waterfall.
Meander: Large bends formed by the twisting and turning of a river while entering a plain are
known as meanders.
Floodplains: Floodplains are areas where fine soil and other material get deposited during
floods. These are very fertile.
Levees: The raised banks of a river is known as levees.
Distributary: As the river approaches the sea, the speed of the flowing water decreases and
the river begins to break up into a number of streams called distributaries.
Delta: It is a triangular area of land where a river has split into many smaller rivers before
entering the sea.
Sea caves: Sea caves are hollow like caves formed on the rocks.
Sea arches: When the cavities become very big, only the roof of the caves remains known as
sea arches.
Stacks: Further erosion breaks the roof and only wall-like features remain. These features
are called stacks.
Seacliff: The steep rocky coast rising almost vertically above seawater is called sea cliff.
Beaches: The sea waves deposit sediments along the shores to form beaches.
Mushroom rocks: In deserts, rocks in the shape of a mushroom are very common. These
are called mushroom rocks.
Sand dunes: In deserts, when the winds stop blowing, the sand falls and gets deposited in
low hill-like structures known as sand dunes.
Loess: When very fine and light grains of sand gets deposited in large areas, it is called
loess.
Air Class 7 Notes Chapter 4
Our atmosphere is surrounded by a huge blanket of air called atmosphere.
Composition of the Atmosphere
• Nitrogen and oxygen are the two gases which make up the bulk of the atmosphere.
• Carbon dioxide, helium, ozone, argon and hydrogen are found in lesser quantities.
• Apart from these gases, tiny dust particles are also present in the air.
Structure of the Atmosphere
• Our atmosphere is divided into five layers starting from the earth’s surface.
• The first layer is the Troposphere whose average height is 13 km. The troposphere is
the layer in which the air we breathe exist. Almost all weather phenomena occur here.
• The second layer is the Stratosphere which extends up to 50 km.
• The third layer is the Mesosphere which extends up to the height of 80 km.
• The fourth layer is the Thermosphere which extends from 80 km to 400 km.
• The uppermost layer of the atmosphere is Exosphere which has very thin air.
Weather and Climate
• Weather is the Hour-to-hour, day-to-day condition of the atmosphere.

• Climate is the weather conditions for a large period and of a large area.
Temperature
• The degree of hotness and coldness of the air is called temperature.

• The temperature of the atmosphere changes not only between day and night but also
from season to season, an important factor that influences the distribution of
temperature is insolation.
• Insolation is the incoming solar energy intercepted by the earth.
• The amount of insolation decreases from the equator towards the poles.
• Temperature is measured in Celsius and Fahrenheit.
Air Pressure
• Air pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by the weight of air on the earth’s
surface.
• Horizontally the distribution of air pressure is influenced by the temperature of the air at
a given place.
• In areas having a lower temperature, the air is cold.
• The air always moves from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas.
Wind
• The movement of air from high-pressure areas to the low-pressure area is called Wind.
• Winds can be broadly divided into three types: permanent winds, seasonal winds and
local winds.
• On 25 October 1999, cyclonic winds originated as depression and affected Odisha
killing thousands of people.
Moisture
• When water evaporates from land and other water bodies, it becomes water vapour.
• Moisture in the air at any time is known as humidity.
• When the water vapour rises, it starts cooling. The water vapour condenses causing the
formation of droplets of water.
• When these droplets of water become too heavy to float in the air, they come down as
precipitation.
• Precipitation is the falling of moisture in the form of rainfall, snow, fog, sleet and
hailstones.
• On the basis of mechanism, there are three types of rainfall: the convectional rainfall,
the orographic rainfall and the cyclonic rainfall.
• Rainfall is very important for the survival of plants and animals.
The atmosphere is a thin blanket of air that surrounds the earth. It protects us from the
harmful rays of the sun. It consists of the main nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%). Carbon
dioxide, helium, ozone, argon and hydrogen are found in lesser quantities.
Nitrogen is very important for plants. Their survival depends on this gas.
Oxygen is essential for humans and animals. They breathe in oxygen, produced by green
plants during photosynthesis.
Green plants take in carbon dioxide which is released by humans and animals. Thus, there is
a mutual relation between the plants and the humans or animals. Hence, we should protect
plants and trees for our own benefit.
The atmosphere is divided into five layers starting from the earth’s surface. These layers
are—Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere and Exosphere.
The troposphere is the layer in which the air we breathe exists. Almost all weather
phenomena occur here.
The stratosphere contains a layer of ozone gas.
The mesosphere extends up to the height of 80 km. Meteorites burn up in this layer on
entering from the space.
Thermosphere helps in radio transmission.
Exosphere is the uppermost layer, where the air is very thin.
Weather is hour-to-hour, day-to-day condition of the atmosphere.
Climate is the average weather condition of a place for a longer period of time.
The temperature of the atmosphere remains changing. The degree of hotness and coldness
of the air is known as temperature.
Insolation is an important factor that influences the distribution of temperature. The amount of
insolation decreases from the equator towards the poles. Therefore, the temperature
decreases in the same way.
Air above us presses us from all directions with a great force on our body and our body exerts
a counter pressure.
Air pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of air on the earth’s surface. As we go up
the layers of the atmosphere, the pressure falls rapidly.
Low pressure is associated with cloudy skies and wet weather. High pressure is associated
with clear and sunny skies. The air always moves from high-pressure areas to a low-pressure
area.
Wind is the movement of air from the high-pressure area to low pressure areas. Wind may be
gentle. At times it may be strong and devastating.
Winds are of three types—Permanent winds, Seasonal winds and Local winds.
Moisture means humidity. A humid day is one when the air is the fall of water vapour. On a
humid day, clothes take longer to dry and sweat from our body does not evaporate easily.
Clouds are masses of water droplets. When these droplets of water become very heavy they
come down as precipitation. Precipitation that comes down to the earth in liquid form is called
rain.
There are three types of rain on the basis of mechanism—the conventional rainfall, the
orographic rainfall and the cyclonic rainfall.
Constituents of air
Structure of the atmosphere
Atmosphere: Atmosphere is a thin blanket of air that surrounds the earth.
Global warming: When the temperature of the earth’s atmosphere increases due to the
increases in carbon dioxide, it is known as global warming.
Weather: The hour-to-hour, day-to-day condition of the atmosphere is known as weather.
Climate: The average weather condition of a place for a longer period of time is known as the
climate of a place.
Temperature: The degree of hotness and coldness of the air is known as temperature.
Isolation: Isolation is the incoming solar energy intercepted by the earth.
Air pressure: The pressure exerted by the weight of air on the earth’s surface is known as air
pressure.
Wind: Wind is the movement of air from the high-pressure area to low pressure areas.
Moisture: Water vapour present in the atmosphere is known as moisture.
Humidity: Moisture in the air is known as humidity.
Cloud: It is a mass of water droplets.
Precipitation: Falling of water on the earth in the form of rainfall is known as precipitation.
Thermometer: It is an instrument that measures temperature.
Barometer: It measures atmospheric pressure.
Rain gauge: It measures the amount of rainfall.
Wind vane: It shows the direction of the wind.
Water Class 7 Notes Chapter 5
3/4th of earth’s surface is covered by water, so the earth is called the blue planet.
The sun’s heat causes evaporation of water vapour. When the water vapour cools down, it
condenses and forms clouds. From there, it may fall on the land or sea in the form of rain,
snow or sleet.
The process by which water changes its form and circulates between oceans, atmosphere
and land is known as the water cycle.
Our earth is like a terrarium.
The major source of fresh water are the rivers, ponds, springs and glaciers.
The ocean bodies and the seas contain salty water.
Distribution of Water on Earth
• About three-fourths of the earth’s surface is covered by water.

• On earth 97% of water is saline and 3% of water is fresh water.
• The following table gives the distribution of water in percentage:
• Water is absolutely essential for survival.
Movements
• Unlike the calm water of ponds and lakes, ocean water keeps moving continuously.
• The movements which occur in oceans are of three types: waves, tides and currents.
Waves
• When the water on the surface of the ocean rises and falls alternately, they are called
waves.
• An earthquake, a volcanic eruption or underwater landslides can shift large amounts of
ocean water. As a result, huge tidal wave may be formed which is called tsunami.
• Tsunami in South and South-East Asian coast had caused havoc in December 2004.
Tides
• The rhythmic rise and fall of ocean water twice in a day is called a tide.
• Tides are of two types: spring tides and neap tides.
Ocean Currents
• Ocean currents are streams of water flowing constantly on the ocean surface in different
directions.
• Ocean currents are of two types, warm and cold.
• The Labrador ocean current is a cold current, while the Gulf Stream is a warm current.
Water is very important for our survival. It continuously changes its form and circulates
between oceans and atmosphere.
We get fresh water from the rivers, ponds, springs and glaciers.
The ocean bodies and the seas contain salty water.
Three-fourth of the earth surface is covered by water. But all the water on earth is not
available to us. 97.3% of water is saline or salty found in oceans and seas. Only 3% is fresh
water. Its 3% is available to us, which we use in our daily life.
Many countries are facing water scarcity due to this fact. What is available is also not fit for
drinking because it is polluted badly due to a variety of reasons.
Ponds and lakes have calm water whereas ocean water keeps moving continuously. The
movements that occur in oceans can be categorized as waves, tides and currents.
When the water on the surface of the ocean rises and falls alternately, they known as waves.
During stormy weather, huge waves are formed. These waves are very strong and cause
heavy destruction.
Tsunami, a huge tidal wave, is very strong. The tsunami of 2004 caused widespread damage
in the coastal areas of India.
Tides are the rhythmic rise and fall of ocean water which occur twice in a day. It is high tide
when water covers much of the shore by rising to its highest level. It is low tide when
waterfalls to its lowest level and recedes from the shore.
During the full moon and new moon days, the sun, the moon and the earth are in the same
line and the tides are highest. These tides are called spring tides.
When the moon is in its first and last quarter, the ocean waters get drawn in diagonally
opposite directions by the gravitational pull of sun and earth resulting in low tides. These tides
are called neap tides.
High tides help in navigation.
Ocean currents are streams of water flowing constantly on the ocean surface in definite
directions.
Ocean currents may be warm or cold. The Labrador Ocean current is cold current while the
Gulf Stream is a warm current.
The areas where the warm and cold currents meet provide the best fishing grounds of the
world.
Evaporation: It is the process through which water turns into vapour.
Condensation: It is the process in which water vapour turns into water droplets.
Water cycle: It is the process by which water continually changes its form and circulates
between oceans, atmosphere and land.
Terrarium: It is an artificial enclosure for keeping small house plants.
Precipitation: Falling of moisture in the form of rainfall, snow, sleet and hailstone.
Waves: When the water on the surface of the ocean rises and falls alternately, they are called
waves.
Tsunami: Tsunami is a huge tidal wave.
Tide: Tide is the rhythmic rise and fall of ocean water that occurs twice in a day.
Springtide: During the full moon and new moon days, the sun, the moon and the earth are in
the same line and the tides are highest. These tides are called spring tides.
Neap tide: When the moon is in its first and last quarter, the ocean waters get drawn in
diagonally opposite directions by the gravitational pull of sun and earth resulting in low tides.
These tides are called neap tides.
Ocean currents: These are streams of water flowing constantly on the ocean surface in
definite directions.
Natural Vegetation and Wild Life Class 7 Notes Chapter 6
Natural vegetation means the plants that grow naturally without human interference.
Natural vegetation can be categorised into three categories namely; forest, grassland and
desert.The change in the type of natural vegetation occurs mainly because of the changes of
climatic conditions.
Forests
• Forests grow where temperature and rainfall are plentiful to support a tree cover.
• Forests are of six types: Tropical Evergreen, Tropical Deciduous, Temperate Evergreen,
Temperate Deciduous, Mediterranean Vegetation, and Coniferous forests.
• Tropical Evergreen Forests are those which occur in the region near the equator and
close to the tropics.
• Tropical Deciduous Forests are monsoon forests which shed their leaves in the dry
season to conserve water.
• Temperate Evergreen Forests are located in the mid-latitudinal coastal region.
• Temperate Deciduous Forests are those which shed their leaves in the dry season.
• Mediterranean Vegetation is found around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe.
• Coniferous Forests are found in areas along the Taiga.
Grasslands
• Grasslands are found in the regions of moderate rainfall. They are of two types—
Tropical Grasslands, which have tall coarse grass, and Temperate Grasslands.
• Tropical Grasslands occurs on either side of the equator and extend till the tropics.
Tropical Grassland of Africa is called Savannah.
• Temperate Grasslands are in mid-latitudes and are called prairies, steppes, etc. The
grass is usually short here.
Thorny Bushes
• Thorny bushes are found in the dry desert-like regions.
• These are found in areas with scanty rain and scorching heat.
Tundra Vegetation
• Mosses, lichens and very small Shrubs are found in cold regions. This is called tundra
type vegetation.
• It is found in polar areas.
Trees, grass, lichen, mosses, etc. that grow naturally without human interference constitute
natural vegetation.
The growth of natural vegetation depends on temperature and moisture. It also depends on
factors such as slope and thickness of soil.
Natural vegetation is classified into three categories—forests, grasslands and shrubs.
The changes in the type of natural vegetation occur mainly because of the changes in climatic
condition.
Forests grow where temperature and rainfall are plentiful to support a tree cover. Forests may
be dense and open.
Tropical evergreen forests also known as tropical rainforests are very dense and are found in
the regions near the equator and close to the tropics. Hardwood trees such as rosewood,
ebony, mahogany are common here.
Tropical deciduous forests are monsoon forests. They are found in the large part of India,
Northern Australia and in Central America. They shed their leaves in dry seasons. Trees like
sal, teak, neem and shisham are found here.
Temperate evergreen forests are commonly found along the eastern margin of the continents.
In these forests both hard and softwood trees such as oak, pine, eucalyptus, etc. are found.
Temperate deciduous forests are found in the northeastern part of USA, China, New Zealand
and Chile. They shed their leaves in the dry season. Trees like oak, ash, beech etc. and
animals like deer, foxes, wolves are common in these forests.
Mediterranean vegetation is mostly found in the areas around the Mediterranean sea in
Europe, Africa and Asia. Mediterranean vegetation is mainly comprised of citrus fruits such as
oranges, figs, olives and grapes.
Coniferous forests are also known as Traga. These forests are found in the higher latitudes of
Northern hemisphere. They are also found in the higher altitudes. The trees are tall, softwood
evergreen trees. Chir, pine, cedar is an important variety of trees in these forests. Animals
such as silver fox, mink, polar bear are common here.
Grasslands include tropical and temperate grasslands. Tropical grasslands grow in the areas
of moderate to low amount of rainfall. Savannah grasslands of Africa present a suitable
example of these types of grasslands. Animals like elephants, zebras, giraffes, dear are
commonly found here.
Temperate grasslands are found in the mid-latitudinal zones and in the interior part of the
continents. Short and nutritious grass in found here. Common animals are buffaloes, bison,
antelopes etc.
Thorny bushes are found in the dry deserts. Here, vegetation cover is scarce because of poor
rain and scorching heat.
Polar regions are cold and their natural vegetation is limited here. Only mosses, lichens and
very small shrubs are found here. Vegetation found in the polar regions is called Tundra type
of vegetation. Seal, walruses, musk-oxen, Arctic owl etc. are common here.
Natural vegetation: Trees, grass, lichens, mosses, etc. that grow naturally without the interference of
human beings are called natural vegetation.
Forests: They grow where temperature and rainfall are plentiful to support a tree cover. Forests may
be dense and open. Grasslands: They grow in the region of moderate rain.
Shrubs: These consists of thorny shrubs and scrubs.
Anaconda: It is one of the world’s largest snakes found in the tropical rainforest. Taiga. It means
pure or untouched in the Russian language.
Human Environment – Settlement Transport and
Communication Class 7 Notes Chapter 7
Human beings are dependent on the environment.
To grow food, build homes and develop better means of transport and communication, human
beings have modified the environment.
Settlements
• Settlements are places where people build their homes.

• The settlements earlier grew near the river valleys as the water was easily available and
the land was fertile.
• Settlements can be permanent or temporary.
• Settlements which are occupied for a short time are called temporary settlements.
• In permanent settlements, people build homes to live in.
• Settlements can be rural or urban. Rural settlements can be compact or scattered.
• People in rural areas practice agriculture. In the urban area, people are mostly engaged
in services.
Transport
• Transport is the means by which people and goods move.

• With the invention of the wheel, transport became easier.
• Earlier donkeys, mules, bullocks and camels were used for transportation.
• Earlier traders took the land route or sea route for transportation. Now it takes only 6-8
hours to travel from India to Europe.
• The four major means of transport are roadways, railways, waterways and airways.
Roadways
• The most commonly used means of transport, especially for short distances, are roads.
• They can be metalled or unmetalled.
Railways
• Railways are the fastest means of land transport and can carry bulky materials over a
long distance.
• The railways carry people over long distances quickly and economically.
• The invention of the steam engine and the industrial revolution helped in the speedy
development of rail transport.
• Diesel and electric engine have largely replaced the steam engines.
• Now superfast trains have been introduced to make travelling faster.
• Indian Railways network is the largest in Asia.
Waterways
• Waterways are the cheapest means of transportation for carrying heavy and bulky
goods over long distances.
• There are mainly two types of routes, inland waterways and sea routes.
• Navigable rivers and lakes are used as inland waterways.
• Sea routes are connected through ports.
Airways
• Airways are the fastest and most expensive mode of transport.

• It is the only mode of transport to reach the most remote and distant areas especially
where there are no roads and railways.
• Some major airports in the world are Delhi, Mumbai, New York, London, Paris, Frankfurt
and Cairo etc.
Communication
• Process of conveying the message to others is known as communication.

• Different modes of communication are used to provide information, to educate as well
as to entertain.
• Communication is of two types namely, personal and mass communication.
• Through newspaper, radio and television, we can communicate with a large number of
people. They are, therefore, called mass media.
• Satellites, Internet, Wireless telephone are the main modes of communication.
Places, where people build their homes, are called settlements. Early settlements grew near
the river valleys because of the easy availability of water and fertile land there.
By and by human settlements became larger with the development of trade, commerce and
manufacturing.
Settlements are of two types—permanent and temporary.

People make their temporary settlements in deep forests, hot and cold deserts and mountains
and practise hunting, gathering, shifting cultivation, etc. Under permanent settlements, people
build homes to live in.
Human settlements may be rural and urban. The villages are rural settlement where people
do farming, fishing, forestry, etc.
Rural settlements can be compact or scattered. In a compact settlement, houses are built
closely to each other. In a scattered settlement house are spaced over an extensive area.
Houses under rural settlements are built of mud, clay, stones, straw, etc.
Urban settlements are found in towns and cities. People here are engaged in manufacturing,
trading and services.
Transport is essential to go from one place to another. In the early days, people travelled long
distances on foot. They used animals to carry their goods. Gradually, several means of
transport developed, although animals like donkeys, mules, bullocks and camels continued to
be used even today.
An aeroplane is the fastest mode of transport. It saves our precious time and energy.
The four means of transport are—roadways, railways, waterways and airways.
Roads can be metalled and unmetalled.
Manali-Leh highway in the Himalayan Mountain is one of the highest roadways in the world.
Roads built underground are called subways/under paths. Flyovers are built over raised
structures.
The railways carry people and heavy goods over long distances. The railway network is well
developed over the plain areas.
The Indian railway network is well developed and is the largest in Asia.
Waterways are the cheapest means of transport. They are used for carrying heavy and bulky
goods over long distances. There are two types of waterways inland waterways and sea
routes.
Navigable rivers and lakes are used as inland waterways.
Sea routes and oceanic routes are mostly used for transporting merchandise and goods from
one country to another. These routes are connected with the ports.
Some important ports of the world are—Singapore and Mumbai in Asia, New York, Los
Angeles in North America, Rio de Janeiro in South America, Durban and Cape Town in
Africa, Sydney in Australia, London and Rotterdam in Europe.
Airways are the fastest means of transport. It is the only mode of transport to reach the most
remote and distant areas especially where there are no roads and railways.
Helicopters are useful in most inaccessible areas and in the time of calamities for rescuing
people and other associated works.
Some important airports are Delhi, Mumbai, New York, London, Paris, Frankfurt and Cairo.
The process by which we convey messages to others is known as communication.
Newspapers, radio and television are important means of communication. They are called
mass media because we can communicate with a large number of people at the same time.
The satellites have made communication even faster.
Wireless telephonic communications through cellular phones have become very popular
today.
The Internet provides us with worldwide information and interaction.
Settlement: It refers to a place where people build their homes. ,
Site: It refers to a place where a building or a settlement develops.
Transhumance: It is a seasonal movement of people.
Compact settlement: It is a closely built area of dwellings.
Scattered settlement: When dwellings are spaced over an extensive area.
Transport: It is the means by which people and goods move from one place to another.
Metalled roads: These are pucca roads and are used in all the weather.
Unmetalled roads: These are Kutcha roads. They are out of work during the rainy season.
Subways: Underground roads are called subways.
Flyovers: These are built over raised structures.
Communication: The process through which we convey messages to others.
Mass Media: Newspapers, radio and television are called mass media because they
communicate with a large number of people at the same time.
Human Environment Interactions – The Tropical and
the Subtropical Region Class 7 Notes Chapter 8
Human beings interact with the environment and are dependent on it for a number of things.
Life in the Amazon Basin
• The Amazon River Basin lies near the equator.

• Amazon river was discovered by a Spanish explorer, Vicente Yanez Pinzon.
• The Amazon basin lies in the tropical region close to the equator between 10°N and
10°S, and the river Amazon flows through this region.
• The Amazon river basin drains portions of Brazil, parts of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador,
Columbia and a small part of Venezuela.
Climate
• The Amazon basin stretches directly on the equator and is characterized by hot and wet
climate throughout the year.
• There are heavy rainfall and high humidity.
Rainforest
• As it rains heavily, thick forests grow in this region.

• The forests are in fact so thick that the dense roof created by leaves and branches do
not allow the sunlight to reach the ground.
• The rainforest is rich in flora and fauna.
• The basin is home to thousands of species of insects.
People of the Rainforests
• People grow most of their food in small areas after clearing some trees in the forest.
• Slash and burn agriculture is prevalent.
• The development activities are leading to the gradual destruction of the biologically
diverse rainforest.
Life in the Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin
• The tributaries of rivers Ganga and Brahmaputra together form the Ganga-
Brahmaputra basin in the Indian subcontinent.
• The plains of the Ganga and the Brahmaputra, the mountains and foothills of the
Himalayas and the Sunderbans delta are the main features of this region.
• The Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers together form the largest delta in the world.
• The basin area has varied topography. The mountain areas with steep slopes have
inhospitable terrain.
• Agriculture is the main occupation of the people where flat land is available to grow new
crops.
• Wheat, maize sorghum, gram and millets are the important crops of the region.
• The vegetation cover of the area varies according to the type of landforms.
• There is a variety of wildlife in the basin. In the delta areas, Bengal tiger, crocodiles and
alligators are found.
• Fish and rice is the staple diet of the people.
• The Ganga-Brahmaputra plain has several big towns and cities like Allahabad, Kanpur,
Varanasi, Lucknow, Patna and Kolkata.
• All four means of transport are well-developed in the Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin.
• Tourism is an important activity in the region.
The Amazon Basin lies in the equatorial region. The river Amazon flows through this region.
Numerous tributaries join the Amazon river to form the Amazon Basin.
The river basin drains portions of Brazil, parts, of Peru Bolivia, Equador, Columbia and a
small part of Venezuela.
The climate of the Amazon Basin is hot and wet throughout the year. It rains almost every
day. During day time temperatures are high but at night the temperature goes down.
Thick forests are found in the Amazon Basin. As sunlight does not reach the ground, only
shade tolerant vegetation grows here, for examples, orchids and bromeliads.
The rainforest is rich in fauna. A variety of birds is found here. Apart from animals like
monkeys, sloth, etc. various species of reptiles and snakes are also found in these forests.
The Basin is also the home to thousands of species to insects.
The people of the Amazon Basin are mainly engaged in agriculture. They grow tapioca,
pineapple and sweet potato. Their staple food is manioc. They also grow cash crops like
coffee, maize and cocoa.
The life of the people of the Amazon basin is slowly changing, in 1970 the Trans-Amazon
highway made all parts of the rainforest accessible. Aircraft and helicopters are also used for
reaching various places.
Due to these developmental activities, a large area of the rainforest has been disappearing
annually in the Amazon Basin.
Life in the Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin
• The tributaries of rivers Ganga and Brahmaputra together from the Ganga-Brahmaputra
Basin in the Indian subcontinent.
• The plains of the Ganga and the Brahmaputra, the mountains and the foothills of the
Himalayas and the Sundarbans delta are the main features of this basin.
• The area of the basin enjoys a monsoon climate. The summers are hot and the winters
cool.
• The basin area has a varied topography. The mountain areas of the basin have thin
population. The plain area has thick population.
• Agriculture is the chief occupation of the people. The main crop is paddy. Some other
crops like the wheat, maize, grain, millets etc. and some cash crops like sugarcane and
jute are also grown.
• Tropical deciduous trees grow in the Ganga, Brahmaputra plain. Teak, sal and peepal
are also found. The delta is covered with mangrove forests.
• The basin is rich in wildlife. A variety of fish is found here. Fish and rice is the staple
food of the people living in the area.
• Several big towns and cities such as Allahabad, Kanpur, Varanasi, Lucknow, Patna and
Kolkata are there in the Ganga-Brahmaputra plain.
• All four means of transport are available here.
• Tourism is also an important activity of the basin. Tourists from different parts of the
world come to see the Taj Mahal, Buddhists stupas, Imambara, wildlife sanctuaries etc.
Mouth: The place where a river flows into another body of water is known as the river’s
mouth.
Tributaries: These are small rivers that join the main river.
Bromeliads: These are special plants that store water in their leaves.
Slash and Burn Agriculture: It is a type of cultivation in which farmers clear a patch of land
by cutting down trees and bushes. These are then burnt which releases the nutrients into the
soil. Now the field becomes ready for growing crops.
Manioc: This is the staple food of the people of the Amazon basin.
Maloca: Large apartment like houses with steeply slanting roofs are called malocas.
Population Density: It refers to the number of persons that live in one sq. km. of area.
Terrace Farming: It is a type of farming in which terraces are built on steep slopes to create
flat surfaces on which crops are grown. The slope is removed so that water does not run off
rapidly.
Piranha: It is a type of fish that eats flesh.
Life in the Temperate Grasslands Class 7 Notes Chapter 9
Grassland is a region where grasses from the dominant type of plant life.
Depending upon the climate conditions, grasslands can be divided into two categories, the
Temperate Grasslands and the Tropical Grasslands.
The Prairies
• Prairies are the Temperate Grassland found in North America. They are bound by the
Rocky Mountains ‘ the West and the Great Lakes in the East.
• For the most part, Prairies are tree-less but, near the low-lying area’s woodlands can be
found. The prairies are bound by the Rocky Mountains in the West and the Great Lakes
in the East.
• Prairies cover major parts of the USA and Canada.
Climate
• Climate is of continental type with extreme temperature ie with warm summers and very
cold winters.
• The annual rainfall is moderate and is ideal for the growth of grass.
Flora and Fauna
• Prairies are practically tree-less but the places where water is available, trees such as
willows, alders and poplars grow.
• Places that receive rainfall of over 50 cm, are suitable for farming as the soil is fertile.
• The prairies are known as the ‘Granaries of the world’ because surplus wheat is
produced here.
• Bison or American buffalo is the most important animal.
People
• Large-scale cattle farms called ranches are looked after by the sturdy men called
cowboys.
• Large scale farming with modern technology is done here.
The Velds
• The Temperate Grasslands of South Africa are called the velds.

• Velds are rolling plateaus with varying heights ranging from 600 m to 1100 m.
• It is bound by the Drakensberg Mountains on the east.
Climate
• The welds have a mild climate due to the influence of the Indian Oceans.
• Here the summers are short and warm.
• The velds receive rainfall mainly in the summer months from November to February.
• Winters are cold and dry. Temperature varies between 5°C and 10°C and July is the
coldest month.
Flora and Fauna
• Vegetation cover is sparse.

• Red grass grows in bush velds.
People
• Velds are known for cattle rearing and mining.

• The main crops are maize, wheat, barley, oats and potatoes.
• The velds have a rich reserve of minerals.
• Iron and steel industry has developed where coal and iron are present.
• Johannesburg is known as the gold capital of the world.
Grassland is a region where grasses form the dominant type of plant life. Grasslands make
up almost a quarter of the total land surface.
The world’s grasslands are divided into two categories: those that occur in the temperate
region and those that occur in the tropical region.
The prairies are the temperate grasslands in North America. They are bound by the Rocky
Mountains in the west and the Great Lakes in the East.
The prairies are located in the heart of the continent and therefore we find here the
continental type of climate which is characterised by extreme temperatures.
The annual rainfall is moderate and is ideal for the growth of grass. ‘Chinook’, a local wind,
blow here.
Trees are not there in the prairies. Only trees like willows, alders and poplars grow.
Crops like maize, potatoes, soybeans, cotton and alfa-alfa are grown in the areas where
rainfall is over 50 cm.
In the areas with poor rainfall, grasses are short and sparse. In these areas, cattle¬rearing is
done. Bison or the American buffalo is the most important animal of this region.
The people of this region are hardworking. The USA and Canada are located in this region.
The prairies are known as the ‘Granaries of the world’ because surplus wheat is produced
here.
Dairy farming is also a major industry.
Minerals such as coal and iron are found in abundance. Roads, railways and canals— all are
in good condition and play an important role in making this region the most industrialised one
in the world.
The velds are the temperate grasslands of South Africa. They are bound by the Drakensberg
Mountains on the east. To its west lies the Kalahari desert. On the northeastern part, high
velds are located that attain a height of more than 1600 m in some places.
The velds are characterised by a mild climate. They receive rainfall mainly in the summer
months from November to February.
The velds do not have much vegetation. Grasses dominate the landscape. The popular
varieties of grass are—red grass, acacia and maroola.
The animals found in this region are—lions, leopards, cheetah and kudu.
Cattle rearing and mining are two important activities in the velds. Soils are not very fertile.
The main crops are maize, wheat, barley, oats and potato. Cash crops grown here are
tobacco, sugarcane and cotton.
The people of this region are mostly engaged in sheep rearing.
Merino sheep are very popular because its wool is very warm.
Dairy farming is also an important activity Dairy product like butter, cheese is produced for
both domestic supply and also for export.
The velds have a rich reserve of minerals. Gold and diamond mining are major occupations of
people of this region.
Johannesburg is famous for gold. It is known as the gold capital in the world.
Kimberley is famous for its diamond mines.
Grassland: A region where grasses form the dominant type of plant life.
Prairie: The word prairie has been originated from Latin word priata which means meadow.
Red Indians: native Americans.
Chinook: It is a hot wind that blows in winter and therefore raises the temperature within a
short time.
Ranches: They are large cattle farms.
Bison: The American buffalo.
Cowboys: The sturdy men who look after the ranches.
Combine: A single machine which can combine the tasks of sowing, ploughing and
threshing, i.e., a three-in-one.
Veld: Velds are the temperate grasslands of South Africa.
Life in the Deserts Class 7 Notes Chapter 10
Deserts are characterised by low rainfall, scanty vegetation and extreme temperatures.
Depending on the temperature, there can be hot deserts or cold deserts.
The Hot Desert – Sahara
• The Sahara Desert in Africa is the world’s largest hot desert.

• It touches 11 countries and has got gravel plains and elevated plateaus with a bare
rocky surface.
• The climate of Sahara is scorching hot and parched dry with temperature as high as 50°
C.
• The nights are freezing cold with the temperature nearing zero degrees.
• Vegetation in the Sahara Desert includes cactus, date palms and acacia. Camels,
hyenas, jackals, foxes, scorpions, snakes and lizards are the main animal species found
here.
• Despite its harsh climate, Sahara is inhabited by various groups of people. The main
groups are Bedouins and Tuaregs.
• The oasis in the Sahara and the Nile Valley in Egypt supports the settled population.
• The discovery of oil is constantly transforming this region. Other important minerals
found here are iron, phosphorus, manganese and uranium.
• More and more nomadic tribes are taking to city life.
The Cold Desert – Ladakh
• Ladakh is a cold desert lying in the Great Himalayas, on the eastern side of Jammu and
Kashmir.
• The altitude in Ladakh varies from 3,000 m in Kargil to more than 8,000 m in the
Karakoram.
• The area experiences freezing winds and burning hot sunlight.
• Due to high aridity, the vegetation is sparse. Groves of willows and poplars are seen in
the valleys.
• The animals of Ladakh are wild goats, wild sheep, yak and special kinds of dogs.
• The animals are reared as they provide milk, meat and hides.
• The population consists of either Muslims or Buddhists.
• Some famous Buddhist monasteries are Hemis, Thiksey, Shey and Lamayuru.
• In the summer season, the people are busy cultivating barley, potatoes, peas, beans
and turnips.
• Tourism is a major activity with several tourists streaming in from within India and
abroad.
• People of Ladakh have over the centuries learnt to live in balance and harmony with
nature.
• Pashmina wool of this region is famous.
• Leh and Kargil are the main towns in Ladakh.
The desert areas of the world are characterised by low rainfall, scanty vegetation and extreme
temperatures. Depending on the temperatures there are hot deserts as well as cold deserts.
Sahara is a hot desert covering a large part of North Africa and Ladakh is a cold desert lying
in the Great Himalayas on the eastern side of Jammu and Kashmir in India.
Sahara is the world’s largest desert.
The Sahara desert touches eleven countries—Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania,
Morocco, Niger, Sudan, Tunisia and Western Sahara.
The Sahara desert is the vast stretches of sand. There are also gravel plains and elevated
plantains with a bare rocky surface.
The climate of the Sahara desert is scorching hot and parched dry. The rainy season is very
short. The day temperature may soar as high as 50°C. But nights may be freezing cold.
Vegetation in the Sahara desert is comprised of cactus, date, palms and acacia. Date palms
are found near an oasis. So far animals are concerned camels, hyenas, jackals, foxes,
scorpions, several varieties of snakes and lizards are found in this dessert.
Various groups of people such as the Bedouins and Tuaregs live in the Sahara desert. These
groups are a nomadic tribe and they rear goats, sheep, camels and horses. They get milk and
hides from these animals. These nomadic tribes wear heavy robes to protect themselves from
dust storms and hot winds.
People get water from the oasis in the Sahara desert and the Nile valley in Egypt. They grow
crops like rice, wheat, barley and beans.
The Sahara desert is undergoing fast change due to the discovery of oil in Algeria, Libya and
Egypt. Other minerals found here are iron, phosphorus, manganese and uranium.
Trucks are now used in the salt trade.
The nomadic herdsmen with a change of time are now migrating to cities for better job
opportunities in oil and gas operations.
Ladakh is a cold desert. The Karakoram range in the north and the Zanskar mountains in the
south enclose it. Several rivers flow through Ladakh. Several glaciers are found here, for
example, the Gangotri glacier.
The climate of Ladakh is extremely cold and dry. The day temperatures in summer are just
above zero degree and the night temperatures are below – 30°C. This desert receives very
little rainfall. There is always a chance of both sunstroke and frostbite.
Ladakh has poor vegetation. There are scanty patches of grasses. Groves of willows and
poplars are seen in the valleys.
Several species of birds such as robins, redstarts, Tibetan snow cock, raven and hoopoe are
found here. The animals of Ladakh are wild goats, wild sheep, yak and special kinds of dogs.
People living in this desert are either Muslims or Buddhists.
Famous Buddhist monasteries are Hemis, Thiksey, Shey and Lamayuru.
People grow crops like barley, potatoes, peas beans and turnips during the summer season.
During the winter months they are engaged in festivities and ceremonies.
The women of Ladakh are hardworking. They can manage indoor and outdoor activities
skilfully.
Leh is the capital of Ladakh.
Ladakh is a famous tourist place. The tourists from within India and abroad like to visit the
gompas.
Ladakh is being modernised fast. But people are very conscious here. They know the ways to
live in balance and harmony with nature.
Desert: It refers to an arid area characterised by extremely high or low temperatures with poor
vegetation.
Oasis: It is an area in the desert where there is water and where plants grow.
Shahtoosh: It is kind of wool obtained from Chiru or the Tibetan antelope.
Gangri: It is a glacier found in Ladakh.
Tuaregs: These are nomads of the Sahara desert.
Bedouins: These are nomads of the Sahara desert.
Khapa-chan: Ladakh is also known by this name. It means snow land.
Resources Class 8 Notes Chapter 1
Resources: Anything that has some utility to satisfy our needs is known as a resource.
Human beings are important resources because their ideas, knowledge and skills lead to
the creation of new resources.
Types of Resources: There are three types of resources—Natural resources, Man-made

resources and Human resources.
Natural Resources:
The resources which are drawn from nature and used without much modification are
known as natural resources.
Human-made Resources
: When the original form of natural resources is changed by human beings to make it more
useful, then it is called man-made resources or human-made resources.
Human Resources: People are human resources. Education and health help to make
people a valuable resource.
On the basis of their development, resources are classified as Actual resources and
Potential resources.
On the basis of their origin, resources are classified as Abiotic resources and Biotic
resources.
On the basis of their distribution, resources are classified as Ubiquitous resources and
Localised resources.
On the basis of their stock, resources are classified as Renewable resources and Non-
renewable resources.
Actual Resources: Actual resources are those resources whose quantity is known. Rich
deposits of coal in Ruhr region of Germany, dark soils of Deccan Plateau in Maharashtra.
Potential Resources: Those resources whose entire quantity may not be known and
which are not being used at present time are known as potential resources, e.g. Uranium
found in Ladakh may be used as a potential resource.
Abiotic and Biotic Resources: Abiotic resources are non-living while biotic resources
are living. Soils, rocks and minerals are abiotic, while plants and animals are biotic
resources.
Ubiquitous and Localised Resources: Resources that are found everywhere, like the air
we breathe, are ubiquitous resources. But those, which are found only in certain places,
are localized resources, like copper and iron ore.
Renewable Resources: Renewable resources are those which get renewed or

replenished quickly, e.g. solar and wind energy.
Non-renewable Resources: Those resources which are present in limited stock and
once exhausted may take thousands of years to renew, e.g. Coal and Petrol.
We have to conserve the resources, otherwise, non-renewable resources will get

exhausted and people will face a shortage of food and shelter.
Any substance, living being or service that has utility (i.e. can help us in any possible way)
is said to be a resource.
A resource has some value. The value can be associated with money (i.e. you have to
pay money to get it), or just mental satisfaction (e.g. when you look at a beautiful painting
or scenery, it feels pleasant, so the painting or scenery has utility).
Examples of resources include books, stationery material, clothes, utensils, furniture, your
teacher, school, rivers, water, electricity, and so on.
The economic value of a resource may change with time.
A substance may or may not be a resource depending on our knowledge. If we do not

know how to write with a pen, then certainly the pen has no utility for us. So, in this case,
the pen is not a resource. However, for those who know how to use a pen, it is a resource.
So technology, ideas, knowledge, inventions, discoveries, etc. make a substance a
resource.
Time may also be a factor involved in making a substance a resource. Water has always
been there, but its utility to manufacture electricity was not always known.
When people realized that water can be used to produce electricity, water became a
resource in a new way.
Resources may be natural, human, or human-made.
Natural resources are those that are taken from nature. They are used without modifying
them, i.e. in the same form as they exist in. Rivers, lakes, air, soils, minerals, trees,
mountains, etc. are natural resources.
On the basis of level of development of resource, a natural resource can be actual or

potential. An actual resource is one which is used currently. We know their quantity.
Examples are: coal deposits. A potential resource is one whose utility is not known at
present or is not used despite having utility; instead it may be useful at some time in
future. It means that it has the potential to have utility, although it does not have any
today. Examples include uranium deposits in Ladakh.
On the basis of origin, a resource can be abiotic or biotic. A biotic resource is one that has
life. Examples: plants and animals. An abiotic resource is non-living. Examples: soils,
rocks, furniture, books.
Natural resources may also be classified as renewable and non-renewable. A renewable

resource can be used without any risk of its ending up. They exist in unlimited quantity, for
example solar energy, and wind energy. On the other hand, use of non-renewable
resources need to be controlled since once they end up, they cannot be renewed.
Examples: coal, petroleum.
On the basis of distribution, a resource can be ubiquitous or localised. A ubiquitous^

resource is found everywhere, like air. A localised resource is, however, found in certain
parts of the world only, like we cannot find coal everywhere.
Human-made resources have not been provided to us by nature. Human beings have
used their intelligence to manufacture them for their own use. Examples include vehicles,
buildings, roads, telephone, etc.
Human resources include people who serve us in any way. Your teacher, doctor,
carpenter, cobbler, etc. are human resources.
Human resource development refers to the improvement of people’s skills so that they
become more useful than before and are a better resource.
Resource conservation is the concept of using resources carefully so that they do not end
up quickly. The future generations also need the resources, but if we keep using them at a
fast pace, they may end up, thus posing problems for the future. We should use resources
in such a balanced way that we satisfy our needs as well as conserve them for the future.
This concept is called sustainable development.
We can contribute to sustainable development by switching off lights when not needed, by
recycling things and using them again, and in many more ways.
Flow Learning:
Utility: A substance has utility if it can be used in any possible way to satisfy our needs.
Value: Worth of a substance assessed on the basis of utility.
Patent: It applies to the exclusive right over an idea or invention.
Resource: Any substance having utility in any way is a resource.
Technology: The application of the latest knowledge and skills in doing or making things
is called technology.
Natural Resource: Natural resources are those that are taken from nature.
Actual Resource: An actual resource is one which is used currently and whose quantity
is known.
Potential Resource: A potential resource is one whose utility is not known at present or is
not used despite having
Utility: instead it may be useful at some time in the future.
Abiotic Resource: An abiotic resource is a non-living resource.
Biotic Resource: Abiotic resource is a living resource.
Renewable Resource: A renewable resource can be used without any risk of its ending
up because they exist in unlimited quantity.
Non-renewable Resource: A non-renewable resource is one which is present in limited

quantity.
Ubiquitous Resource: A ubiquitous resource is one that is found everywhere.
Localized Resource: A resource that is found only in certain parts of the world and not
everywhere.
Human-made Resource: Resources invented by human beings by using their

intelligence are called human-made resources.
Human Resources: A human being who can contribute to his family, society, or economy
is called a. human resource.
Human Resource Development: Human resource development refers to the

improvement of people’s skills so that they become more useful than before and are a
better resource.
The stock of Resource: The amount of resource, available for use is called it’s stock.
Resource Conservation: Resource conservation is the concept of using resources

carefully so that they do not end up quickly.
Sustainable Development: It is the concept of using resources in a balanced way so that

our purpose is solved, as well as they are also conserved for the future.
Land,Soil,Water, Natural Vegetation and Wildlife
Resources Class 8 Notes Chapter 2
Land:
• The land is an important natural resource which covers only 30 per cent of the
earth’s surface.
• Land provides most of human needs. Its use depends on physical factors such as
topography, soil, climate, mineral and availability of water and human factors.
• Due to the excessive use of land for agricultural and constructional activities, the
major problem of land degradation, landslides, soil erosion, etc. arises.
• To conserve the land, we must promote afforestation, check to overgraze and
regulate the use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers.
Soil:
• The upper layer of the land’s surface is called soil.
• Soil formation depends on the nature of parent rock, climate, relief features, flora,
fauna, microorganisms and time.
• Deforestation, overgrazing, overuse of chemical fertilisers and pesticides, rain wash,
landslides and floods leads to soil degradation.
• Conservation of soil can be done by mulching, contour barriers, constructing rock
dam, terrace farming, intercropping, contour ploughing and making shelterbelts.
Water:
• Three-fourth of the earth surface is covered with water, out of which only 2.7 per
cent water is fresh water, but only 1% of fresh water is available for human use.
• The excessive use of water leads to a shortage in supply of fresh water either due to
drying up of water sources or due to water pollution.
• Discharge of untreated sewage, agricultural chemicals and industrial effluents in
water bodies causes water pollution.
• Water conservation can be done by afforestation, adopting effective techniques for
irrigation and promoting rainwater harvesting.
Natural V egetation and Wildlife:
• Natural vegetation and wildlife exist only in the biosphere and they are interrelated
and interdependent on each other for their survival. This system is called an
ecosystem.
• Natural vegetation and wildlife both are valuable resources. They are not only useful
for us, but they also help in maintaining balance in nature.
• Major vegetations of the ecosystems are forests, grasslands, scrubs and Tundra.
• Due to deforestation, soil erosion, constructional activities, forest fires, tsunami
Tundra, landslides and poaching, many species of vegetation and wildlife have
become extinct and many others are on the verge of extinction.
• We can conserve natural vegetation and wildlife by making national parks, wildlife
sanctuaries and biosphere reserves.
The quality of land, soil, water, natural vegetation, animals, and the usage of technology
are important factors in controlling the standard and way of life people lead at a particular
place.
The land covers just about 30% of the surface of the earth. It is not suitable for living
everywhere, because of a lot of additional conditions that affect life. Parts of land not
suitable for a living are said to be inhabitable while the ones where people live are said to
be habitable.
Some factors affecting the habitability of a place are topography, height from sea level,
climate, the fertility of the soil, vegetation, etc. People cannot live in dense forests or in
deserts. They cannot live on high slopes in mountainous areas, or in low-lying areas
where there is the possibility of floods and waterlogging. Plains and river valleys are the
places where agriculture is suited, so most of the world population lives in such areas, and
these areas are heavily populated.
The purpose and way in which land is used is called land use. Land use may be for
agriculture, forestry, mining, building houses, roads, setting up of industries, or various
other purposes.
Factors determining the land use include physical factors like topography, availability of
water, climate, minerals soil, etc, or human factors like demography (population pattern),
technology and education.
Land usually has ownership. It may be private land or community land. Private land is
owned by an individual or group of individuals, like a house is private land. Community
land is meant for use by anyone in the society, like land for collection of fodder, fruits, etc.
Community lands are also called common property resources.
Since the population is always growing at a fast pace, the demand for land is increasing,
whereas the availability of land is limited.
Land degradation, landslides, soil erosion, desertification are major threats to the
environment.
Due to the huge demand for land, people have also started reducing forest cover in order
to make them habitable. This has resulted in deforestation. Afforestation (growing trees),
regulated use of chemical pesticide and checking overgrazing by animals are some
general methods to conserve these valuable natural resources.
The word soil refers to the thin layer of grainy substance covering the surface of the earth.
This layer is made of organic matter, minerals and weathered rocks. The long process of
weathering is responsible for the formation of soil.
Weathering refers to the breaking up and decay of exposed rocks. This breaking up and
decay is caused by temperature fluctuations, frost action, plants, animals and even human
activity. Due to weathering, in thousands of years, soil is formed.
The nature of the parent rock and climatic factors are major factors of soil formation. Other
factors include topography, role of organic material and time taken for the composition of
soil formation.
Soil erosion and depletion pose major threats to the quality and resourcefulness of soil.
Degradation takes place by both human and natural factors. Deforestation,
overgrazing, overuse of chemical fertilisers or pesticides, rain wash, landslides and floods
lead to degradation of soil.
Mulching is the process of covering the bare ground between plants with a layer of organic
matter like straw. This helps in retaining soil moisture.
Farmers use stones, grass and soil to build barriers along contours. Trenches are made in
front of them to collect water.
Terrace farming is the method of farming in which broad flat steps or terraces are made
on the steejp slopes so that flat surfaces are available to grow crops. This helps in
controlling soil erosion.
In intercropping, different crops are grown in alternate rows and are sown at different
times to protect the soil from being washed away by rain.
Ploughing parallel to the contours of a hill slope to form a natural barrier for water to flow
down a slope is called contour ploughing.
Rows of trees are planted in certain areas to check wind movement. Such rows are called
shelterbelts. These trees are supposed to bind the soil, thus preventing them from being
eroded away easily.
Water covers about 75% of the surface of the earth. Therefore, the earth is called the
water planet. Ocean water is saline and not fit for human consumption. Freshwater is just
about 2.7% of tile total water. So fresh water is very scarce.
We use water for a lot of purposes. Life is impossible without water.
Water shortage is a common problem in many parts of the world. It may be a

consequence of variation in rain patterns or contamination of water sources.
Steps need to be taken to conserve water. Water is renewable, but its overuse and
pollution make it unfit for use. Sewage, industrial waste, chemicals, etc pollute water with
nitrates, metals and pesticides.
Natural vegetation and wildlife exist in the biosphere. The supporting and interdependent
life-system that exists in the biosphere is called an ecosystem.
Plants provide us with a number of important products, shelter to animals, liberate oxygen
which supports life, protects soil and give us much of our food.
Animals, birds and insects (wildlife) are also helpful in a lot of ways. Insects like bees
provide us honey and a bird like a vulture cleanses the environment by feeding on dead
livestock.
Vegetation depends on temperature and moisture of a region. Forests, grasslands, scrubs

and tundra are major vegetation types across the world.
Heavy rainfall supports huge trees. Low moisture means less dense forests and smaller
trees. In deserts, we have thorny shrubs and scrubs.
Forests are classified as evergreen and deciduous. The first type never shed their leaves,
but the second type shed their leaves at a particular time of the year. Both these types are
further classified into temperate and tropical based on their location.
There are huge concerns about the conservation of these important resources. We must
contribute to this. Natural parks, wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere reserves are ways to
protect vegetation and wildlife.
Conservation of plants and animals is a moral duty of every human being.
Flow Learning:
Land: The surface of the earth which is solid and covers about 30% of the total surface of
the earth is called land.
Land Use: The way in which a particular section of land is being used is called land use. .
Private Land: A part of land owned by a particular individual or group of individuals is

called private land.
Community Land: A part of land not owned by anyone but meant for use by a large
group of people living in a society, is called community land.
Deforestation: The action of cutting down trees is called deforestation.
Afforestation: The action of planting trees is called afforestation.
Soil: The thin layer of grainy substance covering the surface of the earth is called soil.
Weathering: Weathering refers to the breaking up and decay of exposed rocks. This
breaking up and decay is caused by temperature fluctuations, frost action, plants, animals
and even human activity.
Parent Rock: The original rock from which soil has been formed is called its parent rock.
Mulching: Mulching is the process of covering the bare ground between plants with a
layer of organic matter like straw.
Terrace Farming: Terrace farming is the method of farming in which broad flat steps or
terraces are made on the steep slopes so that flat surfaces are available to grow crops.
Intercropping: In intercropping, different crops are grown in alternate rows and are sown
at different times to protect the soil from being washed away by rain.
Contour Ploughing: Ploughing parallel to the contours of a hill slope to form a natural
barrier for water to flow down a slope is called contour ploughing.
Shelter Belts: Rows of trees that are planted in certain areas to check wind movement
are called shelterbelts.
Fresh Water: Water fit for human consumption is called fresh water.
Water Cycle: The natural process of the constant motion of water through evaporation,
condensation and rainfall is called the water cycle.
Rain Water Harvesting: The process of conserving water in which rainwater is collected
so that it can come of use in times of water scarcity is called rainwater harvesting.
Biosphere: The narrow zone of contact between the lithosphere, hydrosphere and
atmosphere are called the biosphere.
Ecosystem: The supporting and interdependent life-system that exists in the biosphere is
called an ecosystem.
Natural Vegetation: Plants and trees constitute natural vegetation.
Wildlife: The animal kingdom, which consists of animals, birds, aquatic creatures and
insects, is called a wildlife.
Scavenger: A bird or animal which feeds on dead livestock is called a scavenger.
Tundra: The type of vegetation found in very cold regions like the Arctic is called Tundra
vegetation.
Evergreen Forests: The forests which never shed their leaves are called evergreen
forests.
Deciduous Forests: The forests which shed their leaves once at a particular time o.f the
year are called deciduous forests.
Vanamahotsava: The social programme of planting trees, organised at community level

is called vanamahotsava.
National Parks: A national park is a natural area supposed to be used to protect the
ecological integrity of one or more ecosystems for the present and future generations.
Wildlife Sanctuaries: A wildlife sanctuary is similar to a national park, but it is supposed

to protect a particular animal, in some cases, or wildlife in general, in other cases.
Biosphere Reserves: These are a series of protected areas linked through a global
network, intended to demonstrate the relationship between conservation and
development.
Mineral and Power Resources Class 8 Notes Chapter 3
A mineral is a naturally occurring substance that has a definite chemical composition.
Minerals are created by natural processes such as rock formation and are concentrated in
a particular area.
Minerals are identified on the basis of their physical properties. They are extracted by the
process of mining.
There are two types of minerals: Metallic and Non-metallic.
Metallic minerals such as iron ore, nickel, copper, etc., are found in igneous and
metamorphic rocks.
Non-metallic minerals such as limestone and mineral fuels are found in sedimentary rock
formation of plains and young fold mountains.
Minerals are essential for the economic development of any country. Being non-renewable
resources, minerals should be used moderately.
They can be conserved by reducing the wastage during mining, recycling and using
substitutes.
Power or energy plays a vital role in our lives. We depend on power to make our life more
comfortable. Power is needed not only in a home, but also for running the activities of
industry, agriculture, transport, communication and defence.
Power sources can be broadly categorized into
• Conventional Sources
• Non-Conventional Sources.
The power sources which have been in common use for a long time are known as
Conventional Sources. For example, firewood, fossil fuels like coal, petroleum, natural
gas, and hydropower.
Some new sources of energy which have been discovered in the recent past are called
non- conventional sources of energy. Important sources of non-conventional energy are—
Solar energy, wind energy, biomass energy, geothermal energy, through tides and waves,
etc.
Non-conventional sources of energy are non-polluting, inexhaustible, safe and clean. Most
of these are only in the experimentation stage and are being used as a different source of
commercial energy to a very little extent.
We must conserve the conventional power sources as they are limited in nature. So, we
must promote the use of alternative sources of power.
A naturally occurring substance having a definite chemical composition is called a mineral.
Minerals are found in certain areas only and not everywhere.
Minerals are formed in different conditions and human activities do not play any role in
their formation. Instead only natural processes are involved.
Minerals can be identified on the basis of their physical properties like color, density,
hardness and chemipal properties like solubility.
On the basis of composition, we classify minerals as metallic and non-metallic.
Metallic minerals contain metal. The metal is present in raw form, that is, it contains
impurities and it needs to be processed in order to yield the pure metal.
Ferrous minerals and non-ferrous minerals are a classification of metallic minerals.

Ferrous minerals contain iron. Examples are iron ore, manganese ore and chromites.
Non-ferrous minerals do not contain iron as a constituent. Examples include gold, silver,
copper, lead.
Non-metallic minerals do not contain metals. Instead they contain impure compounds or
mineral fuels. Examples: limestone, mica, coal and petroleum.
Extraction is the process of taking out minerals from under the earth’s surface so that
useful materials can be derived from them.
Mining is a process of extraction or taking out minerals from rocks under the earth’s
surface.
In open-cast mining, minerals lying at shallow depths are taken out by removing the
surface layer. In shaft mining, deep bores (called shafts) are made to reach mineral
deposits lying at large depths.
Drilling is another method of extraction in which deep wells are bored to take out minerals.
Quarrying refers to the process of extraction in which minerals lying very close to the
surface are extracted just by digging them out.
Metallic minerals are generally found in igneous rocks and metamorphic rocks in plateaus.
Non-metallic minerals are usually found in a sedimentary rock formation in plains and
young-fold mountains.
Major regions having large iron deposits are China and India in Asia; Russia, Ukraine,
Sweden and France in Europe; the Canadian Shield region in North America; and Brazil in
South America. Brazil is the largest producer of high grade iron ore.
Asia produces over half the total in production in the world. China leads in the production
of lead, antimony, tin and tungsten.
North America is divided into three zones to describe the presence of mineral deposits.
These are Canadian region north of the Great Lakes, the Appalachian region and the
mountain ranges in the western part of the continent.
Chile and Peru in South America are leading producers of copper. Brazil and Bolivia are
important producers of tin.
Africa is the continent richest in mineral resources. South America, Zimbabwe and Zaire
are the world’s most important producers of gold.
Australia produces the largest quantity of bauxite. It also produces gold, diamond, iron, tin
and nickel. The areas called Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie have large deposits of gold.
In India, high-grade iron ore is produced in Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Madhya

Pradesh, Goa, Maharashtra and Karnataka. Bauxite is produced in Jharkhand, Orisha,
Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. Mica deposits are
found in Jharkhand, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan. India is the largest producer
and exporter of mica in the world.
Kolar in Karnataka has large deposits of gold. India is a leading producer and exporter of
salt.
Minerals are used for a lot of purposes. Copper is a metal used in nearly everything.
Silicon is obtained from quartz. It is a basic tool of the computer industry.
Minerals are non-renewable since their formation is a long process. Recycling of metals
and reducing wastage are ways to conserve them.
Power means energy. We require power for everything.
Power resources are of two types: conventional and non-conventional.
Conventional power sources are those that have been in use for a long time. Fossil fuels
and firewood are Examples.
Non-conventional power sources are those power sources that have come into use
recently due to the depleting conventional resources and growing awareness.
Firewood is widely used in India for cooking and heating. Fossil fuels are what the remains
of plants and animals converted into after they remained buried under the earth for
millions of years.
Coal, petroleum and natural gas are important fossil fuels. Electricity from coal is called
thermal power. Petroleum and its derivatives are called black gold because of their
importance. Natural gas is found with petroleum deposits.
Hydel power is the energy possessed by river water (stored in dams) or rain water falling
from great heights. One-fourth of the world’s electricity is produced from hydel power.
Solar energy, wind energy, geothermal energy, nuclear power, and tidal energy are
examples of non-conventional power sources.
Solar energy is the heat and light energy captured from the sun. Solar cells help to convert
this energy to electricity. Solar energy is used in solar heaters, solar cookers, solar dryers,
etc.
Wind energy is the energy possessed by moving air (wind). Windmills are used to^\
convert wind energy to electricity. Wind farms having clusters of windmills are located in
coastal regions and mountain passes.
Nuclear power is energy possessed by the nuclei of atoms of naturally occurring

radioactive elements like uranium, thorium, etc.
Geothermal energy is the heat energy obtained from the inside of the earth. The
temperature inside the earth increases as we go deeper. This heat is used to produce
electricity. It is accessed in the form of hot springs.
Tidal energy is the energy generated from tides. It is harnessed by building dams at
narrow openings of the sea.
Biogas is a gaseous fuel obtained from the decomposition of organic waste like dead plant
and animal material or animal dung and kitchen waste. It is an excellent fuel for cooking
and lighting and is environment-friendly.
Flow Learning:
Mineral: A naturally occurring substance having a definite chemical composition is called

a mineral.
Rock: A rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals, without definite composition of the
constituent of minerals.
Ore: An ore is a rock from which minerals are mined.
Metallic Minerals: Metallic minerals are those containing metal. The metal is present in
raw form, that is, it contains impurities and it needs to be processed in order to yield the
pure metal.
Ferrous Minerals: Ferrous minerals are the ones containing iron as a constituent.
Non-ferrous Minerals: Non-ferrous minerals are the ones that do not contain iron as a
constituent.
Non-metallic Minerals: Non-metallic minerals are the ones that do not contain metals.
Instead, they contain impure compounds or mineral fuels.
Extraction: Extraction is the process of taking out minerals from under the earth’s surface
so that useful materials can be derived from them.
Mining: Mining is a process of extraction or taking out minerals from rocks under the
earth’s surface.
Open-cast Mining: Open-cast mining is a method of extraction in which minerals lying at

shallow depths are taken out by removing the surface layer.
Shaft Mining: Shaft mining is a method of extraction in which deep bores (called shafts)
are made to reach mineral deposits lying at large depths.
Drilling: Drilling is another method of extraction in which deep wells are bored to take out
minerals.
Quarrying: Quarrying refers to the process of extraction in which minerals lying very close
to the surface are extracted just by digging them out.
Conventional Sources of Energy: Conventional power sources are those that have
been in use for a long time.
Non-conventional Power Sources: Non-conventional power sources are those power

sources that have come into use recently due to the depleting conventional resources and
growing awareness.
Fossil Fuels: Fossil fuels are what the remains of plants and animals converted into after
they remained buried under the earth for millions of years.
Thermal Power: The electricity obtained from coal is called thermal power.
Coal: Coal is a fossil fuel that was formed millions of years ago when giant ferns and
swamps got buried under the layers of the earth.
Petroleum: Petroleum is a thick black liquid fossil fuel found between layers of rocks
and drilled from oil fields.
Hydel Power: Hydel power is the energy possessed by river water (stored in dams) or
rainwater falling from great heights.
Solar Energy: Solar energy is the heat and light energy captured from the sun.
Solar Cell: Solar cells are devices to convert solar energy into electricity.
Wind Energy: Wind energy is the energy possessed by moving air (wind).
Nuclear Power: Nuclear power is energy possessed by the nuclei of atoms of naturally
occurring radioactive elements like uranium, thorium, etc.
Geothermal Energy: Geothermal energy is the heat energy obtained from the inside of
the earth.
Tidal Energy: Tidal energy is the energy generated from tides.
Biogas: Biogas is a gaseous fuel obtained from the decomposition of organic waste like
dead plant and animal material or animal dung and kitchen waste.
Agriculture Class 8 Notes Chapter 4
Activities which are related to earning livelihood are called economic activities. There are
three types of economic activities:
• Primary Activities
• Secondary Activities
• Tertiary Activities.
Agriculture is a primary activity. Nearly 2/3rd of India’s population is engaged in

agricultural activities. Growing of crops, raising livestock, forestry and fishing all come
under agricultural activities.
There are mainly two types of farming techniques:
• Subsistence Farming
• Commercial Farming.
When a farmer tills the land till the soil loses its fertility and then shifts to another fertile
land, then this type of farming is known as shifting cultivation.
The efforts made to increase farm production in order to meet the growing demands of the
increasing population is known as agricultural development. It varies in developed and
developing countries.
We divide economic activities into three categories: primary, secondary and tertiary.
Agriculture, an activity that is related directly to the extraction and production of natural
resources, is a primary activity. Manufacturing of steel and baking of bread are secondary
activities since they are not directly related to the extraction or production of natural
resources, but their utilisation. Transport and trade are tertiary activities since they do not
come in either category.
Two-thirds of India’s population depends on agriculture.
Some of the important inputs required in agriculture are seeds, fertilisers, machinery and
labour. Operations involved are ploughing, sowing, irrigation, weeding and harvesting.
Outputs include cops, wool, dairy and poultry products.
Two main types of farming practised are subsistence farming and commercial farming.
Subsistence farming is practised solely to meet the needs of the farmer’s family.
Therefore, the practices involved are usually old-fashioned. Use of modern technology is
minimum and most work is done by household labour.
In Intensive subsistence agriculture, simple tools and huge labour are used by a farmer to
cultivate a small plot of land. More than one crop is grown annually in favourable
conditions. Rioe is the major crop. This form of agriculture is seen in the thickly populated
areas of the monsoon regions of south, south-east and east Asia.
Shifting cultivation is a class of primitive subsistence agriculture. In this, a plot of land is

cleared by felling the trees and burning them. The ashes are then mixed with soil and
crops are grown. After some time, the land is abandoned and the farmers move to a
different place. This type of farming is common in the thickly forested areas of the Amazon
basin, tropical Africa, parts of South-east Asia and north-east India. It’ is also called “slash
and burn” agriculture.
Nomadic herding refers to the practice in which herdsmen move from place to place with
their animals for fodder and water. Animals usually reared are the yak, sheep, camel and
goats.
Commercial farming is the practice in which crops are grown exclusively for commercial
purpose, i.e. for sale in the market. A large area is cultivated and huge capital is involved
unlike subsistence farming. Machines are used to a large extent.
Commercial grain farming is a class of commercial farming. Crops like wheat and maize
are grown for commercial purpose. The temperate grasslands of North America, Europe
and Asia are some common areas where it is seen.
Mixed farming is another type of commercial farming. The land is used for growing food
and fodder crops and rearing livestock. Some areas where it is followed are Europe,
eastern USA, Argentina, south-east Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.
Plantations are a type of commercial farming where only a single crop (like tea, coffee,
sugarcane, cashew, rubber, banana or cotton) is grown. Large amount of labour and
capital are required. The produce is processed in the farm itself or nearby factories.
Rice is the major food crop of the world. It is the staple diet in tropical and sub-tropical
parts. Its cultivation needs high temperature, humidity and rainfall. China and India are the
largest producers of rice in the world.
Wheat thrives best in well-drained loamy soil. In addition, it needs moderate temperature
and rainfall during growing season and bright sunshine at harvesting. USA is a major
producer.
Millets are coarse grains. Jowar, bajra and ragi are major millets grown in India.
Maize requires moderate temperature, rainfall, good sunshine and well-drained fertile
soils.
Cotton grows best on black and alluvial soils. It needs high temperature, light rainfall, 210
frost free days and bright sunshine.
Jute (called the Golden Fibre) is grown in tropical areas. India and Bangladesh are leading
producers.
Coffee grows well on hill slopes. Brazil is the leading producer.
Tea is a beverage crop grow on plantations. It needs well-drained loamy soils ad gentle
slopes. Large labour is required.
Agricultural development refers to the effort to increase farm production so as to meet

growing demand of increasing population. Mechanisation, a part of agricultural
development, means using more machines than human labour.
A typical Indian farm is about 1.5 hectares in area, whereas a typical USA farm is about
250 hectares.
In the USA, farmers use very modern methods for agriculture. In India, however, obsolete
methods are used in most parts. Mechanisation is not seen much in India as compared to
USA.
A farmer in India generally works as a “peasant” whereas in the USA, he works as a

complete businessman.
Flow Learning:
Primary Activities: Activities which involve direct extraction and production of natural
resources are called primary activities: For example agricultural farming, sericulture,
pisciculture, etc.
Secondary Activities: Activities which are concerned with the processing of natural
resources are called secondary activities.
Tertiary Activities: Activities which fall neither in the primary category nor the secondary
category are called tertiary activities. They do not use natural resources directly.
Agriculture: Agriculture is the primary activity that involves cultivation of crops, fruits,
vegetables, flowers and rearing of livestock.
Subsistence Farming: Subsistence farming is the form of agriculture practised solely to

meet the needs of the farmer’s family: The practices involved are usually old- fashioned.
Intensive Subsistence Agriculture: In intensive, subsistence agriculture, simple tools

and huge labour are used by a farmer to cultivate a small plot of land.
Shifting Cultivation: Shifting cultivation is the form of agriculture in which a plot of land is
cleared by felling the trees and burning them. The ashes are then mixed with soil and
crops are grown. After some time, the land is abandoned and the farmers move to a
different place.
Nomadic Herding: Nomadic herding refers to the practice in which herdsmen move from
place to place with their animals for fodder and water.
Commercial Farming: Commercial farming is the practice in which crops are grown
exclusively for commercial purpose, i.e. for sale in the market.
Commercial Grain Farming: It is a class of commercial farming in which crops like wheat
and maize are grown for commercial purpose.
Mixed Farming: It is a type of commercial farming in which land is used for growing food
and fodder crops and rearing livestock.
Plantations: These are a type of commercial farming where only a single crop (like tea,
coffee, sugarcane, cashew, rubber, banana or cotton) is grown.
Food Crops: Crops like rice, wheat, maize, millets are called food crops.
Fiber Crops: Crops like jute and cotton are called fibre crops. Their usage is not as food.
Beverage Crops: Tea and coffee are called beverage crops.
Agricultural Development: Agricultural development refers to the effort to increase farm

production so as to m
Industries Class 8 Notes Chapter 5
The industry refers to that economic activity which is concerned with converting the raw
material or semi¬finished goods into finished goods.
Industries are classified:
• On the basis of raw material: Agro-based industries, Mineral-based industries,

Marine-based industries, Forest-based industries.
• On the basis of size: Small scale industries and Large scale industries.
• On the basis of ownership: Private sector industries, public sector industries and
joint sector industries.
Availability of raw material, land, water, labour, power, capital, transport, market and
government policies are the important factors that affect the location of industries.
Iron & Steel Industries, Textile Industries and Information Technology Industry are the
world’s major industries.
The product of Iron & Steel Industry is the raw material for the other industries. So, it is
also called the feeder industry. Steel is often called as the backbone of modern industry.
The Information Technology Industry deals in the storage, processing and distribution of
information.
Secondary activities are those that involve processing of natural resources. Manufacturing
is a secondary activity. Manufacturing refers to changing raw materials to a product, i.e. to
a usable form, which can be more valuable to people.
Industry refers to an economic activity that is concerned with production of goods,

extraction of minerals or provision of services.
We classify industries on the basis of raw materials, size and ownership.
On basis of raw materials, industries are agro-based, mineral-based, marine-based or

forest-based.
The raw material of agro-based industries consists of plant and animal-based products.
Some examples are food processing, cotton textile industry and leather industry.
The raw material used in mineral-based industries consists of mineral ores. The products
of mineral-based industries are used in other industries as well. We can understand it
better with an example: heavy machinery made of iron, which is used in most industries,
actually comes after processing of iron ore in a mineral-based industry.
Marine-based industries use products obtained from the sea and oceans as raw materials.
The seafood industry is one such industry.
A forest-based industry uses forest produce as raw material. Examples are paper industry
and furniture.
Based on size, industries can be classified into small-scale and large-scale industries.
Cottage or household industries are .examples of small-scale industries. The products
here are manufactured by hands, with less use of capital and technology. Investment of
capital and use of technology is huge in large-scale industries.
On the basis of ownership, industries are classified into the private sector, state-owned
(public sector), joint sector and cooperative sector. Private sector industries are owned by
individuals or a group of individuals. Public sector industries are owned by the
government. Joint sector industries are owned and operated by the state and individuals.
Maruti Udyog is an example of such an industry. Cooperative sector industries are owned
and operated by the producers or suppliers of raw materials, workers or both. AMUL is
one such industry.
The location of industries is affected by the availability of raw material, land, water, labour,
power, capital, transport and market.
An industrial system, like farming process, consists of inputs, processes and outputs. Raw
materials, labour and cost of land, transport, power and other infrastructure constitute the
inputs. Processes include all activities involved in converting the raw material to finished
products. The finish products along with the income earned by its trade are outputs. .
Major industrial regions of the world are eastern North America, western and central
Europe, eastern Europe and eastern Asia. Such areas are usually located in temperate
areas, near seaports and coal fields.
The iron and steel industry is a mineral-based industry whose products are used as raw
material for other industries.
Inputs in iron and steel industry: iron ore, coal, limestone, human labour, capital, and
infrastructure. Processes involved: smelting, refining. Outputs obtained: steel.
Steel is called the backbone of modern industry. Most common objects are made of steel.
In India, most important steel-producing centres are spread over the states of West
Bengal, Jharkhand, Orissa and Chhattisgarh.
Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited (TISCO) was the only one iron and steel plant in
India till independence. It is located in Jamshedpur. Several iron and steel industries were
set up after independence. This led to rapid industrial development in India.
Pittsburgh is an important steel city of USA.
The cotton textile industry is one of the oldest industries in the world. India is renowned for
producing excellent quality cotton. The first mechanised textile mill in India was
established in Mumbai in 1854. Rapid expansion of the industry took place owing to the
warm, moist climate, the presence of a port nearby, and availability of raw material and
labour at cheap cost.
Ahmedabad is the second largest textile city in India after Mumbai. It is referred to as the
“Manchester of India”. In recent years textile mills here have started getting closed down
due to several problems.
Osaka is the “Manchester of Japan”.
The Information Technology (IT) sector deals in the storage, processing and distribution of
information. The major hubs of IT industry are Silicon Valley in USA and Bangalore in
India.
Flow Learning:
Manufacturing: Manufacturing refers to changing raw materials to a usable form, which

can be more valuable to people.
Product: A product is something obtained from raw materials by certain processes so that
it is something usable and of importance.
Industry: Industry refers to economic activity that is concerned with the production of
goods, extraction of minerals or provision of services.
Agro-based Industries: These are industries that use plant and animal-based products
as raw material.
Mineral-based Industries: These are industries that use mineral ores as their raw
material.
Marine-based Industries: These are industries that use sea and ocean products as their
raw material.
Forest-based Industries: These are industries that use forest produce as raw material.
Small-Scale Industries: These are industries that run on little capital and infrastructure.
Large-Scale industries: These are industries that run on a large amount of capital and
have a big infrastructure.
Private-Sector Industries: These are industries owned and run by an individual or group
of individuals.
Public-Sector Industries: These are industries owned and run by the government.
Joint-Sector Industries: These are industries owned and run by the state as well as
individuals.
Cooperative Sector Industries: These are industries owned and operated by producers
or suppliers of raw materials.
Smelting: Smelting is the process of extracting the minerals from their ores by heating
beyond their melting point.
Refining: Refining is the process of yielding the highest possible purity of metal obtained
from mineral.
Steel: Steel is an alloy of iron obtained from the iron ore.
Information Technology Industry: The IT industry deals in the storage, processing and
distribution of information.
eet the growing demand of the increasing population.
Human Resource Class 8 Notes Chapter 6
People are a nation’s greatest resource. It is their ability and knowledge which turns them
into the resource.
The way in which people are spread across the earth’s surface is known as a pattern of
population distribution.
Nearly 90 percent of the world’s population lives in about 10% of the land surface.
High altitude areas, tropical deserts, high mountains and areas of equatorial forests are
sparsely populated. Whereas South and Southeast Asia, Europe and northeastern North
America are densely populated.
The number of people living in a unit area of the earth’s surface is called density of
population.
Topography, climate, soil, water, minerals, social, cultural and economic conditions are
the important factors that affect the distribution of the population.
Change in the number of people during a specific time is known as population change.
The important causes of population change are birth rate, death rate, and migration.
The difference between the birth rate and death rate is known as the growth rate of the
population.
Rate of population growth varies across the world.
Population composition refers to the structure of the population. From population

composition, we mean the number of males and females, age group they belong to,
education level, occupational distribution, income level, social status, etc.
A population pyramid, also called the age and sex pyramid, helps us to understand the
composition of population in any country.
Human beings are the most important resource of a nation. They are significant because
had they not utilised their brains, the other resources of nature would not have found any
utility. In other words, human resource is the ultimate resource.
The way in which people are spread across the earth’s surface is known as the pattern of
population distribution. Some areas are very crowded (high density) while some are less
crowded (low density). Population density depends on the climate conditions and
topography of the place, like few people live in high latitude areas, tropical deserts,
mountainous terrains, and forest areas, whereas a large number of people reside in
plains.
The density of population is defined as the average number of people living in a unit area
of the earth’s surface. The density of a particular region is calculated by dividing the
population of the region by its area.
Topography, favourable climate, fertility of soils, availability of fresh water, minerals are
major geographical factors affecting population density of a region. People prefer to live
on plains more than mountains or plateaus and they live more in moderate climates than
extreme hot or cold. From the agriculture point of view, fertile lands are preferred. Areas
with mineral deposits are more populated.
Some social factors that boost the density of population in a region are better housing,
education and health facilities.
Places with cultural or historical significance are usually populated.
Employment opportunities are another attraction for large chunks of population.
The term population change refers to change in the population with respect to time. The
population of the world is never stable; the number of births and deaths affect its change.
With better health facilities due to development in medical science, now the number of
deaths is lower than before.
Birth rate is a statistic that measures the number of live births per 1000 people. Death rate
is a statistic that measures the number of deaths per 1000 people.
When we talk of the population of a particular region, country or continent, and not the
whole world, then along with birth and death rate, another factor affecting population
change is migration. Migration refers to the movement of people from one area to another.
Since births and deaths are natural causes of population change, the difference between
the birth and death rate is called the natural death rate.
People leaving a country are called emigrants and the phenomenon is called emigration.
People arriving in a country’are called immigrants and the phenomenon is called
immigration. People usually migrate from less developed areas to more developed ones,
in search for better employment opportunities, among other facilities.
The pattern of population change is different for different parts of the world.
The structure of the population with various respects Age like age, sex, literacy,
occupations, health facilities, 75+ economic condition, etc is called population
composition.
A population pyramid is a pictorial way to describe 55-59 the population composition. An

age-sex pyramid of India is shown in the figure.
The shape of population pyramid of a country is indicative of a lot of information about the
country.
The size towards the bottom may be used to 20-24 estimate the birth rate, while the size
towards the top to estimate the death rate.
The youngsters (ages 0-15) and senior citizens (aged 65 above) are said to fall under the
“dependent” group.
They are considered to be economically inactive; they depend on the working class for
their living. The middle age group constitutes the working class.
A population pyramid in which the base is broad and the top part is narrow means that
although a large amount of births take place, not all grow up to be adults and old; it means
many die before reaching these ages. This indicates a large death rate and Kenya shows
such a pyramid. This means a high population growth rate.
In countries like India, the death rate is decreasing, so the pyramid is broad in the younger
age groups, and the size of the pyramid decreases steadily.
Floe learning:
Human Resources: Human beings who are healthy, educated, and mentally strong can
prove to be useful for a country or community and are treated as resources themselves,
called human resources.
Population: The total number of people living in a particular region is said to be the
population of that particular region.
The pattern of Population Distribution: The way in which people are spread across the
earth’s surface is known as the pattern of population distribution.
Population Density: The average number of people living in a unit area of a particular
region, calculated by dividing the total population of the region by the total area of that
region, is called the population density of that region.
Population Change: The change in the population, when described over a certain length
of time, is called population change.
Birth Rate: Birth rate is a statistic that measures the number of live births per 1000
people.
Death Rate: Death rate is a statistic that measures the number of deaths per 1000
people.
Life Expectancy: Life expectancy is the number of years that an average person can
expect to live, calculated according to existing data for the particular region.
Migration: Migration refers to the movement of people from one area to another.
Natural Death Rate: The difference between the birth and death rate is called a natural
death rate.
Emigrants/Emigration: People leaving a country are called emigrants and the

phenomenon is called emigration.
Immigrants/Immigration: People arriving in a country are called immigrants and the

phenomenon is called immigration.
Population Composition: The structure of the population with various respects like age,
sex, literacy, occupations, health facilities, economic condition, etc is called population
composition.
Population Pyramid: A population pyramid is a pictorial way to describe the population

composition.
Mechanization: This refers to the process of using machines more than human labor.
India Size and Location Class 9 Notes Chapter 1
The following topics from this chapter are being highlighted the most in the previous 3
year’s examinations and thereby hold significant importance.
An important point is that only factual questions have been asked from this chapter (Very
Short Answer Type).
For example, the latitudinal and longitudinal extension of India, neighbouring countries of
India etc.
• Location of India
• Size of India
• India and the World
• Neighbours of India.
Location
India lies entirely in the Northern Hemisphere.
India’s mainland extends between 8°4’N and 37°6’N latitudes, and 68°7’E and 97°25’E
longitudes.
The Tropic of Cancer (23°30’N) divides India into two almost equal parts.
The northernmost point of India which is under Indian administration is near Indira Col,
Siachen Glacier.
The southernmost point in India is Indira Point on Nicobar Island.
Size
Covering an area of 3.28 million square kilometres, India’s total area is 2.4% of the total
geographical area of the world.
India is the world’s seventh largest country with a land boundary of about 15,200 km, with
total length of the coastline being 7,516.6 km.
India’s East-West extent appears to be smaller than the north-south extent.
India and The World
The Indian landmass is centrally located between West and East Asia.
India’s protruding Deccan Peninsula helped India to establish close contacts with West
Asia, Africa and Europe, South-East and East Asia.
India’s contacts with the world via land routes are much more than Its maritime contacts.
India has contributed a lot to the world in forms of ideas, philosophies (Upanishads,
Ramayana, Panchtantra) and in mathematics (Indian numerals and decimal system,
algebra, trigonometry and calculus).
In exchange, India’s architecture was influenced by Greek sculpture and architectural

styles from West Asia.
India’s Neighbours
India has an important position in South Asia and has 29 States and 7 Union Territories.
India shares its boundaries with Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal, Bangladesh,
Myanmar and Bhutan.
The southern neighbours across the sea consist of the two island countries, namely
Maldives and Sri Lanka.
India stands apart from the rest of Asia and is called a sub-continent.
Physical Features of India Class 9 Notes Chapter 2
Since the previous 3 years’ examinations, the factual questions (Very Short Answer Type)
have been asking relevant to various physical divisions of India consisting of the following
topics :
• Location
• The Himalayan Mountains
• The Northern Plains
• The Peninsular Plateau
• The Indian Desert
• The Coastal Plains
• The Islands.
Location
India has all major physical features of the Earth, i.e., mountains, plains, deserts,
plateaus, and islands.
In India, the soil colour varies from place to place as it is formed from different types of
rocks.
India has varied physical features whose formation can be explained on the basis of the
‘Theory of Plate Tectonics’.
According to the theory of Plate Tectonics, the seven major and minor plates that form the
Earth’s crust keep moving, causing stress and thus leading to folding, faulting and
volcanic activity.
The physical features of India can be grouped under the following physiographic divisions:
• The Himalayan Mountains or the Northern Mountains

• The Northern Plains or the Indo-Gangetic Plains
• The Great Indian Desert
• The Islands
The Himalayan Mountains
The Himalayas are young-fold mountains which are the loftiest and one of the most
rugged mountain barriers of the world.
The Himalayas are 2400 km long, 400 km to 150 km wide from Kashmir to Arunachal
Pradesh respectively.
The Himalayas have three parallel ranges in the longitudinal extent namely :
• Great or Inner Himalayas also called Himadri.

• Middle Himalayas or Himachal.
• Outer Himalayas or Shiwaliks.
The Himalayas can be divided into four sections :
• Punjab Himalayas – between Indus and Satluj.

• Kumaon Himalayas – between Satluj and Kali.
• Nepal Himalayas – between Kali and the Tista.
• Assam Himalayas (Eastern Himalayas) – Between Tista and the Dibang
(Tsangpo).
The Northern Plains
The Northern Plains spread over an area of 7 lakh sq. km, 240 km long and 240 km to 320
km broad.
The rivers that flow to the plains from the mountains are involved in depositional work.
The difference in relief causes the Northern Plains to have four regions.
• Bhabar – Adjacent to the foothills of Shiwaliks, a narrow 8 to 16 km wide belt of

pebbles and boulders.
• Bangar – Older alluvial plain which rises above the level of the flood plains.
• Khadar – Newer and younger alluvial of the flood plains deposited by the rivers
flowing down the plain.
• Tarai – Lies adjacent to Bhabar region, composed of newer alluvium and is thickly
forested.
The Peninsular Plateau
The Peninsular Plateau is the tableland formed due to the breaking and drifting of the
Gondwanaland.
The plateau consists of two broad divisions, namely, the Central Highlands and the
Deccan Plateau.
The eastward extensions of Peninsular Plateau are locally known as Bundelkhand and
Baghelkhand. The Chhota Nagpur Plateau marks the further eastward extension drained
by the Damodar river.
The Deccan Plateau, a triangular mass, lies to the south of the river Narmada.
The western and eastern edges of the Deccan Plateau are marked by the Western Ghats
and the Eastern Ghats respectively.
The Western Ghats are higher than the Eastern Ghats.
The Malwa Plateau is spread across Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat and slopes
towards the
north.
A distinct feature of the peninsular plateau is the black soil area known as Deccan Trap.
The Indian Desert
The undulating sandy plain covered with sand dunes towards the western margins of the
Aravalli Hills is the Indian Desert.
Crescent-shaped dunes called barchans cover large parts of the Indian Desert.
Luni is the only large river that flouts in this region.
The Coastal Plains
The narrow’ coastal strips flank the Peninsular Plateau.
On the west, the coastal strips are divided into Konkan (Mumbai-Goa), Kannada Plain and
the Malabar Coast from northern to the southern part.
On the east the coastal strip is divided into Northern Circar and the Coromandel Coast
from northern to southern part.
The Islands
The Lakshadweep Islands group in the Arabian Sea is close to Kerala.
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are the two island groups. Andaman Island consists of
204 small islands. India’s only active volcano, Barren Island is situated here.
Drainage Class 9 Notes Chapter 3
In the previous 3 years’ examinations, significant importance has been given to the
following topics from this chapter.
• Drainage Patterns
• Various River Basin System
• Pollution of Rivers.
Drainage’ is a term signifying the river system of an area.
A drainage basin or river basin is an area which is drained by a single river system.
An upland that separates two drainage systems that are next to each other is called a
water divide.
On the basis of origin, there are two river systems of India — The Himalayan rivers and
the Peninsular rivers.
Himalayan rivers are rainfed and snowfed, so they have w?ater in them throughout the
year, i.e., they are perennial and thus navigable.
Himalayan rivers create meanders, oxbow lakes and other depositional features on their
course.
Peninsular rivers are seasonal; mostly depending on rainfall and thus non-navigable.
Most of the rivers of peninsular India originate in the Western Ghats and flow’ towards the
Bay of Bengal.
The Himalayan Rivers
A river along with its tributaries may be called a river system.
The major Himalayan rivers are the Indus, the Ganga, and the Brahmaputra.
The Indus River System
Rising near Lake Mansarovar in Tibet, the Indus enters India in the Ladakh district of
Jammu and Kashmir.
Rivers Satluj, Beas, Ravi, Chenab and Jhelum join Indus near Mithankot, Pakistan and
flow southwards to fall into the Arabian Sea, east of Karachi.
With a total length of 2,900 km, the Indus is one of the longest rivers of the world.
The Ganga River System
The headwaters of the Ganga are called ‘Bhagirathi’.
Bhagirathi is fed by the Gangotri Glacier and joined by the Alaknanda at Devprayag.
Ganga meets the tributaries from the Himalayas such as Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi and the
Yamuna.
A major river Yamuna, arising from Yamunotri Glader in the Himalayas, joins Ganga at
Allahabad.
Other tributaries — Chambal, Betwa and Son — come from Peninsular uplands to join
Ganga.
Ganga is joined by the Brahmaputra and flows through Bangladesh to reach the Bay of
Bengal.
The delta formed when the Ganga and the Brahmaputra flow into the Bay of Bengal is
known as the Sunderban Delta.
The length of the Ganga is over 2,500 km and it develops large meanders.
The Brahmaputra River System
Originating in Tibet, very close to the sources of Indus and Satluj, Brahmaputra enters
India in Arunachal Pradesh and flows to Assam, joined by many tributaries.
The tributaries that join the Brahmaputra are Dibang, Lohit, and Kenula.
The Brahmaputra has a braided channel in its entire length in Assam to form many
riverine islands.
Unlike other north Indian rivers, the Brahmaputra is marked by huge deposits of silt on its
bed, causing the riverbed to rise.
The Peninsular Rivers
The major rivers of the peninsula—Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri—flow

eastwards to drain into the Bay of Bengal.
The Thai and Narmada are the only rivers which flow west to make estuaries and drain
into the Arabian Sea.
The drainage basins of the peninsular rivers are comparatively small in size.
The Godavari Basin
The Godavari begins in Nasik district of Maharashtra. It is the largest peninsular river.
Its large basin covers most parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Andhra
Pradesh.
The tributaries which join the Godavari include Purna, Wardha, Pranhita, Manjra,
Wainganga and Penganga.
Because of its length and the area, it covers, the Godavari is also known as the Dakshin
Ganga.
The Godavari drains into the Bay of Bengal.
The Mahanadi Basin
The Mahanadi, a 860 km long river, rises in Chhattisgarh to flow through Orissa to reach
the Bay of Bengal.
Principal tributaries of Mahanadi river are Sheonath, Jonk, Hasdeo, Mand, lb, Ong and
Tel.
Mahanadi river basin is shared by Maharashtra, Orissa, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh.
Is is one of the major east flowing peninsular rivers draining into Bay of Bengal.
The Krishna Basin
The 1,400 km long Krishna river rises from a spring in the Mahadev range near
Mahabaleshwar and falls into the Bay of Bengal.
The tributaries of Krishna include Bhima, Musi, Ghatprabha, Koyana and Tungabhadra.
The Krishna basin is shared by Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
The Narmada Basin
Rising in the Amarkantak Plateau of Maikala Range, Narmada flows to create a gorge in
marble rocks of Madhya Pradesh.
Narmada flows towards the west in a rift valley formed due to faulting. •
Narmada river has 41 tributaries. The important ones are: Barna, Ganjal, Chhota Tawa,
Hiran, Janatara, Kolar, Orsang, Sher.
The Tapi Basin
Originating in Betul, Madhya Pradesh, the Tapi flows through a basin that covers Madhya
Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
The main west flowing rivers are Sabarmati, Mahi, Bharatpuzha and Periyar.
The entire Tapi basin can be divided into three sub-basins: upper, middle and lower and
into two well- defined physical regions, viz, the hilly regions and the plains or Tapi Basin.
The Kaveri Basin
Originating in the Brahmagiri range of the Western Ghats, the Kaveri reaches the Bay of
Bengal at Kaveripatnam, sharing its basin with Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and
Puducherry or Pondicherry.
The main soil types found in the basin are red and yellow soils.
Lakes
Most lakes are permanent while others contain water only during the rainy season.
Some lakes are the result of the glacial action and ice sheets and some may have been
formed by wind, river action and human activities.
A river meandering across a floodplain forms cut-offs that later develop into oxbow lakes.
Glacial lakes are formed when glaciers dig out a basin which is later filled with snowmelt.
Some lakes like Wular Lake in Jammu and Kashmir result from tectonic activity.
Apart from natural lakes, the damming of the rivers for the generation of hydel power has
also led to the formation of lakes.
Lakes help to regulate river water flow, prevent flooding, aid to develop hydel power,
moderate climate, maintain aquatic ecosystem, enhance natural beauty, develop tourism
and provide recreation.
Role of Rivers in the Economy
Rivers are a natural source of water. It forms the main backbone for agriculture.
Settlements on the river banks have developed into cities.
Rivers are used for irrigation, navigation, hydropower generation, all vital for India, and
agricultural economy.
River Pollution
Quality of river water is affected by the growing domestic, municipal, iftdustrial and
agricultural demand.
A heavy load of untreated sewage and industrial effluents are emptied into the river
affecting the river’s self-cleansing property.
Concern over rising pollution in our rivers led to the launching of various action plans to
clean the rivers like Narmada Bachao Movement.
Climate Class 9 Notes Chapter 4
The term climate is the sum total of.the weather conditions (including variations) over a
large area for a long period of time (more than thirty years).
The term weather refers to the state of the atmosphere at a place and time with reference
to the following elements
• Temperature Humidity
• Air pressure
• Cloudiness or sunshine
• Precipitation (Rainfall or snowfall)
• Wind
The weather conditions fluctuate very often within a day. Based on the generalised
fhonthly atmospheric conditions, the year is divided into seasons such as winter, summer
and rainy seasons. The world is divided into a number of climatic regions. In Asia, India
and other South and South-Eastern countries have monsoon type of climate.
The word monsoon is derived from the Arabic word ‘mausim’ which literally means
season. ‘Monsoon’ refers to the seasonal reversal in the wind direction during a year.
Regional Climatic Variation In India
Although there is an overall unity in the general climatic pattern in India, there are some
perceptible regional variations.
Temperature
The temperature in the winter in North-Western mountainous regions can go down to –
45° C (at Drass in Jammu and Kashmir), while it is 22°C in Thiruvananthapuram in Kerala.
Similarly, it can go up to 50°C in summer in some parts of Western Rajasthan and 20°C in
Shillong.
In many areas, there is a wide variation between day and night temperatures. In the Thar
Desert, the day temperature may rise up to 50°C and drop down to near 15°C the same
night. On the other hand, there is hardly any difference in day and night temperatures in
the Andaman and Nicobar islands or in Kerala.
Precipitation
There is a wide variation observed in its amount and seasonal distribution. Precipitation in
the form of snowfall occurs only in upper parts of Himalayas, the rest of the country
receives rainfall.
A typical example, the annual precipitation varies from over 400 cm in Meghalaya to less
than 10 cm in Ladakh and Western Rajasthan. Similarly, most parts of the country receive
rainfall from June to September, but the Tamil Nadu coast gets most of its rain during
October and November.
Coastal regions experience different weather conditions from the interior regions. For
example, temperature and seasonal contrast are relatively mild. The rainfall also
decreases from East to West. Such differences help to create a variety in lives of people—
the food they eat, the clothes they wear, the kind of houses they used for living and so on.
Climatic Controls
Permanent factors which govern the general nature of the climate of any location on the
earth are called factors of Climatic Controls.
The factors of climatic controls are m Latitude The angular distance of a location from the
equator in North-South direction is called latitude. Due to the curvature of the earth,
latitude changes the amount of solar energy received. As a result, air temperature
decreases from the equator towards the poles.
Altitude It refers to the height above mean sea level. With increase of height from the
earth surface, the temperature decreases and air becomes less dense. Therefore, hilly
regions are cooler in summer.
Pressure and Wind System It depends on the latitude and altitude of a place. Thus, it
influences the temperature and rainfall pattern of the area.
Continentality or Distance from the Sea The sea exerts a moderating influence on the
climate. As the distance from the sea increases, the weather conditions become more
extreme (high temperature and rainfall variation between seasons). .
Ocean Currents Along with onshore winds, the ocean currents (warm or cold) affect the
climate of coastal areas. For example, cold onshore currents bring coolness in coastal
areas.
Relief Features High mountains stop cold or hot winds from reaching a location..It can
also cause rain or snow if the place is on the windward side of the mountains. The
leeward side of the mountains are.
Factors Affecting India’s Climatic
Latitude
The Tropic of Cancer (23°3 CV N) divides the country into the tropical zone (South of this
line) and the sub-tropical zone (North of this line). The line runs from the.Rann of Kuchchh
(West) to Mizoram (East). All the remaining area, North of Tropic, lies in sub-tropics. So,
India’s climate has characteristics of tropical as well as sub-tropical climates.
Altitude
Mountains- in the North of India have an average elevation of about 6000 m, whereas on
the coastal areas as well as islands, maximum elevation is about 30 m.
The Indian sub-continent experiences milder winters as compared to Central Asia

because of the Himalayas which prevent the cold winds from entering the sub-continent.
Pressure and Winds

The following atmospheric conditions govern the climate and associated weather
conditions in India
• Pressure and surface winds

• Upper air circulation
• Western cyclonic disturbances and tropical cyclones
Pressure and Surface Winds

India lies in the region of North-Easterly surface winds. These winds originate during
winter from the sub-tropical high-pressure belt of the Northern hemisphere.
These winds blow South, get deflected to the right due to the Coriolis force and move
towards the equatorial-low pressure region. These winds originate and blow over land and
hence, carry very little moisture. Therefore, they bring no rain or very little rain. The unique
feature of Indian pressure and wind conditions is its complete reversal. During winter,
high-pressure areas develop over the areas North of Himalayas. This causes cold dry
winds blow from the area towards low-pressure area over the oceans to the South.
In summer, due to high temperature, low-pressure area develops over interior Asia and
over North-Western India. Air from high-pressure areas blow towards this region resulting
in complete reversal of wind direction.
As these winds from high pressure area of Southern Indian ocean crosses the equator
and turns right towards low pressure areas of Indian sub-continent. These winds gather
large moisture while moving over the warm ocean and bring widespread rainfall over the
mainland of India. These winds are known as the South-West Monsoon winds.
Upper Air Circulation and Western Cyclonic Disturbances

The upper air circulation of the region (Indian subcontinent) is dominated by a westerly
flow which is governed by Jet stream. Due to their location over 27°-30° N latitude, these
jet streams are known as sub-tropical westerly jet streams. They blow South of the
Himalayas, throughout the year except in summer.
Western Cyclonic Disturbances and Tropical Cyclones

The Western cyclonic disturbances are weather phenomena of the winter months brought
in by the westerly flow from the Mediterranean region. They usually influence the weather
of the North and North-Western regions of India. Tropical cyclones occur during the
monsoon as well as in October-November and are part of the easterly flow. These
disturbances affect ti e coastal regions of the country.
The westerly flow brings the Western cyclonic disturbances in the North and North-
Western India. In summer, the sub-tropical westerly jet stream moves North of the
Himalayas due to apparent shifting of the sun. An easterly jet stream, called sub-tropical
easterly jet stream, blows over peninsular India approximately over 14° N during the
summer months.
Coriolis force An apparent force that as a result of the Earth’s rotation, deflects moving
objects like air currents to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the
Southern hemisphere. This is known as Ferrel’s law. This law states that a wind in any
direction tends to deflect towards right (West to East) in the Northern Hemisphere and to
the left in the Southern Hemisphere with a force that is directly proportional to the mass of
the wind in question, its velocity, the sine of the latitude and the angular velocity of the
Earth’s rotation.
Jet stream These are a narrow belt of high altitude (above 12,000 m) westerly winds’in the
troposphere. Their speed varies from about 110 km/h in summer to about 184 km/h in
winter. A number of separate jet streams have been identified. The most constant are the
mid-latitude and the subtropical jet stream.
The Indian Monsoon

Monsoon winds strongly influence climate of India. The monsoons are experienced in the
tropical area roughly between 20° N and 20° S.
Mechanism of Monsoon
The following facts are important to understand the mechanism of the monsoons
The differential heating and cooling of land and water creates low pressure on the
landmass of India while the seas around experience comparatively high pressure-
The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in summer season shifts its position over the
Ganga plain. This is the equatorial trough normally positioned about 5°N of the equator. It
is also known as the ‘monsoon trough’ during the monsoon season.
The presence of the high-pressure area, East of Madagascar (approximately 20°S over
the Indian Ocean). The intensity and position of this high-pressure area affect the Indian
monsoon.
The Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated during summer, which results in strong vertical
air currents and the formation of low pressure over the plateau at about 9 km above sea
level.
The movement of the westerly jet stream to the North of the Himalayas and the presence
of the tropical Easterly jet stream over the Indian peninsula during summer.
Apart from the given facts, it has been noticed that changes in the pressure conditions
over the Southern oceans also affect the monsoons. Normally, when the tropical Eastern
South Pacific Ocean experiences high pressure, the tropical Eastern Indian Ocean
experiences low pressure.
But in past a few years, there is a reversal in the pressure conditions and the Eastern
Pacific has lower pressure in comparison to the Eastern Indian Ocean. This periodic
change in pressure conditions is known as the Southern Oscillation (SO).
EL Nino Southern Oscillations (ENSO)
The difference in pressure over Tahiti (Pacific Ocean, 18°S/149°W) and Darwin in
Northern Australia (Indian Ocean, 12°30’S/131°E) is computed to predict the intensity of
the monsoons.
If the pressure differences were negative, it would mean below average and late
monsoons.
The EL Nino phenomenon is a feature connected with the Southern Oscillation. In this, a
warm ocean current flows past the Peruvian Coast, in place of the cold Peruvian current. It
occurs at the interval of 2 to 5 years.
The changes in pressure conditions are connected to the EL Nino. Hence, the
phenomenon is referred to as ENSO (EL Nino Southern Oscillations).
The Onset and Withdrawal of the Monsoon
The trade winds are steady but the monsoon winds are pulsating in nature. They are
affected by different atmospheric conditions encountered by it, on its way over the warm
tropical area. Starting from early June in the Southern part of the Indian peninsula, the
monsoon lasts between 100 and 120 days, withdrawing by mid-September.
Rainfall increases suddenly and continues for several days at the time of arrival of
monsoon. This phenomenon is called as Burst of monsoon. It is different from pre-
monsoon showers. Afterwards, it alternates with wet and dry spells.
Onset of Monsoon
Monsoon generally reaches the Southern tip of the peninsula during the first week of
June. After striking the Southern tip, it branches into two parts- the Arabian Sea branch
and the Bay of Bengal branch; both branches move rapidly.
The Arabian Sea branch advances North along the Western Ghats, reaching Mumbai by
about 10th of June and soon covers the Saurashtra-Kuchchh and central most part of the
Deccan Plateau also.
The Bay of Bengal branch reaches Assam in the first week of June and gets deflected
towards the West by the mountain ranges, thus giving rainfall to the Ganga plains.
Both the branches again merge over the North-Western part of the Ganga plains. Delhi
receives rainfall from Bay of Bengal branch by the end of June (tentative date is 29th
June) and by the first-week of July, monsoon covers Western Uttar Pradesh, Punjab,
Haryana and Eastern Rajasthan.
Withdrawal of Monsoon
Withdrawal or the retreat of the monsoon is a more gradual process. The process begins
by early September in North-Western states. By mid-October, it withdraws completely
from the Northern half of the peninsula.
The withdrawal from the Southern half of the peninsula is fairly rapid. By early December,
the » monsoon has withdrawn from the rest of the country.
Onset and Withdrawal of Monsoon in the Indian Islands

The islands receive the very first monsoon showers from the last week of April to the first
week of May. The withdrawal takes place progressively from North to South (in reverse
direction) from the first week of December to the first week of January. By this time, the
rest of the country is already under the influence of the winter monsoon.
Important Features of Monsoon
The important features of monsoon are as follows
• The monsoon is also known for its uncertainties.

• There is an alteration of dry and wet spells which vary in intensity, frequency and
duration.
• While it causes heavy floods in one part, it may be responsible for drought in other
parts.
• Its irregular arrival and retreat (sometimes due to the effect of EL Nino), causing
disruption .of farming schedules and causing droughts in certain areas of the
country.
The Seasons
The distinct, seasonal pattern is an important characteristic of monsoon type of climate.
The weather conditions in India greatly change from one season to another. These
changes are particularly noticeable in the interior parts of the country. The coastal areas
do not experience much variation in temperature though there is variation in rainfall
pattern. There are basically four seasons identified in India. These are
1. The Cold Weather Season (Winter)
The cold weather season begins from mid-November and stays till February in Northern
parts of India with December and January as the coldest months. The temperature
decreases from South to North.
For instance, the average temperature of Chennai, on the Eastern coast, is between 24°—
25°C while in Northern plains, it ranges between 10°—15°C. During this season, days are
warm and nights are cold. Frost occurs in the Northern plains and snow falls in the high
mountainous regions of Himalayas.
As the North-East trade winds blow during this period, most of the country remains dry as
they blow from land towards sea. The only rain occurs in Tamil Nadu and Southern
Andhra Pradesh due to these winds picking up moisture from the Bay of Bengal.
Features of Cold Weather Season

The characteristic features of cold weather season are
A feeble (weak) high pressure region develops in the Northern part of the country.
Influenced by the relief, the light winds moving outwards from this area blow through the
Ganga valley from the West and the North-West.
Clear sky, low temperature and humidity, and feeble, variable winds are the
characteristics of the weather during the period.
There is an inflow of cyclonic disturbances from the West and the North-West, which have
originated over the Mediterranean Sea and Western Asia. They cause winter rains over
the plains and snowfall in the mountains. This winter rainfall though in small amount is
locally known as Mahawat. It is useful for cultivation of the Rabi crops.
The peninsular region has moderating effect from sea and hence, it doesn’t have well
defined cold seasons. Also there is hardly any noticeable change in temperature pattern.
2. The Hot Weather Season(Summer)
The hot weather season starts with the apparent movement of the sun towards the North.
It leads to the Northward movement of global heat belt. The hot weather season starts in
March and lasts upto the end of May.
Features of Hot Weather Season

The characteristic features of hot weather season are
The temperature of the Northern part of India goes up and the atmospheric pressure
comes down.
The summer months experience rising temperature and falling air pressure. Towards the
end of May, an elongated low-pressure area develops in the region extending from Thar
Desert in North-West to Patna and Chotanagpur plateau in the East and South-East. This
results into beginning of air circulation around this trough.
A hot gusty and dry wind, locally known as Loo, blows . during this season over the North
and North-Western India and can cause even death if persons are exposed to it for a long
time.
Dust storms are very common in North India in the month of May. They bring temporary
relief from the heat by lowering the temperature and may also cause light rain and cold
breeze.
Localised thunderstorms also occur during summer, which may have high speed winds
and even precipitate hail. Such thunderstorms are called Kaal Baisakhi in West Bengal.
Near the end of summer, there may be pre-monsoon showers. These are called Mango
Showers in Kerala and Karnataka, as they help in the early ripening of the mango fruit.
Temperature Variation During Hot Weather

The influence of the shifting of heat belt can be seen from temperature recordings taken
during March to May at different latitudes. In March, the highest temperature is about
38°C, recorded in Deccan Plateau. Temperature in Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh is
around 42°C in the month of April. In May, North-Western parts of the country experience
temperature around 45°. Due to moderating influence of the oceans, temperature remains
lower in peninsular India.
3. Advancing Monsoon (The Rainy Season)
The low-pressure area over the Northern plains intensifies by mid-June and attracts the
trade winds. These trade winds originate over the warm tropical ocean in the Southern
hemisphere. After crossing equator, these blow in the South-West direction entering
peninsula as South-West monsoon. They cover the entire subcontinent except extreme
North-West in just over one month.
Maximum rainfall due to these winds occurs in North-Eastern India (mainly Meghalaya
and Assam) and the windward side of the Western Ghats (Thiruvananthapuram to
Mumbai) as these winds bring abundant moisture to the sub-continent at a velocity of 30
kmph.
Rainfall in the Western Ghats and Deccan Plateau

The monsoon winds cover the country in about a month. A total change in weather is
brought up in India by the inflow of the South-West monsoon in India. The windward side
of the Western Ghats receives very heavy rainfall, more than 250 cm in the early season.
Inspite lying in the rain shadow area, the Deccan Plateau and parts of Madhya Pradesh
also receive some amount of rainfall.
Areas of Maximum and Least Rainfall
The maximum rainfall of this season is received by the North-Eastern part of the country.
The highest average rainfall in the world falls at Mawsynram in the Southern ranges of the
Khasi hills in Meghalaya.
In the Northern plains precipitation decreases from East to West, with Western parts of
Rajasthan and Northern parts of Gujarat getting the least rainfall.
Features of Advancing Monsoon

Features of advancing monsoon are as follows
Wet and Dry Spells Monsoon in India does not bring continuous rainfall. It has wet and dry
spells i.e. ‘breaks’ in rainfall. These breaks in monsoon are related to the movement of
monsoon trough. The axis of the monsoon trough in the Northern plains keeps moving
North to South and back, causing periodic breaks in rainfall. Due to this, it has wet and dry
spells. The monsoon rains take place only for a few days at a time. They are interspersed
as rainless intervals.
Monsoon Trough The trough and its axis keep on moving Northward or Southward which
determines the spatial distribution of rainfall. When the axis of the trough lies over the
plains, the region gets good rainfall. With the Northward movement of axis, the Himalayan
region gets widespread rain which is the catchment area of various rivers. This causes
devastating floods in the plains causing heavy damage to life and property.
Tropical Depression Another phenomenon, which determines amount and Suration of the
monsoon, is the frequency and intensity of tropical depression which form at the head of
the Bay of Bengal and cross over to mainland. These depressions follow the axis of the
‘monsoon trough of low pressure’.
4. Retreating/Post Monsoon Season (The Transition Season)

The sun starts shifting towards the South during October-November. During this time, the
low pressure trough over the Northern plains weakens and is replaced gradually by a
high-pressure system. This is followed by the South-West monsoon winds.
By the beginning of October, the monsoon withdraws from the Northern plains. The
months of October-November form a transition period from hot rainy to dry winter
conditions.
Features of Retreating Monsoon

The characteristic features of retreating monsoon are
The period is marked by clear skies and rise in temperature.
The day temperatures are high but nights are cool and pleasant.
Due to the temperature still remaining high and humidity not reducing, the heat is
oppressive. This phenomenon is also called October heat.
Cyclonic Depression and Tropical Cyclone
By early November, cyclonic depressions originate over the Andaman Sea. It causes
tropical cyclones on the coastline from Bangladesh to Tamil Nadu as low-pressure
conditions get transferred to the Bay of Bengal.
These cyclones generally cross the Eastern coast of India causing heavy and widespread
rain. Often they cause a lot of destruction. Sometimes, these cyclones arrive at the coasts
of Odisha, West Bengal and Bangladesh.
These cyclones frequently strike the populated deltas of the Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri.
The Coromandel coast gets its monsoon rainfall mostly during October and November
from the cyclones and due to the retreating monsoon picking up moisture over the Bay of
Bengal.
Distribution Of Rainfall
Annually, parts of Western coast and North-Eastern India receive over about 400 cm of
rainfall. However, it is less than 60 cm in Western Rajasthan and adjoining parts of
Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab. Rainfall is equally low in the interior of the Deccan Plateau
and East of the Sahyadris. A third area of low precipitation is around Leh in Jammu and
Kashmir.
The rest of the country receives moderate rainfall. Snowfall, is restricted to the Himalayan
region. Owing to the nature of monsoons, the annual rainfall is highly variable from year to
year. Variability is high in the regions of low rainfall such as parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat
and the leeward side of the Western Ghats. Due to this, the areas of high rainfall are liable
to be affected by floods whereas, areas of low rainfall are drought-prone.
Monsoon as a Unifying Bond

Northern India has comparatively higher temperatures than other areas of the world at a
similar latitude due to the Himalayas protecting it from the cold Central Asian winds. The
peninsular plateau has moderate temperatures due to the influence of the sea on three
sides. The monsoon provides a great variation despite such moderating influences.
However, the monsoon unites the land like no other force, because it provides a rhythmic
cycle of seasons. The vegetation, animal life and agricultural activities are all revolving
around the effects of the monsoon.
The life of the people, their celebration of festivals and other activities all are geared to the
monsoon as India is still primarily an agricultural nation. The monsoon provides the water
to set agricultural activities in motion and hence, the arrival of the monsoon is awaited
eagerly. The river valleys which carry this water also unite as single river valley unit.
Summary
Climate is the sum total of the weather conditions and variations over a large area for a
long period of time, generally more than 30 years.
Weather is the state of the atmosphere over an area at any point of time.
Various elements of weather and climate are temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind,
humidity and precipitation.
India along with South and South-East Asia has monsoon type of climate.
The climate of any place is controlled by latitude, altitude, pressure and wind system,
distance from the sea, ocean currents and relief features.
High mountain by blocking the rain-bearing winds helps in causing rainfall in windward
side of mountain.
The atmospheric conditions which govern the climate and weather condition of India are-
pressure and surface winds, upper air circulation, western cyclonic disturbances and
tropical cyclone.
Coriolis force which is generated by the rotation of the earth is responsible for deflecting
winds towards the right in Northern hemisphere and towards the left in Southern
hemisphere.
South-West monsoon winds are South-East trade winds of Southern hemisphere which
after crossing equator, become South-Western trade winds (due to rightward deflection by
Coriolis force). As they blow over warm ocean, they cause rainfall in Indian sub-continent.
Jet streams are fast blowing winds moving in the upper atmosphere. They are located at
about 27°-30° North latitude.
Shallow cyclonic depressions originating over the Mediterranean sea are known as
Western disturbances. They cause winter rainfall in-North Western parts of India.
Monsoon is derived from Arabic word ‘Mausim’. It refers to the reasonal reversal in wind
direction throughout the year.
The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is a broad trough of low pressure in
equatorial latitude. In ITCZ, there is convergence of North-east and South-East trade
wind.
Southern Oscillation (SO) is the reversal of pressure conditions and vice-versa in
Southern Pacific ocean and Eastern Indian ocean.
ENSO is the combination of EL Nino and Southern Oscillation. The changes in pressure
conditions are connected to EL Nino, hence, the phenomenon is referred to as ENSO.
Monsoons are pubating in nature and are affected by different atmospheric conditions.
The Arabian sea branch of monsoon causes rainfall in Western Ghat, Mumbai, Gujarat
and central India.
The Bay of Bengal branch of monsoon causes rainfall in North-East India and Ganga
plain.
The sudden and continuous rain associated with violent thunder and lightning is called
Burst of monsoon. It occurs around the time of arrival of monsoon.
Arabian sea branch and Bay of Bengal branch are the two branches of South-West
monsoon in India.
EL Nino is a warm ocean current that flows past the Peruvian coast in place of cold
Peruvian current every 2 to 5 years. ’
Cold weather, hot weather, advancing monsoon and retreating monsoon are four-main
seasons in India.
The cold weather season is associated with clear sky, low temperature, low humidity and
feeble, variable wind.
Due to the moderating influence of sea, the peninsular region does not have a well
defined cold season.
Loo is hot and dry winds blowing during the day over the North and North-Western India in
the summer season.
Kaal Baisakhi is a pre-monsoon shower in West Bengal. This localised thunderstorm of

the summer season is associated with violent winds, torrential downpours and is often
accompanied by hail.
World’s highest rainfall occurs in Mawsynram. It is located in Southern range of Khasi hills
in Meghalaya.
Monsoon occurs in dry and wet spells. The rainless intervals interspersing the monsoon
rain is called ‘Breaks in monsoon.’
The monsoon trough is the intense and elongated low-pressure area, which develops over
North-Western India. It extends from the Thar Desert in West to Chota Nagpur plateau in
East.
The pre-monsoon shower in coastal Karnataka and Kerala is called Mango shower. It
helps in early ripening of Mangoes.
The hot and humid condition which makes the weather oppressive is called October heat.
It occurs towards the end of retreating monsoon in the month of October.
With a rhythmic cycle of seasons, in which people celebrate many festivals and do other
activities, the monsoon unites the Indian sub-continent and acts as a unifying bond.
Natural Vegetation and Wild Life Class 9 Notes Chapter 5
India is one of the twelve mega bio-diversity countries of the world. They are a group of
countries that have the majority of the Earth’s species and therefore, considered
extremely bio-diverse.
Being a vast country, India having 47,000 plant species (out of which 15,000 are flowering
plants, i.e. 6 per cent in the world), occupies 10th position worldwide and 4th in Asia. Non-
flowering plants such as ferns, algae and fungi also grow here. It also has around 90,000
species of animals (including marine and water fishes) and insects.
Natural Vegetation
Natural or virgin vegetation means the plant community which has grown naturally without
any human intervention for a long time. That natural vegetation, which are left undisturbed
over a long period of time are called virgin vegetation.
Virgin vegetation are of two types
• Endemic species Those plant species which originated from the country, are termed
as endemic species.
• Exotic species Those plant species which originated outside the country are termed
as exotic species.
Factors Affecting Diversity

Factors which influence the variety of flora and fauna include Relief (land and soil),
Climate (temperature, photoperiod and precipitation) and the Ecosystem. These are as
follows
Relief
It includes land and soil.
Land
It affects the natural vegetation both directly and indirectly. The nature of the land i.e.
whether it is plain, hilly or a plateau, determines the kind of vegetation which will grow in it.
Fertile lands are used for growing crops, vegetables and fruits.
Undulating (Wavy) and rough surfaces generally develop either into grasslands or
woodlands (forests). Different types of land accordingly sustain and provide shelter to
different kinds of wildlife.
Soil
The soils also vary place to place. Different kinds of soils provide different kinds of
vegetation. For example, alluvial or deltaic soil of a river delta near the sea will sustain
mangrove forests while slopes of hills have conical trees. The sandy soils of desert
sustain thorny bushes.
Note Animals and birds also inhabit locations based on relief. For example, migratory
birds like the Siberian cranes and flamingoes are found to nest in the wetlands of the
Rann of Kuchchh, where the desert merges with the sea.
Climate
It includes temperature, photoperiod and precipitation.
Temperature
The temperature along with the humidity in the air and precipitation determine the
character of vegetation and its extent.
As the climate gets colder, either by increase in altitude (above 915m) or by going away
from the equator, the vegetation will change from tropical to sub-tropical, temperate and
then alpine.
For example, on the slopes of the Himalayas and hills of the Peninsula, the fall in
temperature affects the type of vegetation and its growth.
Photoperiod (Sunlight)
The amount and duration of sunlight is known as photoperiod. The difference in latitude,
altitude and season brings variation in duration of sunlight in different places. In warmer
regions and climates, plant growth is faster due to longer duration of sunlight, especially
with availability of adequate moisture. An instance is the fact that the Southern slopes of
the Himalayas are covered with thicker vegetation than the Northern slopes.
Precipitation
Advancing South-West monsoon (June to September) and retreating North-East (October-
November) monsoons bring almost all the rainfall in India. Areas of heavy rainfall always
have denser vegetation than other areas with lesser rainfall. The South-West monsoon
rains on the windward side of the Western Ghats, thus cause a heavy growth of tropical
evergreen forests there, whereas the leeward side does not have any such forests.
Ecosystem
Various species of plants occur in areas having similar climatic conditions. To a large
extent its nature determines the animal life in that area. All the plants and animals in an
area are interdependent on each other in their physical environment and form an
ecosystem.
Thus, an ecosystem is a biological environment consisting of all the organisms living in a
particular area, as well as all the non-living, physical components of the environment with
which the organisms interact, such as air, soil, water and sunlight.
Biome
It is a major community of plants and animals having similar life forms existing under
similar environmental conditions. A biome is identified on the basis of plant existing there.
It is also termed as ‘major life zone’.
Human Influence In an Ecosystem

Human beings influence ecosystem in the following manner
• They utilise the vegetation and wildlife.

• The greed of human beings leads to over utilisation of natural resources.
• Human beings cut the trees and kill the animals creating ecological imbalance.
• Due to the activities of human beings, some of the ‘ plants and animals have
reached the verge of extinction.
Importance of Forests
Forests are advantageous for the environment. They influence climate, reduce soil
erosion, regulate stream flow, provide raw material for industries and livelihood for many,
etc. They control wind force and temperature and cause rainfall. They also provide shelter
to various animal species.
Change in Nature of Vegetation in India

Factors like growing demand for cultivated land, development of industries and mining,
urbanisation have changed natural vegetation. The vegetation cover of India in large parts
is no more natural in the real sense, except in some inaccessible regions like the
Himalayas, the hilly region of Central India and the Marusthali. In most of the places, it is
either modified, replaced or degraded by human interference.
Types Of Vegetation
Relief and climatic factors develop different types of vegetation. Based on the major forest
types, India has following types of vegetation.
1. Tropical Evergreen Forests

2. Tropical Deciduous Forests
3. Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs
4. Montane Forests
5. Mangrove Forests
Note: According to India State of Forest Report (SFR) 2015, the forest cover in India is
21.34% which was 21.05% in the year 2011.
1. Tropical Evergreen Forests
These are also called tropical rainforests. They cover about 12% of the total forested
areas of India. They are found in areas where the annual rainfall is over 200 cm.
Regions of Occurrence
Western slopes of the Western Ghats, both groups of islands (Lakshadweep, Andaman
and Nicobar Islands), upper parts of Assam and some parts of the coasts of Tamil Nadu
and Odisha.
Characteristics of Tropical Evergreen Forest
• As these areas are warm and wet almost throughout the year, they have abundant
vegetation with tall trees (up to 60 m), creepers and bushes.
• The vegetation occurred in a multilayered structure.
• These appear green throughout the year, as the trees shed their leaves at different
times.
Flora and Fauna

Ebony, mahogany, cinchona, rubber and rosewood trees are useful commercial trees
found here. Animals found here include rhinoceros, elephants, various species of monkey,
lemur, deer, many bird varieties, bats, sloth, scorpions and snails.
2. Tropical Deciduous Forests

These cover about 64% of the fetal forested areas of the country and are the most
abundant variety of forests in India. These are also called monsoon forests and also
spread over the region receiving rainfall between 200 to 70 cm. Trees of this forest type
shed their leaves for about 6 to 8 weeks in dry summer.
Types of Tropical Deciduous Forest

On the basis of the availability of water, these forests are further divided into moist and dry
deciduous.
Moist Deciduous
Forests growing in annual rainfall areas between 100 and 200 cm are classified as moist
deciduous. They cover about 34% of the country’s forested area.
They are found mostly in the Eastern part of the country such as North-Eastern states,
West Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, foothills of the Himalayas and the leeward side of
the Western Ghats. Teak (dominant species), bamboo, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair,
kusum, arjun and mulberry trees are found in these forests.
Dry Deciduous
Forests growing in annual rainfall areas between 70 and ‘100 cm are classified as dry
deciduous. They cover about 30% of the country’s forested area. These are found in
rainier parts of the Peninsular plateau and the plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Teak, sal, peepal and neem trees grow in these areas. Many parts of these areas have
been cleared for agricultural activities and for grazing. Besides lions, tigers, elephants,
pigs and deer many varieties of birds, lizards, snakes and tortoises are found in these
forests.
3. Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs
These cover about 5% of the total forested areas of India. These are found in areas where
the annual rainfall is less than 70 cm.
Region of Occurrence
These are found in North-Western part of the country including semi-arid areas of Gujarat,
Rajasthan, some areas of Uttar Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Haryana and Madhya Pradesh, as
well as parts of the Deccan Plateau.
Characteristics of Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs

The trees found in tropical thorn forest and scrubs are scattered.
Other such plants which have long roots, succulent stems and small thick leaves are also
found here.
All these characteristics have developed to minimise evaporation and conserve moisture.
Only scrubs are found in desert areas with the least rainfall.
Flora and Fauna

Trees like acacia palm euphorbia and cactus found in these areas. Fox, wolf, rats and
mice, wild ass, horses, tiger, lion, camels and similar animals are found in these areas.
4. Montane Forests
These forests cover about 17% of the total forested areas of India and are found in
mountainous areas of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and
Arunachal Pradesh. Natural vegetation changes with corresponding change in
temperature with increasing altitude in the mountainous region. These succession of
natural vegetation belts is same as in the order from tropical to tundra vegetation.
Altitudinal Distribution of Montane Forests
• Wet Temperate Forest At lower altitude between 1,000-2,000 m, wet temperate

forests with evergreen broad leaf trees such as oaks and chestnuts are prominent.
• Temperate Forest At the altitude between 1,500-3,000 m, temperate forests
containing coniferous trees like pine, deodar, silver fir, spruce and cedar are found.
These forests cover mostly the Southern slopes of the Himalayas, places having
high altitude in Southern and North-East India.
• Temperate grasslands These are found at higher elevations. At high altitude above
3,600 m, temprate forest and grasslands give way to the alpine vegetation.
• Alpine vegetation This vegetation through shrubs and scrubs merge into alpine
grasslands. These area extensively used by nomadic tribes like Gujjars and
Bakarwals for grazing.
• Tundra vegetation Mosses and lichens are part of tundra vegetation are found at
higher altitudes.
Flora and Fauna

Kashmir stag, spotted dear, wild sheep, jack rabbit, Tibetan antelope, yak, snow leopard,
squirrels, shaggy horn wild ibex, bear and rare red panda, sheep and goats with thick hair
are found here. Silver firs, pines, junipers, birches, etc are trees common here.
5. Mangrove Forests
These are found in coastal delta areas influenced by sea tides. Due to this fact, they are
also called tidal forests. The roots of the predominate mangroves are submerged under
water. Such forests are found in the delta areas of rivers oh the East coast of India
(Ganga, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri) due to mud and silt
brought down by the rivers.
Flora and Fauna
• In the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta, sundari trees providing durable timber are

prominent. Other trees are palm, coconut, keora and agar.
• Animals found here include the Royal Bengal Tigers, snakes, turtles, gharials and
crocodiles.
Wildlife
India is also rich in its fauna (animal life) same as in flora (plant life). It has approximately
90,000 animal species and 2,000 species of birds.
They constitute 13% of the total world’s stock. There are 2,546 species of fish, which
account for nearly 12% of the world’s stock.
It also shares between 5 and 8 % of the world’s amphibians, reptiles and mammals. The
existence of animals in our country varies place to place.
Distribution of Wildlife in India
The elephants are the most majestic animals among the mammals. They are found in the
hot wet forests of Assam, Karnataka and Kerala.
One-horned rhinoceroses are the other animals, which live in swampy and marshy lands
of Assam and West Bengal.
Arid areas of the Rann of Kachchh and the Thar desert are the habitat for wild ass and
camels, respectively.
India is the only country in the world that has both tigers and lions. The natural habitat of
the Indian lion is the Gir forest in Gujarat. Tigers are found in the forests of Madhya
Pradesh, the Sunderbans of West Bengal and the Himalayan region.
Leopards too are members of the cat family. They are important among animals of prey.
The Himalayas harbour a hardy range of animals, which survive in extreme cold. Ladakh’s
freezing high altitudes are a home to yak, the shaggy horned wild ox (weighing around 1
tonne) the Tibetan antelope, the bharal (blue sheep), wild sheep and the kiang (Tibetan
wild ass).
The ibex, bear, snow-leopard and very rare red panda are found in certain pockets.
In the rivers, lakes and coastal areas, turtles, crocodiles and gharials are found.
The gharial is the only representative of a variety of crocodile, found in the world today.
Birdlife in India is colourful. Peacocks, pheasants, ducks, parakeets, cranes and pigeons
are some of the birds inhabiting the forests and wetlands of the country.
Indian bison, nilgai (blue bull), chousingha (four homed antelope), gazel and different
species of deer are some other animals found in India in different places. It also has
several species of monkeys.
Note: The Gir Forest is the last remaining habitat of the Asiatic lion.
Wildlife Protection Act was implemented in 1972 in India.
Migratory Birds
Some of the wetlands of India are popular with migratory birds. During winter, birds such
as Siberian crane come in large numbers. One such place favourable with birds is the
Rann of Kutch. At a place where the desert merges with the sea, flamingo with their
brilliant pink plumage, come in thousands to build nest mounds from the salty mud and
raise their young ones. It is one among many extraordinary sights in the country.
Need Of Environment Conservation

Our crops consist of edible plants from a bio-diverse environment. Many medicinal plants
are also used by us. The animals were selected from large stock provided by nature as
milch animal. They also provided us draught power, transportation, meat, eggs.
The fish provide nutritive food. Many insects help in pollination of crops and fruit trees.
They also exert biological control on such insects which are harmful. Thus, it can be said
that every species has a role to play in the ecosystem. So, its conservation is essential.
Due to excessive exploitation of the plants and animal resources by human beings, the
ecosystem has been disturbed. About 1,300 plant species are endangered and 20 species
are extinct. Quite a few animal species are also endangered and some have become
extinct.
Summary
India is one of the twelve mega biodiverse countries in the world.
The plant community which has grown naturally without human intervention are called
natural vegetation.
Natural vegetation which are left undisturbed by human for a long time is termed as virgin
vegetation.
The type of virgin vegetation which are purely Indian are called Endemic or Indigenous
species.
The virgin vegetation which comes from outside the country are called exotic species.
Various,relief and climatic factors are responsible for distribution of natural vegetation.
Land and soil are the relief factors affecting the type of vegetation.
Temperature, photoperiod and precipitation are the climatic factor affecting vegetation of a
region.
Based on temperature, vegetation zones are divided into Tropical, Sub-tropical,

Temperate and Alpine type.
Forest are renewable resources and play major role in enhancing quality of Environment.
Most of India’s natural vegetation are found in Himalayas, hilly regions of central India and
in desert.
Biomes are very large ecosystem on land and have distinct types of vegetation and animal
life.
Major vegetation types identified in India are tropical evergreen forests, tropical deciduous
forests, tropical thorn forest and scrubs, montane forests and Mangrove forests.
Tropical Evergreen forest is found in region of very high rainfall.
Tropical deciduous forest or monsoon forests are the most widespread forests of India.
The thorn forest and scrubs are found in region with less that 70 cm rainfall.
Montane forests are high altitude alpine vegetation.
Mangroves are tidal vegetation found along the coastal region. Sundari is an important
mangrove tree.
The World Conservation Union publishes Red list of critically threatened and endangered
plant species.
India has 13% of the world’s total bird species and 12% fish stocks.
The Wildlife Protection Act in India was implemented in 1992.
The excessive exploitation of the plants and animal resources by Human beings led them
to become endangered and extinct.
Hunting, pollution, the introduction of alien plant and animal species, deforestation are
major threats for the ecosystem.
Government of India has taken many steps to protect plant and animals such as – setting
up of national parks, biosphere reserves etc, the introduction of different projects to
conserve critically endangered species e.g. project tiger, project rhino etc.
We all should be aware of the fact that a natural ecosystem is very important for our
survival.
Population Class 9 Notes Chapter 6
People ate the nation’s most valuable resource. A well-educated, healthy population
provides potential power to the nation. The people are important to develop the economy
and society, they make resources and use them. The people are themselves a resource
with varying qualities.
A census is an official enumeration (numbering) of population done periodically. The first

census in India (partial) was done in 1872. While, the first complete census was done in
1881. It is done every 10 years. The recent census was done in 2011. The census of India
provides information regaling the population.
The three aspects concerned about population are as follows
• Size and distribution of population It refers to the total number of people in the
country and where they are located.
• Population growth and process of population change It refers to how the population
has grown and changes in its composition.
• Characteristics of qualifies of life population It refers to age, sex-ratio, literacy levels,
occupational structure, health conditions of people.
Population Size And Distribution
Hie arrangement or a spread of people of a country in different places, is Catted
population distribution.
Size of population and its distribution can be studied under two heads- one population size
and distribution by numbers and other in population distribution by density.
India’s Population Size and Distribution by Numbers

As per 2011 Census, population of India stood at 1,210 million, which is 17.5% of the total
world population.. It is unevenly distributed over the various states, with Uttar Pradesh
having the highest population (199 million accounts for about 16.49 per cent of the
countries population) and Sikkim the lowest population (0.6 million accounts for about 0.05
per cent of the country’s population). Among Union Territories, Delhi has the highest
(16.75 million) and Lakshadweep the lowest (64,429) population.
Almost half of India’s population lives in just five states cpmpfisiog Uttar Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal and Andhra. Pradesh, while Rajasthan being largest
state accounted for only 6% of the total population.
India’s Population Distribution by Density

The uneven population distribution can be better judged by the population density in the
various states. The number of people living per unit area (sq. km) in an area (state or
country) is called population! density of that area.
India is one of the most destiny populated countries in the world. After Bangladesh and
Japan, it is the third most densely populated country.
India’s population density in 2001 was 324 persons per sq km (this increased to 382
persons per sq km in the 2011 Census), with West Bengal having the highest density of
904 persons per sq km and Arunachal Pradesh the lowest With only 13 persons per sq.
km.
According to 2011 Census, Bihar has the highest population density 1,102 persons per sq
km and Arunachal Pradesh having the lowest population density of 17 persons per sq km.
On the basis of population density inhale country is divided in to three regions

High population density states These states are characterised by flat plains with fertile
soils and abundant rainfall, e.g. states of Northern Plains and Kerala.
Moderate population density states These states are characterised by hilly and rocky
nature of terrain, moderate to low rainfall, shallow and less fertile soil. e.g. Assam and
most of the peninsular states.
Low population density states States with – low population density below 250 person per
sq. km are characterised by rugged terrain (mountainous and desert) and unfavourable
climatic condition, e.g. Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Jammu and Kashmir etc.
[Note: Jelangema became the 29th state of India on the 2nd June 2014 after the
reorganisation of the type of Andhra Pradesh.]
Population Growth And Processes Of Population Change

Due to births, deaths and migrations the number, distribution and composition of
population change continuously.
Population Growth
The change in the number of people of a country or state during a specific period of time
is called growth of population. Usually, it is mostly calculated at the interval of 10 years.
The change can be expressed either in terms of absolute numbers or in terms of annual
growth rate.
Absolute Increase of Population It means the absolute numbers added each year or in
each decade in the population. It is obtained by simply subtracting the earlier population
(e.g. that of 1991) from the later population (e.g. that of 2001).
Annual Growth Rate of Population The rate at which the number of individuals in a
population increase in 1 year as a fraction of the initial population; is called annual growth
rate of population. It is expressed in terms of per cent per annum. For example, a rate of
increase of 2% per annum means that there was an increase of 2 persons for every 100
persons in the initial population.
Population Growth Rate Since Independence

India’s annual growth rate of population increased steadily till 1981. Since then, the annual
rate of population growth started declining. Still the population growth of India in 1990s
was 182 million (in terms of number). This addition of people was larger than ever before.
Inspite of decreasing annual growth rate (in percent), the largest addition in people(in
terms of number) is due to the large population of the country.
A low growth rate results a large absolute increase due to very high population. However,
the declining growth rate is a positive indicator for the efforts of birth control but the total
additions to the population continue to grow. If this rate of increase continues, then India
will surpass China by 2045 to become the most populous country in the world.
Processes of Population Change/Growth
Population changes due to the processes of births, deaths and migrations. The natural
increase of population or the growth rate is the difference between birth rates and death
rates.
Birth Rate
The number of live births per thousand persons in a year is called birth rate. The birth rate
is a major component of population growth as in India, it has been always higher than the
death rate.
Death Rate
The number of deaths per thousand persons in a year is called death rate. The main
cause of the rate of growth of the Indian population has been the rapid decline in death
rates. There has been a rapid decline in death rates during the last 50 years due to better
healthcare and nutrition, which have made this factor also important for growth of
population.
The trend of Population Growth Due to Birth Rate and Death Rate
High birth rates and declining death rates were the phenomena till 1980, which resulted
date of birth population growth. After that due to government efforts and increased
awareness, the birth fate also started to decline, resulting in gradual decline in the
population growth rate.
Migration
It is the movement of people across regions and territories. The movement of people
within the country (from one place to another) is called internal migration. It does not
change the population size but it changes the population distribution of an area.
The movement of people from one country to other is called international migration. It
changes population size of the country as well as population distribution.
Migration Pattern in India
In India, most of the recent migrations have been from rural areas to urban areas. This is
due to poverty and unemployment in rural areas (Push factors) and increased
employment opportunity and better living, conditions in urban places (Pull factors).
The urban population has increased from 17.29% of the total population in 1951 to 31.8%
in 2011. There has been a significant increase in the number of million plus cities from 35
to 53 in just a decade, i.e. 2001 to 2011.
Characteristics Or Qualities Of The Population
Age Composition
The number of people in different age groups in a country is called its age composition. It
is one of the most basic characteristics of a population. The age of a person influences his
needs, purchases, his capacity to perform. Generally, in India, people are classified into
the following three age groups. These are as follow
(i) Children (Generally below 15 years)

They are economically unproductive and need to be provided with food, clothing,
education and medical care.
(ii) Working Age (15-59 years)

They are economically and biologically reproductive. They comprise the working
population.
The working age group is an economically productive group. In 2001, this group
comprised 58.7% of the population, while children made up 34.4 % and the aged only
6.9%.
(iii) Aged (Above 59 years)

They can be economically productive though they may have retired. They may be working
voluntarily but they are not available for employment through recruitment.
Dependent Population
The population of children and aged people together constitute the dependent population.
They are termed dependent because they are not producers.
Sex Ratio
The sex ratio is the number of females per 1000 males in the population. It is an important
social indicator to measure the extent of equality between males and females in a society
at a given time. In India, the sex ratio has always been unfavourable to females due to
reasons of tradition and unscrupulous actions of people. Certain states which are
progressive like Kerala, have a very favourable sex ratio. As per census 2011, the sex
ratio of Kerala is 1084 compared to 940 for all of India. Puducherry has 1038 females for
every 1000 males, while Delhi has only 866 females p*r thousand males and Haryana has
just 877 females per thousand.
Literacy Rate
A person who can read and write any language with understanding by the age of 7 years
is considered literate.
The total percentage of the population of an area at a particular time aged seven years or
above who can read and write with understanding is called literacy rate.
Although there has been a regular increase in literacy rates in the country, rural literacy
lags behind urban literacy significantly and female literacy lags behind male literacy by a
huge margin.
According to Census 2011 literacy rate in the country is 74.04%. It has revealed that
urban literacy rate was 84.98 %, while that in the rural areas was only 68.91 %. Similarly,
female literacy was only 65.46 %, while that for males was 82.14 %.
Occupational Structure
Occupational structure referred to as the distribution’^ population according to various
types of occupation. Economically active population percentage is an important index of
development. There is a large variety of occupation in the country. The occupations are
usually categorised into primary, secondary and tertiary occupations.
Primary occupations are those in which natural resources are extracted from the Earth.
These include agriculture, fishery, forestry, mining, quarrying, etc.
Secondary occupations are those in which the extracted natural resources are processed
into products for use. These include manufacturing, refining, construction, etc.
Tertiary occupations are those which support the primary and secondary occupations by
providing services. This transportation, communications, commerce, administration, legal
services, etc.
The pattern of the Working Population

The proportion of people working in different activities vary in developed and developing
countries. The developing countries have more of their population working in primary
occupations, whereas the developed nations have more of their population working in
secondary and tertiary occupations.
In India, half of the population is engaged in agriculture alone. However, due to

industrialisation and urbanisation in recent times, there has occurred a significant shift
towards secondary and tertiary occupations which earlier stood about 13% and 20%,
respectively.
Health
Health is an important component of population composition. It affects its development
significantly. Due to the sustained efforts of government, healthcare programmes, life
expectancy at birth has improved from 36.7 years in 1951 to 64.7 years in 2011.
The death rate has declined from 25 per 1000 persons in 1951 to 7.2 in 2011. However,
healthcare and nutrition are still major issues. Malnutrition in children afflicts a large
percentage of the population.
Availability of safe drinking -water and proper sanitation are major problems in rural areas
and need urgent action. Only one-third of the rural population has these basic amenities.
The level of nutrition and per capital calorie consumption is much below the recommended
level. This can be reduced by appropriate policy on population.
Adolescent Population
Adolescents are population aged from 10 to 19 years. They currently comprise about 20%
of India’s population and are an important future resource for the country.
Their nutritional requirements are more than that of either adults or younger children, but it
our country the diet available for them is usually inadequate for their requirements, which
leads to deficiency and stunted growth. Many adolescent girls suffer from anaemia and
they must be made aware of their requirements through better education and literacy they
confront.
National Population Policy

After recognising that the family planning would improve individual health and welfare, the
Government of India initiated its first Family Planning Programme in 1952. This, promoted
responsible and planned parenthood on a voluntary basis. In the year 2000, the
government formulated the National Population Policy (NPP 2000), which had the
following major objectives
• Providing a policy framework for imparting free and compulsory school education up
to 14 years of age.
• Reducing infant mortality rate to below 30 per 1000 live births.
• Achieving universal immunisation of children against all vaccine-preventable
diseases.
• Promoting delayed marriage for girls.
• Making family welfare a people-centred programme.
NPP 2000 and Adolescents

National Population Policy (NPP) 2000 identified adolescents as one of the major sections
of the population that need greater attention.
NPP 2000 put greater emphasis on the important needs of adolescents including
protection from unwanted pregnancies,’ Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) and risks
of unprotected sex. It focussed on programmes that aim towards encouraging delayed
marriage and childbearing, education of adolescents, providing food supplements and
nutritional services, etc.
Summary
Human beings are important resources who not only utilise resources and but also create
social and cultural environment.
‘Resources’, ‘calamities’ and disasters’ becomes meaningful when taken in relation to a

human being.
The number, distribution, growth and characteristics of human beings provide basic
background for understanding and appreciating various aspects of the environment.
The census is official information about the population of a country done at regular interval
(mostly 10 year period).
India has huge population of over a billion, and the population is distributed unevenly
throughout the country.
The uneven distribution of population can be known by calculating population density of

an area, which is the number of people per unit area.
More than half of India’s population resides in five states of Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Bihar, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh.
India has the third highest population density in the world, which is just after Bangladesh
and Japan.
Rugged terrain and unfavourable4climatic condition are reason for sparse population in
some regions such as Arunachal Pradesh.
Assam and most of peninsular India has moderate population density.
The high population density in India is found in the Northern Plain and Kerala.
The flat plain area with fertile soils and abundant rainfall are major factors contributing to
high population density.
The change in the number of inhabitants of a country at a particular period of time is called
growth of population.
Growth of the population is affected by births, deaths, and migration.
The increase in the population calculated by subtracting the earlier population from the
later is known as absolute increase in population.
The rate of increase of population per year is measured in terms of per cent per annum
and known as the annual growth rate of population.
Although, India’s population is steadily increasing from 1951, but since 1981, the rate of
growth has started to decline gradually.
The difference between birth rate and death rate gives a natural increase in population.
The number of live birth per thousand persons per year is termed as birth rate.
The number of deaths per thousand of persons per year is termed as death rate.
Migration is the third component of population growth which represent the movement of
people from one place to another.
When the movement of people occurs within a country it constitutes internal migration but
when the movement is between the country it constitutes external or International
migration.
Most migration in India takes place from rural areas to urban areas due to push and pull
factors.
Adverse condition, poverty, unemployment in rural areas are push factor of migration.
Greater employment opportunities, better living conditioks in the cities are pull factor of
migration.
The age composition of population of nation is grouped into 3 categories : Children (0-14
years) Adult (15-59 years) and aged (60 – above).
Dependency ratio is the ratio of people of dependent age (Below 15 and above 60 years)
to people of economically active ages (15-59 years).
The number of females per 1000 males in the population is called sex ratio and is an
important social indicator to measure the extent of equality between males and females.
State of Kerala and Union Territory of Puducherry has favourable sex ratio where as Delhi
and Haryana has very adverse sex ratio.
A person of 7 years or above who can read and write and understand any one language is
termed as literate.
Agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry, fishing mining and quarrying are primary
occupation.
The manufacturing industry, building and construction work etc. constitute secondary
occupation.
Transport, communication, commerce, administration and other services are tertiary

occupations.
Adolescents constitute one-fifth of the total population of India and adequate attention has
to be paid on their nutrition requirements.
Comprehensive family Planning Programme in India was started in 1952 and the National
Population Policy (NPP) 2000 is a part of it.
NPP aims to impart free and compulsory education up to 14 years, reduce the infant
mortality rate, deal with adolescent-specific problems etc.
Resource and Development Class 10 Notes Chapter 1
‘Resource’:
Everything available in our environment which can be used to satisfy our needs, is called a resource.
It should be technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally acceptable. Only then, it
can be termed as a ‘Resource’. Examples: minerals, forests, fossil fuels etc.
Classification of Resources:
(a) On the basis of origin: Biotic and Abiotic.
(b) On the basis of exhaustibility: Renewable and Non-renewable.
(c) On the basis of ownership: Individual (Personal), Community, National and International.
(d) On the basis of status and development: Potential, Developed, Reserve and Stock.
• Biotic Resources are obtained from the biosphere. They have life or are living resources, e.g.,
human beings, fisheries, forests, etc.
• Abiotic Resources include all non-living things, e.g., rocks and minerals.
Renewable Resources:
The resources which can be renewed or reproduced by physical, chemical and mechanical processes
are known as renewable or replenishable resources, e.g., water, wildlife, forests, solar energy, wind
energy, etc.
Non-renewable Resources:
The resources which once get exhausted, cannot be remade. They take a long geological period of
time, i.e., millions of years in their formation, e.g., minerals, fossil’ fuels, etc.
1. Individual resources: Owned by individuals, e.g., own land, house;
2. Community Owned Resources: Resources which are accessible to all the members of the
community, e.g., parks, playground;
3. National Resources: Resources which belong to the nation, e.g., roads, railways; and
4. International resources: Resources which no individual country can utilize, e.g., oceanic
waters beyond 200 km.
1. Potential resources: Resources found in a region but not in use, e.g., solar energy in
Rajasthan,
wind in Gujarat;
2. Stock: Resources available but do not have appropriate technology to access, e.g., lack of
technical know how to use hydrogen and oxygen as source of energy; and
3. Reserve: Subset of stock. Can be used for future needs, e.g., water in the dams, forest
resources.
Sustainable development:
Sustainable economic development means that ‘development should take place without damaging
the environment and development in the present should not compromise with the needs of future
generation’.
Land under important relief features in India:

Plains-43%, Mountains-30%, Plateaus-27%
Land Degradation:
Continuous use of land over a long period of time without taking appropriate measures to conserve
and manage it.
Measures to solve problem of land degradation:

Afforestation, proper management of grazing to control overgrazing planting of shelter belts of plants,
stabilization of sand dunes by growing thorny bushes, control of mining activities, avoid over-irrigation
and overuse of fertilizers and pesticides;
Soil erosion:
The denudation of the soil cover and subsequent washing down is soil erosion. Reasons for soil
erosion include—
(a) Human activities like deforestation, over grazing construction, mining defective method of fanning
etc.;
(b) Natural forces like wind, glacier and water flow.
Types of erosion:
(a) Gully erosion. The running water cuts through the clayey soils and makes deep channels known
as gullies. This makes the land bad land and in the Chambal basin such land is known as ravines;
(b) Sheet erosion. When top soil over large area is washed away it is known as sheet erosion.
Methods to prevent soil erosion in hilly area:

Ploughing along the contour lines-contour ploughing; terrace cultivation; strip farming and shelter
belts.
Soils and its types:
• Alluvial soils: Entire northern plains are made of alluvial soil. Also found in the eastern coastal
plains particularly in the deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri rivers.
Fertile soil therefore, fit for agriculture purpose. Regions of alluvial soils are intensively
cultivated and densely populated. Rich in potash, phosphoric acid and lime which are ideal for
the growth of sugarcane, paddy, wheat and other cereal and pulse crops.
• Black soil: Black in colour and are also known as regur soils. Ideal for growing cotton and is
also known as black cotton soil. Found in the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa,
Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh also along the Godavari and the Krishna valleys. Made up of
extremely fine, i.e., clayey material. Well-known for their capacity to hold moisture. Rich in
calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime.
• Red and yellow soils: Found in the areas of low rainfall in the eastern and southern parts of
the Deccan plateau. Also found in parts of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the middle
Ganga plain and along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghats. Develop a reddish colour due
to diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks.
• Laterite soils: Develops in areas with high temperature and heavy rainfall. Found in Karnataka,
Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, and the hilly areas of Odisha and Assam. Suitable for
cultivation with adequate doses of manures and fertilizers. Low Humus content because
decomposers, like bacteria, get destroyed due to high temperature.
• Arid soils: Found in the western parts of Rajasthan. After proper irrigation these soils become
cultivable. Lacks humus and moisture because dry climate, high temperature make evaporation
faster. Salt content is very high and common salt is obtained by evaporating the water.
• Forest soils: Found in the hilly and mountainous areas where sufficient rain forests are
available. Feature differs based on location. Loamy and silty in valley sides and coarse grained
in the upper slopes. Sil in the lower parts of the valleys particularly on the river terraces and
alluvial fans are fertile.
Class 10 Forest and Wild Resources Notes
♦ Biosphere : Part of the earth which is covered by living organisms both plants and animals.
♦ Ecosystem : An integrated unit consisting of the community of living organisms and the physical
environment.
♦ Flora : Plants of a particular region or period are referred to as flora.
♦ Fauna : Species of animals are known as fauna.
♦ Forest : Extensive area covered with trees.
♦ Wildlife Sanctuary : A reserved area for preserving natural beauty, e.g., wildlife.
♦ Biodiversity : It is the sum total of all the varieties of species of plants, animals and micro-
organisms living on the earth.
♦ Wasteland : Land which is not fit for cultivation.
♦ Normal species : The species whose population levels are considered to be normal for their
survival, such as cattle, sal, pine, rodents, etc.
♦ Endangered species : The species which are in danger of extinction.
♦ Vulnerable species : These are some species whose population has declined to levels from
where it is likely to move into the endangered category in the near future if the negative factors
continue to operate.
♦ Rare species : Species with small population may move into the endangered or vulnerable
category if the negative factors affecting them continue to operate.,
♦ Endemic species : These are species which are only found in some particular areas usually
isolated by natural or geographical barriers. For example Nicobar pigeon.
♦ Extinct species : These are species which are not found after searches of known or likely areas
where they may occur. A species may be extinct from a local area, region, country, continent or
the entire earth. Examples of such species are the Asiatic cheetah, pink head duck.
♦ The Indian Wildlife Act : It was an act implemented in 1972, with various provisions for
protecting natural habitats.
♦ Reserved Forests : These are the most valuable forests as far as the conservation of forest
and wildlife resources are concerned.
♦ Protected forests : These are the forests which are protected from any further depletion.
♦ Unclassed forests : These are forests and wastelands belonging to both government and
private individuals and communities.
♦ Permanent forests : Reserved and protected forests are referred as permanent forest estates
maintained for the purpose of producing timber and other forest produce and for protective
reasons.
♦ Chipko Movement : It was a movement launched by the people of the Himalayas against
deforestation.
♦ Joint Forest Management : It was a programme launched for management and restoration of
degraded forests.
Water Resources Class 10 Notes Chapter 3
Fresh water:
96.5 per cent of the total volume of world’s water is estimated to exist as oceans and only 2.5 per
cent exists as fresh water. 70 per cent of the fresh water occurs as ice sheets and glaciers in
Antarctica, Greenland and the mountainous regions of the world. Less than 30 per cent is stored as
groundwater in the world’s acquirers. Fresh water is mainly obtained from surface run off and ground
water. This is continually being renewed and recharged through the hydrological cycle. All the water
moves within the hydrological cycle making water a renewable resource.
Three fresh water sources are:

Precipitation—from rainfall; Surface water—in rivers, lakes, etc.; Ground water—water stored in
underground acquirers which gets recharged by rainfall.
Water scarcity:
Water scarcity means shortage of water. It is usually associated with regions having low rainfall or
drought prone areas.
There are many other reasons which lead to scarcity of water:

Large growing population; In the agricultural sector, water resources are being over-exploited to
expand irrigated areas and dry- season agriculture; More water required for irrigation purposes to
facilitate higher food production, i. e., for doing multiple cropping and for HYV seeds; There is greater
demand for water with growing urbanization and industrialization; An unequal access to water among
different social groups; The quality of water is deteriorating, i.e., getting polluted by domestic and
industrial wastes, chemical fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture; Excessive use of water by
industries which also require water to generate hydro-electric power to run them; and Over
exploitation of water in the urban areas.
Adverse effects of over-exploitation of ground water resources:
• Pumping out more water from under the ground may lead to falling ground water levels.
• It will adversely affect water availability.
• This, in turn, will affect our agriculture and food security of the people.
• Impoverishment of water resources may adversely affect the ecological cycle.
Main causes of water pollution:

Domestic wastes, especially urban sewers; industrial wastes are disposed off in the water without
proper treatment; chemical effluents from industries and from agricultural sector; and many human
activities, e.g., religious rituals and immersing of idols, etc. in the water also pollute water.
Measures for water conservation:
• Do not overdraw the ground water, recharge it by techniques like rainwater harvesting; tapping
rainwater in reservoirs, watershed development programmes, etc.
• Avoid wastage of water at all levels and do not pollute the water.
• Adopting water conserving techniques of irrigation, e.g., drip irrigation and sprinklers etc.,
especially in dry areas.
A dam is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs, directs or retards the flow, creating a reservoir,
lake or impoundment. A dam is the reservoir and not the whole structure.
Multipurpose river valley projects —’The Temples of Modem India’:

Jawahar Lai Nehru pro-claimed that multipurpose projects are ‘The Temples of Modem India’,
because they were thought of as the vehicle that would lead the nation to development and progress.
He believed that these projects with their integrated water resource management approach would
integrate development of agriculture and the village economy with rapid industrialization and growth
of the urban economy.
Advantages:
• They bring water to those areas which suffer from water scarcity and also provide water for
irrigation;
• These projects generate electricity for industries and our homes;
• They help in controlling floods;
• These projects can be used for recreation, inland navigation and fish breeding.
Disadavantages:
• Damming of rivers affects their natural flow causing poor sediment flow;
• Excessive sedimentation at the bottom of the reservoir;
• Lack of sediments results in (a) rockier stream bed and (b) poorer habitat for the rivers aquatic
life;
• The reservoirs submerge the existing vegetation and soil, leading to its decomposition over
time;
• They affect the fertility levels of the soil;
• cause large scale displacement of local communities.
Traditional rainwater harvesting methods practiced in different parts of the country:
• In mountainous areas ‘Guls’ and ‘Kuls’ the diversion channels were built for agriculture.
• ‘Rooftop rainwater harvesting’ was commonly practiced to store drinking water, especially in
Rajasthan.
• Inundation channels for irrigation were developed in the flood plains of West Bengal.
• In arid and semi-arid regions, agricultural fields were converted into rain fed storage structures,
e.g., ‘Khadins’ in Jaisalmer and ‘Johads’ in other parts of Rajasthan.
• In semi-arid and arid regions of Rajasthan, particularly in Bikaner, Phalodi and Banner, all the
houses had underground tanks or ‘tankas’ built inside the house for storing drinking water. They
were a part of the well-developed rooftop rainwater harvesting system.
‘Narmada Bachao Andolan’:

Narmada Bachao Andolan or Save Narmada Movement is an NGO that mobilized tribal people,
farmers, environmentalists and human rights activists against the Sardar Sarovar Dam being built
across the Narmada river in Gujarat. The movement originally focused on environmental issues
related to submerging of trees under the dam water. Recently its aim has been to enable the
displaced poor people to get full rehabilitation facilities from the government.
Agriculture Class 10 Notes Chapter 4
India is an agricultural country because of the following reasons:
1. Two-third of its population is engaged in agricultural activities.

2. Agriculture is a primary activity and produces most of the food and food grains.
3. It produces raw materials for our various industries, e.g., cotton textile, sugar industry.
4. Agricultural products, like tea, coffee, spices are exported and earn foreign exchange.
Primitive Subsistence Farming:

This type of farming is practiced in few pockets of India on small patches of land using primitive tools
and family/community labor. Farmers clear a patch of land and produce cereals and other food crops
to sustain their families. When the soil fertility decreases, the farmers shift and clear a fresh patch of
land for cultivation. This type of shifting allows nature to replenish the fertility of the soil through
natural processes. Land productivity is low as the farmer does not use fertilizers or other modem
inputs.
Intensive Subsistence Farming:
It is practiced in areas of high population pressure on land. It is labor intensive farming. Yield per
hectare is high because high doses of biochemical inputs and irrigation are used. The size of the
land-holdings is small and uneconomical. Farmers take maximum output from the limited land by
raising 2-3 crops in a year from the same land, i.e., multiple cropping is practiced.
Commercial Agriculture:
In this, crops are mainly grown for commercial purposes. It is practiced on large pieces of land on
scientific and commercial lines using machines and modem technology. There is higher use of
modem agricultural inputs, e.g., HYV seeds, fertilizers, irrigation, etc. The degree of
commercialization varies from one region to another. Rice is a commercial crop in Punjab, while in
Odisha it is subsistence crop. E.g., plantation agriculture.
Characteristics of plantation agriculture:

A single type of crop is grown on a large area. Plantation is carried out on large estates using lot of
capital intensive units. Lot of migrant laborers work on these estates. The plantation has an interface
of agriculture and industry. All the produce is used as raw material in the respective industries. The
production is mainly for the market, i.e., commercial agriculture.
Rabi, Kharif and Zaid are the three cropping seasons:
• Rabi crops (Winter crops): Sown in winter—October to December. Harvested in summer—
April to June. Important crops: wheat, barley, mustard, peas, gram, etc.
• Kharif crops (Crops of the rainy season): Sown—onset of monsoon (June-July).
Harvested— September-October. Important crops: rice, maize, millets, jowar, bajra, tur (arhar),
moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut and soyabean.
• Zaid season: It is a short cropping season during summer months mainly between March-April
and June-July. Main crops—watermelon, musk melon, cucumber etc.
Rice is the most important food crop (Kharif crop) of India. India holds second position in rice
production after China. Cultivation—High temperature of 25° C and above and high humidity with
annual rainfall of 100 cms is required. Four major regions of rice cultivation are —
1. Plains of North, India;

2. Plains of North-Eastern India;
3. Coastal areas; and
4. Deltaic regions. Irrigated rice is produced in Punjab, Haryana, Western UP and Rajasthan.
Wheat is the second most important cereal crop of India. It is the main food crop.
Geographical conditions:
Cool and moist growing season. Bright sunshine at the time of ripening. Rainfall: 50 to 75 cm evenly
distributed over the growing season, loamy soil.
Wheat growing zones—
1. The Ganga-Sutlej plains in the North-West and

2. Black soil region of the Deccan.
Wheat producing states—Punjab, Haryana, UP, Bihar, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.
Jowar is the third most important food crop with respect to area and production, kharif crop, rainfed
crop grown in moist areas.
Major producing states

Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
Millets are called coarse grains. They have high nutritional value, important part of the diet for poor
people. Examples:
• Ragi: Leading producer is Karnataka, followed by Tamil Nadu. Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand,
Uttaranchal, Sikkim etc. are other important regions.
• Jowar: Maharashtra is the leading producer followed by Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh.
• Bajra: It grows well on sandy soils and shallow black soils. Rajasthan is the largest producer
followed by Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana.
Maize crop — Geographical conditions:

Kharif crop, requires temperature between 21° C to 27° C, requires moderate rainfall between 50-100
cm. It grows well in old alluvial soils.
Maize is a crop which is used both as food and fodder. In some states like Bihar, maize is grown in
rabi season also. Maize production in India has increased due to factors like—use of modem inputs
such as HYV seeds; use of fertilisers; and use of irrigation facilities.
India is the second largest producer of sugarcane after Brazil.

Geographical conditions:
It is a tropical as well as subtropical crop. It grows well in hot and humid climate. Temperature: 21°C
to 27°C. Annual rainfall between 75 cm and 100 cms. Irrigation is required in the regions of low
rainfall. It can be grown on a variety of soils. It needs manual labour from sowing to harvesting.
Six major states producing sugarcane—Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana. Sugarcane is the main source of sugar, gur (jaggery),
khandsari and molasses.
Oilseeds:
India is the largest producer of oil seeds in the world. 12% of the total cropped area is under oilseed
production. Six major oilseeds produced in India—Groundnut, mustard, coconut, sesamum (til),
soyabean, castor-seeds, linseed, sunflower and cotton-seeds. Most of these oilseeds are edible and
are used as cooking mediums. Some are also used as raw material in the production of soap,
cosmetics and ointments.
Tea Geographical conditions:

It grows well in tropical and subtropical climates. It requires deep, fertile, well drained soil, rich in
humus and organic matter. It requires warm and moist frost free climate round the year. Frequent
showers evenly distributed through the year ensure continuous growth of tender leaves. Tea is a
labour intensive industry. It requires abundant, cheap and skilled labour.
Coffee:
Most important beverage crop of South India, India produces 4% of the world’s coffee production.
Major states—Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu (mainly in Nilgiri hills).
Cotton is mainly produced in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. Cotton is the fibre crop
which is mainly grown in the black soil of the Deccan Plateau region.
1. Position. India is the 3rd largest producer of cotton in the world.

2. Geographical conditions. Requires—high temperature; light rainfall or irrigation; 210 frost-free
days; bright sunshine; black cotton soil; Kharif crop and requires 6-8 months to mature.
3. Major cotton producing states—Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
Jute:
Mainly grown in West Bengal, Bihar and Assam, known as golden fibre. Jute is mainly grown in West
Bengal, especially in the Hoogly Basin because there the geographical conditions favour its growth.
These conditions are—
• High temperature required during the time of growth,

• Jute grows well on well-drained fertile soils in the flood plains where soils are renewed every
year.
Jute products are—gunny bags, ropes, mats, carpets, yams and other ornamental artifacts.
Rubber is produced in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, Andaman and Nicobar islands and Garo
hills of Meghalaya. Conditions: It requires hot and humid climate. Rainfall—200 cms. Temperature—
above 25° C. Maximum rubber is consumed in the manufacture of auto tyres and tubes and cycle
tyres and tubes.
Institutional reforms in Agriculture:
1. Collectivization and consolidation of land holdings to make them economically viable.

2. The green revolution based on the use of package technology and the White Revolution to
increase milk production.
3. Cooperation with farmers and Abolition of Zamindari system.
4. Provision of crop insurance to protect the farmers against losses caused by natural calamities,
i.e., drought, flood, cyclone, fire and disease.
5. Establishment of ‘Grameen Banks’, Cooperative Societies and Banks.
6. Kissan Credit Card (KCC), Personal Accident Insurance Scheme (PAIS).
7. Special weather bulletins and agricultural programmes for farmers on radio and TV.
8. Announcement of minimum support price, remunerative and procurement prices for crops to
check the exploitation of farmers.
Minerals and Energy Resources Class 10 Notes Chapter 5
Mineral:
Geologists define mineral as a “homogeneous, naturally occurring substance with a definable internal
structure.” They have physical and chemical properties by which they can be identified.
Rocks are combinations or aggregates of minerals in varying proportions. Some rocks consist of a
single mineral, e.g., limestone while most rocks consist of several minerals.
The term ‘ore’ is used to describe an accumulation of any mineral mixed with other elements.
Minerals generally occur in the following forms:
1. Veins and lodes. In igneous and metamorphic rocks minerals may occur in the cracks, faults or
joints by getting solidified in them. The smaller occurrences are called veins and the larger
lodes, e.g., metallic minerals like tin, copper, zinc and lead, etc. are found in lodes and veins.
2. In sedimentary rocks minerals occur in beds or layers. They are formed as a result of
deposition, accumulation and concentration in horizontal strata. Some sedimentary minerals are
formed as a result of evaporation, especially in arid regions, e.g., gypsum, potash and salt.
3. Another mode of formation involves decomposition of surface rocks and the removal of soluble
contents, leaving a residual mass of weathered material containing ores. Bauxite is formed this
way.
4. Placer deposits. Certain minerals occur as alluvial deposits in sands of valley floors and the
base of hills, e.g., gold, silver, tin and platinum. These are called placer deposits and contain
minerals which are not corroded by water.
5. Ocean waters contain vast quantities of minerals, e.g., common salt, magnesium and bromide
are largely derived from the ocean waters. The ocean beds are rich in manganese nodules.
Four types of iron ores are:
Magnetite, Hematite, Siderite and Limonite.
Two best ores are:
• Magnetite—It is the finest iron ore available with upto 70% iron content. It has excellent
magnetic qualities and is especially valuable in the electrical industry.
• Hematite—It is the most important industrial iron ore in terms of quantity used. It has 50-60%
iron content.
Four major iron ore belts:
1. Odisha-Jharkhand Belt: Badampahar Mines—High grade hematite ore is found here.

2. Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur Belt: Bailadila Mines—Super high grade hematite ore deposits are
found in Bailadila range. Iron ore from these mines is exported to Japan and South Korea.
3. Bellary-Chitradurga-Chikmaglur Tumkur Belt in Karnataka: Kudremukh Mines — A 100 per cent
export unit. The ore is transported as slurry to a port near Mangalore.
4. Maharashtra-Goa Belt: Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra—Ores are not of very high quality. Iron
ore is exported through Marmagao port.
Aluminium is obtained from bauxite ore. It is an important metal because—it has the strength of
metals such as iron, and is extremely light at the same time; it has good conductivity; and it has great
malleability.
Bauxite deposits are formed by the decomposition of a wide variety of rocks rich in aluminium
silicates. Leading State of bauxite production is Odisha, producing 45% of the total bauxite of India.
The most important bauxite deposits are found in Panchpatmali in Koraput district.
Other States are Gujarat (17%), Jharkhand (14%) and Maharashtra (11%).
Mica is made up of a series of plates or leaves. It splits easily into such thin sheets that a thousand
put together are only a few centimeters thick. Mica is indispensable for electric and electronic industry
because it has —
• excellent di-electric strength;

• Low power loss factor;
• Insulating properties; and
• Resistance to high voltage.
Mica deposits are found in the northern edge of Chhota Nagpur Plateau. Jharkhand is the leading
producer. The important mica producing belt here is Koderma-Gaya-Hazaribagh.
Dangers involved in mining are—
1. The risk of collapsing mine roofs;

2. Inundation, i.e., flooding in mines;
3. Fires in coal-mines is a constant threat to miners; and
4. Poisonous gases, dust and noxious fumes inhaled by miners make them vulnerable to
pulmonary diseases.
Adverse effects of mining on the environment:
1. The water sources in the region get contaminated;
2. Dumping of the slurry and waste leads to degradation of land and soil; and
3. It also leads to an increase in stream and river pollution.
Conservation of minerals is necessary because:
1. The formation of minerals takes a long geological period of millions of years.

2. They are finite in nature, non-renewable and exhaustible.
3. The rate of replenishment of minerals is infinitely small in comparison to rate of consumption.
4. They have to be preserved for our future generations.
Methods of mineral conservation:
1. We should use minerals in a planned and sustainable manner.

2. Improved technologies need to be evolved to allow use of low grade ores at low cost.
3. Recycling of metals, using scrap metals and other substitutes.
4. Wastage’s in mining, processing and distribution should be minimized.
5. Controlled export of minerals.
Energy resources can be classified as conventional and non-conventional sources.
Conventional sources include coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity (both hydel and thermal).
All these sources have been in use for quite some time.
Non-conventional sources of energy are relatively new sources as their large scale generation has
started recently. These include solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, biogas and atomic energy.
Coal as an important source of energy:
1. It provides a substantial part of the nation’s energy needs as it is abundantly available.

2. It is used for power generation, to supply energy for industrial and domestic needs.
3. India is highly dependent on coal for meeting its commercial needs. Its share in total—67%.
4. It can easily be converted into other forms of energy—electricity, gas, oil, etc.
Coal as an industrial raw material:
1. It is an indispensable raw material for iron and steel industry.

2. It provides raw material for chemical industries and synthetic textile industries.
3. Many coal-based products are processed in industries, e.g., coal tar, graphite, soft coke, etc.
4. Power generation industry is mainly based on this fossil fuel.
Four types of coal and their characteristics:
(a) Anthracite—1. It is the highest quality hard coal; 2. It contains more than 80% carbon content. It
gives less smoke. ,
(b) Bituminous— 1. It is the most popular coal in commercial use and has 60-80% carbon content;
2. Metallurgical coal is high grade bituminous coal and is of special value for smelting iron in blast
furnaces.
(c) Lignite—1. It is a low grade brown coal; 2. It is soft with high moisture content. The main lignite
reserve is Neyveli in Tamil Nadu.
(d) Peat—1. It has a low carbon and high moisture content; 2. It has low heating capacity and gives
lot of smoke on burning.
Occurrence of coal:
• Gondwana Coal Belt—A little over 200 million years in age. Mainly metallurgical coal is found in:
(a) Damodar Valley Belt (West Bengal, Jharkhand) which contains important coal mines of
Jharia, Raniganj and Bokaro; (b) The Godavari Valley Belt; (c) The Mahanadi Valley Belt; and
(d) Wardha Valley Belt.
• Tertiary coal deposits are only about 55 million years old, i.e., they are comparatively younger.
They occur in North-Eastern States, namely: (a) Assam (b) Meghalaya, (c) Arunachal Pradesh
and (d) Nagaland.
Petroleum:
It is the second most important energy source of India after coal. It can be easily trans-ported by
pipelines and does not leave any residue. It provides fuel for heat and light. It provides lubricants for
machinery. It provides raw material for a number of manufacturing industries. It is an important fuel
used in transportation sector. Petroleum refineries act as a ‘nodal industry’ for synthetic textiles,
fertilizers and many chemical industries.
Occurrence and formation of petroleum:

Most of the petroleum occurrences in India are associated with anticlines and fault traps in the rock
formations of the tertiary age. In regions of folding anticlines it occurs where oil is trapped in the crest
of the upfold. The oil bearing layer is porous limestone or sandstone through which oil may flow.
Petroleum is also found in fault traps between porous and non-porous rocks.
Distribution of petroleum:
1. Mumbai High—It is an offshore oilfield and is the richest oilfield of India. Its share is about 63%
of India’s petroleum production;
2. Gujarat—It produces 18% petroleum of India. Ankaleshwar is the most important field; and
3. Assam—It is the oldest oil producing State of India. Its contribution in the total production is
16%. Important oilfields are Digboi, Naharkatiya and Moran-Hugrijan.
Non-Conventional Sources of Energy:
• Nuclear Energy:
Nuclear energy is obtained by altering the structure of atom. When the structure of an atom is
altered, too much energy is released in the form of heat. This heat is utilised to generate electric
power. Uranium and Thorium are used for generating atomic power. These minerals are
available in Jharkhand, Aravalli ranges of Rajasthan.
• Solar Energy:
Photovoltaic technology is used to convert solar energy into electricity. The largest solar plant of
India is located at Madhapur near Bhuj. Solar energy holds great promises for the future. It can
help in minimizing the dependence on firewood and animal dung cakes in rural areas. This will
also help in conservation of fossil fuels.
• Wind Power:
The wind farm cluster in Tamil Nadu (from Nagarcoil to Madurai) is the largest cluster in India.
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra and Lakshadweep are also important
centres of wind power production. India is now a “Wind Super Power” in the world.
• Biogas:
Biogas can be produced from shrubs, farm waste, and animal and human waste. It is more
efficient than kerosene, dung cake and charcoal. Biogas plants can be set up at municipal,
cooperative and individual levels. The gobar gas plants provide energy and also manure.
• Tidal Energy:
Dams are built across inlets. The water flows into the inlet during high tide and gets trapped
when the gate is closed. Once the tide recedes, the floodgates are opened so that water can
flow back to the sea. The flow of water is used to run the turbine to generate electricity. A 900
mw tidal energy power plant is set up by the National Hydropower Corporation in the Gulf of
Kuchchh.
• Geo Thermal Energy:
We know that the inside of the earth is very hot. At some places, this heat is released on the
surface through fissures. Groundwater in such areas becomes hot and rises up in the form of
steam. This steam is used to drive turbines. Two geo thermal energy projects—the Parvati
valley near Manikam in Himachal Pradesh and the Puga valley in Ladakh.
Importance of energy:
Energy is required for all activities. It is needed to cook, to provide light and heat, to propel vehicles
and to drive machinery in industries. It is the basic requirement for economic development. Every
sector of national economy—agriculture, industry, transport and commerce needs greater inputs of
energy. Energy demands, in the form of electricity, are growing because of increasing use of
electrical gadgets and appliances.
Ways to conserve energy:
1. Using more of public transport system instead of individual vehicles.

2. Switching off electrical devices when not in use, using power saving devices.
3. Using non-conventional sources of energy such as solar energy, wind energy, etc.
4. Getting the power equipment regularly checked to detect damages and leakages.
Manufacturing Industries Class 10 Notes Chapter 6
Manufacturing.
Production of goods in large quantities after processing from raw materials to more valuable products
is called manufacturing. Manufacturing belongs to secondary sector in which the primary materials
are processed and converted into finished goods.
Importance of manufacturing industries for India:
1. It helps in modernizing agriculture, reduces heavy dependence on agricultural income by

providing jobs in non-agricultural sectors.
2. Industries help in creating jobs and generating more income.
3. Export of manufactured goods expands trade and brings in foreign exchange.
4. Industrial development brings prosperity to the country.
Agriculture and industry in India are interdependent on each other:

Agro-industries in India have boosted agriculture by raising its productivity. Industries depend on
agriculture for their raw materials, e.g. cotton textile industry. Industries provide many agricultural
inputs like irrigation pumps, fertilizers, insecticides, PVC pipes, machines and tools, etc. to the
farmers. Development of different modes of transport by industrial sector has not only helped farmers
to obtain agricultural inputs but has also helped them trade their products.
Factors which affect the location of an industry
• Raw material. Cheap and abundant availability of raw material.

• Labour. Availability of cheap labor is necessary for low cost of production low.
• Power. Cheap and continuous supply of power is extremely necessary.
• Capital. It is necessary for developing infrastructure, for the entire manufacturing process and
for meeting manufacturing expenditure.
• Banking and insurance facilities, favorable government policies.
Five basis on which industries are classified.
• On the basis of source of raw materials used — Agro-based and mineral-based.

• According to their main role — Basic and Consumer industries.
• On the basis of capital investment — Small-scale and large-scale industries.
• On the basis of ownership — Public Sector, Private Sector, Cooperative Sector, Joint Sector.
• Based on the bulk and weight of raw material and finished goods — Heavy industries, Light
If the investment is more than one crore rupees in any industry, it is considered as a large scale
industry. For example, Iron and Steel industry, Cement industry.
If the investment is less than one crore rupees, it is considered as a small scale industry.
Agro-based industries:
They obtain their raw materials from agricultural products. Example: Textiles—cotton, jute, silk and
woolen. Rubber, Sugar, Coffee, Tea and Edible Oil, etc.
Mineral-based industries:
They obtain their raw materials from minerals. Example: Iron and steel, cement, machine tools, petro-
chemicals, etc.
Four types of industries based on ownership are:
1. Public Sector industries: Owned and operated by government agencies, e.g., BHEL, SAIL, etc.
2. Private Sector industries are owned and operated by an individual or a group of individuals,
e.g., TTSCO, Bajaj Auto Ltd., Dabur Industries.
3. Joint Sector industries are jointly run by the Public (government) and Private Sector
(individuals), e.g., Oil India Ltd.
4. Cooperative Sector industries are owned and operated by the producers or suppliers of raw
materials, workers, or both. They pool in the resources and share the profits or losses
proportionately, e.g., sugar industry in Maharashtra and coir industry in Kerdla.
The Textile industry occupies a unique position in the Indian Economy because
It contributes significantly to industrial production (14%). It employs largest number of people after
agriculture, i.e., 35 million persons directly. Its share in the foreign exchange earnings is significant at
about 24.6%. It contributes 4% towards GDP and is the only industry in the country which is self-
reliant and complete in the value chain.
Factors for concentration/location of cotton textile industry in Maharashtra and-Gujarat:
• Availability of raw cotton was abundant and cheap.

• Moist climate in these coastal States also helped in the development of cotton textile industry
because humid conditions are required for weaving the cloth, else the yam breaks.
• Well developed transportation system and accessible port facilities in Maharashtra and Gujarat.
• Proximity to the market as cotton clothes are ideal to wear in these warm and humid States.
Problems faced by the cotton textile industry:

Power supply is erratic in our country. Machinery needs to be upgraded, especially in weaving and
processing sectors. Low output of labor. We still need to import cotton in spite of the fact that the
production of cotton in the country has increased. Stiff competition from the synthetic fiber industry.
Factors responsible for the concentration of jute industry on the banks of Hoogly:
1. Proximity of the jute producing areas to the Hoogly Basin.

2. Inexpensive water transport provided by the Hoogly river.
3. It is well connected by a good network of railways, waterways and roadways.
4. Abundant water for processing raw jute.
5. Availability of cheap labor from West Bengal,Bihar, Odisha and Uttar Pradesh.
6. Kolkata as a port and large urban centre, provides banking, insurance and port facilities.
Reasons for location of sugar mills close to the fields:
1. The raw material used, sugarcane is bulky and perishable.

2. It cannot be transported to long distances because its sucrose content dries up fast, so it should
be processed within 24 hours of its harvest.
Sugar Industry is shifting towards southern and western States, because—Cane produced here
has higher sucrose content, the favorable climatic conditions (cooler climate) ensure a longer growing
and crushing season. The Cooperatives are more successful in these States. Sugar industry being
seasonal in nature, is ideal for the cooperative sector. Yield per hectare is higher in southern States.
Iron and steel industry:

It is a basic or key and heavy industry.
Iron and steel industries is concentrated in and around Chhotanagpur Plateau Region
because
• Low cost of iron-ore which is mined here;

• High grade raw materials in close proximity;
• Availability of cheap labour;
• Vast growth potential in the home market;
• Efficient transport network for their distribution;
• Availability of power because this region has many thermal and hydel power plants;
• Liberalisation and FDI.
Aluminium: Characteristics
It is a light metal; resistant to corrosion; good conductor of heat; It is malleable and becomes strong
when mixed with other metals.
Uses of aluminium:
• It is used for manufacturing aircraft’s;

• It is used for making utensils and packing material;
• It is used for making wires;
• It has gained popularity as a substitute of steel, copper, zinc and lead in a number of industries.
Electronic industry:
It produces a wide range of products from transistor sets to televisions and computers for the
masses. It has helped us set up telephone exchanges, telephones, cellular telecom, radios and many
other equipment which have application in space technology, aviation, defense, meteorological
departments, etc. It has generated employment for a large number of people. This industry has been
a major foreign exchange earner because of its fast growing Business Process Outsourcing (BPO)
Sector. India is one of the leading countries in software development. We have 18 software
technology parks which provide high data communication facility to software experts.
Industrial pollution and its types:
• Air pollution. Smoke is emitted by chemical and paper factories, brick kilns, refineries and
smelting plants, and burning of fossil fuels in factories that ignore pollution norms. Air-borne
particulate materials contain both solid and liquid particles like dust, sprays, mist and smoke.
• Water pollution. Major water pollutants are dyes, detergents, acids and salts. Heavy metals
like lead and mercury, pesticides and fertilizers and synthetic chemicals with carbon, plastics
and rubber, etc. discharged in the water bodies without treatment pollute these water bodies.
• Noise pollution. The generators, compressors, machines, furnaces, looms, exhaust fans, etc.
used by industries create a lot of noise. Noise can raise blood pressure and can have
physiological effects as well.
• Land pollution. Land and water pollution are closely related. Dumping of industrial wastes
especially glass, harmful chemicals, industrial effluents, packing, salts and garbage into the soil.
• Thermal pollution. Wastes from nuclear power plants, nuclear and weapon production facilities
cause cancer and birth defects.
Measures to control air pollution:
1. Particulate matter in the air can be reduced by fitting smoke stacks to factories with fabric filters,
electrostatic precipitators etc.
2. Equipment’s to control aerosol emissions can be used in industries, e.g., electrostatic
precipitators, scrubbers and inertial separators.
3. Smoke can be reduced by using oil or gas instead of coal in factories.
Water pollution caused by industries can be controlled by:
1. Minimizing the use of water for processing by reusing and recycling.

2. Harvesting of rain-water to meet water requirements of industries and other domestic purposes.
3. Treating hot water and effluents before releasing them in rivers and ponds in the following ways:
Primary treatment by mechanical means such as screening, grinding, flocculation and
sedimentation. Secondary treatment by biological process. Tertiary treatment by biological,
chemical and physical processes. This involves recycling of waste water.
Pro-active approach adopted by the National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) for
preserving the natural environment and resources.
1. Optimum utilization and up-gradation of equipment by adopting latest techniques.

2. Minimizing waste generation by maximizing ash utilization.
3. Providing green belts for nurturing ecological balance.
4. Reducing environmental pollution through ash pond management, ash water recycling system
and liquid waste management.
5. Ecological monitoring, reviews and online data base management for all its power stations.
Steps to minimize the environmental degradation caused by industrial development:
1. Minimizing use of water for processing by reusing and recycling in two or more successive
stages. Harvesting of rain water to meet domestic and industrial water requirements.
2. Treating hot water and effluents before releasing them in rivers and ponds.
3. Particulate matter in the air can be reduced by fitting smoke to factories with electrostatic
precipitators, fabric filters, scrubbers and inertial separators. Smoke can be reduced by using oil
or gas instead of coal in factories.
4. Machinery and equipments can be fitted with silencers to prevent noise pollution.
Lifelines of National Economy Class 10 Notes Chapter 7
Means of transport and communication—lifelines of our national economy:

They help in—
• increasing cooperation and assistance between countries;

• easy movement of goods and material between countries;
• trade and commerce within the country;
• reducing distances thus bringing the world closer;
• both production and distribution of goods; and
• movement of large number of people and over long distances.
Roadways:
Importance of road transport vis-a-vis rail transport—
• Construction cost of roads is much lower than that of railway lines.

• Roads can traverse comparatively more dissected and undulating topography.
• Roads can negotiate higher gradients of slopes and as such can traverse mountains such as
the Himalayas.
• Road transport is economical in transportation of few persons and relatively smaller amount of
goods over short distances.
• It also provides door-to-door service, thus the cost of loading and unloading is much lower.
• Road transport is also used as a feeder to other modes of transport.
Six classes of roads in India according to their capacity:
• Golden Quadrilateral Super Highways: It’s a major road development project linking Delhi-
Kolkata-Chennai-Mumbai and Delhi by six-lane Super Highways.
• The North-South corridors linking Srinagar (Jammu & Kashmir) and Kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu),
and East-West Corridor connecting Silcher (Assam) and Porbander (Gujarat) are part of this
project. ‘
• They are made to reduce the time and distance between the mega cities of India.
National Highways:
National Highways link all Major cities of extreme parts of the country. These are the primary road
systems and are maintained by the Central Public Works Department (CPWD). The National Highway
7 between Varanasi and Kanyakumari is the longest highway of India.
• State Highways: Roads linking a state capital with different district headquarters. These roads
are constructed and maintained by State Public Works Department in State and Union
Territories.
• District Roads: These roads connect the district headquarters with other places of the district.
These roads are maintained by the Zila Parishad.
• Other Roads: Rural roads, which link rural areas and villages with towns, are classified under
this category. Under the Pradhan Mantri Grameen Sadak Yojana scheme special provisions are
made so that every village in the country is linked to a major town in the country by an all
season motorable road.
• Border Roads: Border Roads Organisation constructs and maintains roads in the bordering
areas of the country. These roads are of strategic importance in the northern and northeastern
border areas.
Importance of Railways in India:
They are the principal mode of transportation for freight and passengers in India. Railways also make
it possible to conduct different activities like business, sightseeing, and pilgrimage along with
transportation of goods over longer distances. Indian Railways plays a role of national integration.
Railways in India bind the economic life of the country as well as accelerate the development of the
industry and agriculture.
Factors which influence the distribution pattern of Railway network in India:

The distribution pattern of the Railway network in the country has been largely influenced by
physiographic, economic and administrative factors. The density railway network is high in the
northern plains because they are vast level land, have high population density and rich agricultural
resources. In the hilly terrains of the peninsular region, railway tracts are laid through low hills, gaps
or tunnels therefore it difficult to construct railway lines. The Himalayan mountainous regions too are
unfavorable for the construction of railway lines due to high relief, sparse population and lack of
economic opportunities. It was difficult to lay railway lines on the sandy plain of western Rajasthan,
swamps of Gujarat, forested tracks of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Jharkhand.
Importance of Pipelines in India:

In the past, these were used to transport water to cities and industries. Now, these are used for
transporting crude oil, petroleum products and natural gas from oil and natural gas fields to refineries,
fertilizer factories and big thermal power plants. Solids can also be transported through a pipeline
when converted into slurry. Because of pipelines refineries like Barauni, Mathura, Panipat and gas
based fertilizer plants could be located in the interiors of India. Initial cost of laying pipelines is high
but subsequent running costs are minimal. It rules out trans-shipment (during transportation) losses
or delays.
Three important networks of pipeline transportation in the country:
• From oil field in upper Assam to Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh).

• From Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar in Punjab.
• Gas pipeline from Hazira in Gujarat connects Jagdishpur in Uttar Pradesh,
Importance of water transport:

Waterways are the cheapest means of transport. They are most suitable for carrying heavy and bulky
goods. It is a fuel-efficient and environment friendly mode.
The National Waterways by the Government
1. The Ganga river between Allahabad and Haldia (1620 km)-N.W. No.1
2. The Brahmaputra river between Sadiya and Dhubri (891 km)-N.W. No.2
3. The West-Coast Canal in Kerala (Kottapurma-Komman, Udyogamandal and Champakkara
canals-205 km)-N.W. No.3
Major Sea Ports:
1. Kandla: It was the first port developed soon after Independence. It was developed to ease the
volume of trade on the Mumbai port. Kandla is a tidal port.
2. Mumbai: It is the biggest port with a spacious natural and well-sheltered harbour.
3. The Jawaharlal Nehru port: It was planned with a view to decongest the Mumbai port and serve
as a hub port for this region.
4. Martnagao port (Goa): It is the premier iron ore exporting port of the country. This port accounts
for about fifty per cent of India’s iron ore export.
5. New Mangalore port: It export iron ore from Kudremukh mines.
6. Kochi: It is the located at the entrance of a lagoon with a natural harbour.
7. Tuticorin, in Tamil Nadu: This port has a natural harbour. It trades a large variety of cargoes to
our neighbouring countries like Sri Lanka, Maldives, etc.
8. Chennai: It is one of the oldest artificial ports of the country. It is ranked next to Mumbai in terms
of the volume of trade and cargo.
9. Vishakhapatnam: It is the deepest landlocked and well-protected port. This port was developed
as a port for iron ore exports.
10. Paradip port: It is located in Odisha. It specialises in the export of iron ore.
11. Kolkata: It is an inland riverine port. This port serves a very large and rich hinterland of Ganga-
Brahmaputra basin. Being a tidal port, it requires constant dredging of Floogly River.
12. Haldia port: It was developed as a subsidiary port, in order to relieve growing pressure on the
Kolkata port.
Importance of Airways:
The air travel, today, is the fastest, most comfortable and prestigious mode of transport. It can cover
very difficult terrains like high mountains, dreary deserts, dense forests and also long oceanic
stretches with great ease. Air travel has made access easier in the north-eastern part of the country
which has big rivers, dissected relief, dense forests and frequent floods and international frontiers.
Communication:
Two major means of communication in India:
• Personal communication including letter, email, telephone, etc.

• Mass communication including television, radio, press, films, etc.
Different types of mail handled by Indian postal department:
• First class mail: Cards and envelopes are airlifted between stations covering both land and air.
• Second class mail: includes book packets, registered newspapers and periodicals. They are
carried by surface mail, covering land and water transport.
Importance of mass communication:

Mass communication provides entertainment. They create awareness among people about various
national programmes and policies. They provide variety of programmes in national, regional and local
languages for various categories of people, spread over different parts of the country. They
strengthen democracy in the country by providing news and information to the masses. It helps in
agriculture sector by helping farmers by providing them information about new agricultural practices.
Doordarshan is the national television channel of India. It is one of the largest terrestrial networks in
the world. The largest numbers of newspapers published in the country are in Hindi, followed by
English and Urdu. India is the largest producer of feature films in the world.
International Trade:
• International trade is defined as the exchange of goods and services between two or more
countries.
• It is also considered as economic barometer because advancement of international trade of a
country leads to economic prosperity. Income earned from international trade constitutes a
major part in the net national income. Large international trade leads to revival of domestic
economy.
Balance of trade:
• The difference between export and import is known as balance of trade.

• If the value of exports is more than the value of imports, it is called favorable balance of trade.
And if the value of imports is greater than the value of exports it is known as unfavorable
balance of trade.
• Favorable balance of trade is regarded good for the economic development where as
unfavorable balance of trade is seen harmful for the domestic economy.
Importance of tourism as a trade:
• Tourism in India earns huge Foreign exchange,

• Over 2.6 million foreign tourists visit India every year.
• More than 15 million people are directly engaged in the tourism industry.
• Tourism also promotes national integration,
• It provides support to local handicrafts and cultural pursuits.
• It also helps in the development of international understanding about our culture and heritage.
• Foreign tourists visit India for heritage tourism, eco tourism, adventure tourism, cultural tourism,
medical tourism and business tourism.
• Rajasthan, Goa, Jammu and Kashmir and temple towns of south India are important
destinations of foreign tourists in India.
• There is vast potential of tourism development in the north-eastern states and the interior parts
of Himalayas, but due to strategic reasons these have not been encouraged so far
Class 11 Notes Chapter 1 Geography as a Discipline
We depend on the resources to sustain ourselves in the surrounding areas. Primitive societies
subsisted on ‘natural means of subsistence’, i.e. edible plants and animals.
Importance of Geography: Geography helps us to understand the diversity and the causes and
factors that have created it. Through geography we understand how spherical earth is presented
through a map and we get information about soil, minerals, weather, climate, population, means of
transport and communication, local landscape, etc. It also tells us about rivers, mountains, plateaus,
plains, deserts, seas, lakes and cultural facts.
The term geography was first coined by Eratosthenese, a Greek scholar (276-194 BC.). The word
has been derived from two roots from Greek language geo (earth) and graphos (description). Put
together, they mean description of the earth. The earth has always been seen as the abode of human
beings and thus, scholars defined geography as, “the description of the earth as the abode of human
beings”.
Geographers do not study only the variations in the phenomena over the earth’s surface (space) but
also study the associations with the other factors which cause these variations. For example,
cropping patterns differ from region to region but this variation in cropping pattern, as a phenomenon,
is related to variations in soils, climates, demands in the market, capacity of the farmer to invest and
technological inputs available to her/him.
Geography as a discipline is concerned with three sets of questions:
• Some questions are concerned with the identification of the patterns of natural and cultural
features as found over the surface of the earth. These are the questions about “what”?
• Second type of questions are related to the distribution of the natural and human/ cultural
features over the surface of the earth. These are the questions about where?
• The third question is related to the explanation or the causal relationships between features and
the processes and phenomena.
Many disciplines from natural sciences such as geology, pedology, oceanography, botany, zoology
and meteorology and a number of sister disciplines in social sciences such as economics, history,
sociology, political science, anthropology, etc. study different aspects of the earth’s surface.
A geographer is required to have a broad understanding of all the related fields, to be able to logically
integrate them. A geographer should have some proficiency in mathematics and art, particularly in
drawing maps. Geography is very much linked with the study of astronomical locations and deals with
latitudes and longitudes. The cartographic and quantitative techniques require sufficient proficiency in
mathematics, statistics and econometrics.
All the social science disciplines, viz. sociology, political science, economics and demography study
different aspects of social reality. The branches of geography, viz. social, political, economic and
population and settlements are closely linked with these disciplines as each one of them has spatial
attributes.
The major approaches to study geography have been
• Systematic and
• Regional.
The systematic geography was introduced by Alexander Von Humboldt, a German geographer
(1769-1859) while regional geography approach was developed by another German geographer and
a contemporary of Humboldt, Karl Ritter (1779-1859).
Important Terms:
• Geography: Geography is concerned with the description and explanation of the areal
differentiation of the earth’s surface. (Richard Hartshome); In other words, Geography studies the
differences of phenomena usually related in different parts of the earth’s surface. (Hettner)
GEOGRAPHY-XI
• Geo-morphology: It is concerned with the study of land forms, their evolution and related
processes.
• Climatology: It is concerned with the study of structure of atmosphere and elements of weather
and climates and climatic types and regions.
• Hydrology: It studies the realm of water over the surface of the earth including oceans, lakes,
rivers and other water bodies and its effect on different life forms including human life and their
activities.
• Soil Geography: It is concerned with the study the processes of soil formation, soil types, their
fertility status, distribution and use.
• Social/Cultural Geography: It is concerned with the study of society and its spatial dynamics as
well as the cultural elements contributed by the society.
• Population Geography: It studies population growth, distribution, density, sex ratio, migration and
occupational structure etc.
• Settlement Geography: It studies the characteristics of rural and urban settlements.
• Economic Geography: It studies economic activities of the people including agriculture, industry7,
tourism, trade, and transport, infrastructure and services, etc.
• Historical Geography: It studies the historical processes through which the space gets organised.
In other words, it studies how history has influenced the geography of a region.
• Political Geography: It studies the impact of political events and studies boundaries, space
relations between neighboring political units, delimitation of constituencies, election scenario and
develops theoretical framework to understand the political behavior of the population.
• Bio-geography: It has emerged as a result of the interface between physical geography and
human geography. It has three branches: Plant Geography, Zoo Geography and Ecology.
• Plant Geography: It studies the spatial pattern of natural vegetation in their habitats.
• Zoo Geography: It studies the spatial patterns and geographic characteristics of animals and their
habitats.
• Ecology: It is concerned with the scientific study of the habitats characteristic of species.
• Environmental Geography: It is concerned with environmental problems such as land gradation,
pollution and environment conservation.
Class 11 Notes Chapter 2 The Origin and Evolution of
the Earth
Many hypotheses were put forth by different philosophers and scientists regarding the origin of the
earth.
One of the earlier and popular arguments was by German philosopher Immanuel Kant which was
revised by mathematician Laplace in 1796. It is known as Nebular Hypothesis. According to this
hypothesis the planets were formed out of a cloud of material associated with a youthful sun, which
was slowly rotating.
In 1900, Chamberlain and Moulton considered that a wandering star approached the sun. As a result,
a cigar-shaped extension of material was separated from the solar surface. As the passing star
moved away, the material separated from the solar surface continued to revolve around the sun and it
slowly condensed into planets. Later on, the arguments considered of a companion to the sun to have
been coexisting. These arguments are called binary theories.
The most popular argument regarding the origin of the universe is the Big Bang Theory. It is also
called expanding universe hypothesis. The Big Bang Theory considers the following stages in the
development of the universe.
• In the beginning, all matter forming the universe existed in one place in the form of a“tiny ball”
(singular atom) with an unimaginably small volume, infinite temperature and infinite density.
• At the Big Bang the “tiny ball” exploded violently. This led to a huge expansion. It is now generally
accepted that the event of big bang took place 13.7 billion years before the present.
• Within 300,000 years from the Big Bang, temperature dropped to 4,500 K (Kelvin) and gave rise
to atomic matter. The universe became transparent.
A galaxy contains a large number of stars. Galaxies spread over vast distances that are measured in
thousands of light-years. The diameters of individual galaxies range from 80,000-150,000 light years.
Akash Ganga or the milky way, our galaxy started to form by accumulation of hydrogen gas in the
form of a very large cloud called nebula. Eventually, growing nebula develops localised clumps of
gas. These clumps continue to grow into even denser gaseous bodies, giving rise to formation of
stars. The formation of stars is believed to have taken place some 5-6 billion years ago.
Our Solar system consists of eight planets. The nebula from which our Solar system is supposed to
have been formed, started its collapse and core formation some time 5-5.6 billion years ago and the
planets were formed about 4.6 billion years ago. Our solar system consists of the sun (the star), 8
planets, 63 moons, millions of smaller bodies like asteroids and comets and huge quantity of dust-
grains and gases.
The Solar System:
The moon is the only natural satellite of the’ earth. It is now generally believed that the formation of
moon, as a satellite of the earth, is an outcome of ‘giant impact’ or what is described as “the big
splat”. A bbdy of the size of one to three times that of mars collided into the earth sometime shortly
after the earth was formed. It blasted a large part of the earth into space. This portion of blasted
material then continued to orbit the earth and eventually formed into the present moon about 4.44
billion years ago.
There are three stages in the evolution of the present atmosphere. The first stage is marked by the
loss of primordial atmosphere. In the second stage, the hot interior of the earth contributed to the
evolutipn of the atmosphere. Finally, the composition of the atmosphere was modified by the living
world through the process of photosynthesis.
10. Sometime around 3,800 million years ago, life began to evolve. However, around 2,500-3,000
million years before the present, the process of photosynthesis got evolved. Life was f confined to the
oceans for a long time
Geological Time Scale:
The record of life that existed on this planet in different periods is found in rocks in the form of fossils.
The microscopic structures closely related to the present form of blue algae have been found in
geologicad formations much older than some 3,000 million years. It can be assumed that life began to
evolve sometime 3,800 million years ago.
Important Terms:
• Light Year: A light year is equal to the number of kilometers traveled by light per second. It is a
measure of distance and not of time. Light travels at a speed of 300,000 km/second. Therefore,
the distances the light will travel in one year is taken to be as one light year.
• Planetesimals: The gas cloud starts getting condensed and the matter around the core develops
into small- rounded objects. These small-rounded objects by the process of cohesion develop
into what is called planetesimals.
• Universe: All matter, energy, heavenly bodies, and all that is there in space is as a group called
the universe.
• Galaxy: Galaxy is a cluster of millions of stars and solar systems.
• Outer Planets: Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune and Pluto are called Outer Planets.
• Inner Planets: Mercury ,Venus, Earth and Mars are called Inner Planets.
• Big Bang Theory: The Big Bang Theory, also called as expand universe hypothesis. Edwin
Hubble in 1920 provided the evidence that the universe is expanding. This theory is most
universally accepted regarding origin of the earth.
• Binary theory: It is the principle of the origin of the earth given by Chamberlain and Moulton.
• Solar System: It consists of the sun, planets and their satellites and various other smaller
heavenly bodies such as asteroids, comets and meteors.
• Nebular Hypothesis: It was a theory related to origin of the earth given by Immanuel Kant in 1755
and revised by Laplace in 1796.
• Nebula: Slow circular moving gaseous clouds are called nebula.
• The big splat: The origin of the moon as a satellite of the earth is the result of big collision which
is called “the big splat”.
• Differentiation: The process through which the earth forming material got separated into different
layers is called differentiation.
• Dwarf Planet: According to International Astronomical Union (IAU) on August 24,2006, a planet is
a celestial body that
o orbits around the sun
o has sufficient mass so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round)
shape. The non-satellites bodies fulfilling these two rules are called dwarf planets.
Pluto is now considered a dwarf planet. Ceres, Eris, Makemake, Haumea are some
other dwarf planets.
• Jovian: Jovian means jupiter-like.
• Akash Ganga: Akash Ganga or milky way is the name of the galaxy to which our earth belongs.
• Expansion of Universe: Expansion of universe means increase in the distance between galaxies.
Class 11 Notes Chapter 3 Interior of the Earth
• Gold mines in South Africa are as deep as 3 – 4 km. Going beyond this depth is not possible as it
is very hot at this depth.
• The earth’s radius is 6,370 km.
• Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and magma are major sources of the information on interior of
the earth. The indirect sources include analysis of the information, meteors reaching the earth,
gravitation, magnetic field, and seismic activity.
• We get to know through mining activity that temperature and pressure increase with the
increasing distance from the surface towards the interior in deeper depths. Moreover, it is also
known that the density of the material also increases with depth. It is possible to find the rate of
change of these characteristics.
• The lithosphere refers to the portion of depth up to 200 km from the surface of the earth.
• An instrument called ‘seismograph’ records the waves reaching the surface.
• The velocity of waves changes as they travel through materials with different densities. The
denser the material, the higher is the velocity.
• Seismographic waves are of two types: P waves and S waves.
• The seismographs located beyond 145° from epicenter, record the arrival of P-waves, but not
that of S-waves.
• A zone between 105° and 145° from epicenter was identified as the shadow zone for both the
types of waves.
• The entire zone beyond 105° does not receive S-waves. The shadow zone of S-wave is much
larger than that of the P-waves. The shadow zone of P-waves appears as a band around the
earth between 105° and 145° away from the epicenter.
• Earthquakes are of two types: a) Tectonic earthquake and b) Volcanic earthquake.
• The magnitude of earthquake is measured through Richter Scale. It relates to the energy
released during the quake. The magnitude is expressed in absolute numbers, 0-10. The intensity
scale is named after Mercalli, an Italian seismologist.
• The Crust is the outermost solid part of the earth. It is brittle in nature. The thickness of the crust
varies under the oceanic and continental areas. Oceanic crust is thinner as compared to the
continental crust.
• The mean thickness of oceanic crust is 5 km whereas that of the continental is around 30 km.
The continental crust is thicker in the areas of major mountain systems. It is as much as 70 km
thick in the Himalayan region.
• The portion of the interior beyond the crust is called the mantle. The mantle extends from Moho’s
discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 km.
• The Core is the innermost portion of the earth. The core- mantle boundary is located at the depth
of 2,900 km. The outer core is in liquid state while the inner core is in solid state. The depth of the
core is from 2900 km to 6378 km.
• Barring the basalt flows, the shield volcanoes are the largest of all the volcanoes on the earth.
The Hawaiian volcanoes are the most famous examples.
Important Terms:
• Earthquake: An earthquake in simple words is shaking of the earth. It is a natural event.It is
caused due to release of energy, which generates waves that travel in all directions.
• Lithosphere: The lithosphere refers to the portion of depth up to 200 km from the surface of the
earth,
• Volcano: A volcano is a place where gases, ashes and/or molten rock material – lava – escape to
the ground.
• Active Volcano: A volcano is called an active volcano if the materials mentioned are being
released or have been Released out in the recent past.
• Magma: As long as liquid rocks arena the upper portion of the mantle, it is called magma.
• Lava: When magma reaches the irust of the earth, it is called lava.
• Intrusive Forms: The lava that, cools within the crustal portions assumes different forms. These
forms are called intrusive forms.
• Batholiths: A large body of magmatic material that cools in the deeper depth of the crust develops
in the form of large domfss.’Batholiths are the cooled portion of magma chambers.
• Caldera: These are the most explosive of the earth’s volcanoes. They are usually so explosive
that when they erupt they fend to collapse on themselves rather than building any tall structure.
The collapsed depressions are called calderas.
• Lacoliths: These are large dome-shaped intrusive bodies with a level base and connected by a
pipe-like conduit from below. It resembles the surface volcanic domes of composite volcano, only
these are located at deeper depths.
• Lapolith: As and when the lava moves upwards, a portion of the same may tend to move in a
horizontal direction wherever it finds a weak plane. It may get rested in different forms.‘ In case it
develops into a saucer shape, concave to the sky body, it is called lapolith.
• Phacolith: A wavy mass of intrusive rocks, at times, is found at the base of synclines or at the top
of anticline in folded igneous country. Such wavy materials have a definite conduit to source
beneath in the form of magma chambers (subsequently developed as batholiths). These are
called the phacoliths.
• Sills: The near horizontal bodies gf the intrusive igneous rocks are called sill or sheet, depending
on the thickness of the material. The thinner ones are called sheets while the thick horizontal
deposits are called sills.
• Hypocentre: The point where the energy is released is called the focus of an earthquake,
alternatively, it is called the hypocentre.
• Epicentre: The point on the surface which is nearest to the focus of energy is called epicenterIt is
the first one to experience the waves. It is a point directly above the focus.
• Crust: The Crust is the outermost solid part of the earth.
• Mantle: The portion of the interior beyond the crust is called the mantle.
• Gravity Anomalies: The difference in readings from the expected values is called gravity
anomaly. Gravity anomalies give us information about the distribution of mass of the material in
the crust of the earth.
• Shadow Zone: There exist some specific areas where the waves are not reported. Such a zone is
called the ‘shadow zone’.
• Richter Scale: The earthquake events are scaled either according to the magnitude or intensity of
the shock. The magnitude scale is known as the Richter scale.
• Shield Volcanoes: These volcanoes are mostly made up of basalt, a type of lava that is very fluid
when erupted. For this reason, these volcanoes are not steep.
• Composite Volcanoes: These volcanoes are characterised by eruptions of cooler and more
viscous waves than basalt. These volcanoes often result in explosive eruptions.
• P-waves: P waves move faster and are the first to arrive at the surface. These are also called
‘primary waves’.
• S-.waves: S-waves arrive at the surface with some time lag. These are called secondary waves .
Class 11 Notes Chapter 4 Distribution of Oceans and
Continents
Continents cover 29% of the surface of the earth and the remainder 71% is under oceanic waters.
Alfred Wegener—a German meteorologist put forth a comprehensive argument in the form of “the
continental drift theory” in 1912. This was regarding the distribution of the oceans and the continents.
According to Wegener, all the continents formed a single continental mass and mega ocean
surrounded the same. The super continent was named PANGAEA, which meant all earth. The mega-
ocean was called PANTHALA5SA, meaning all water.
Wegener argued that, around 200 million years ago, the super continent, Pangaea, began to split.
Pangaea first broke into two large continental masses as Laurasia and Gondwanaland forming the
northern and southern components respectively. Subsequently, Laurasia and Gondwanaland
continued to break into various smaller continents that exist today.
The radiometric dating methods developed in the recent period have facilitated correlating the rock
formation from different continents across the vast ocean.
The ocean floor may be segmented into three major divisions based on the depth as well as the
forms of relief. These divisions are continental margins, deep-sea basins and mid-ocean ridges.
Concept of sea floor spreading was proposed by Hess in 1981 who believed that new lava pushes
out the plates from the mid-oceanic ridge
It was in 1967, McKenzie and Parker and also Morgan, independently collected the available ideas
and came out with another concept termed Plate Tectonics.
India is supposed to have started her northward journey about 200 million years ago at the time when
Pangaea broke. India collided with Asia about 40-50 million years ago causing rapid uplift of the
Himalayas.
The theory of plate tectonics proposes that the earth’s lithosphere is divided into seven major and
some minor plates.
Important Terms:
• Convective flow: The heated material rises to the surface, spreads and begins to cool, and then
sinks back into deeper depths. This cycle is repeated over and over to generate what scientists
call a convection cell or convective flow.
• PANGAEA: The super continent was named PANGAEA, which meant all earth.
• PANTHALASSA: The mega-ocean was called PANTHALASSA, meaning all water.
• Rim of Fire: The rim of the Pacific is also called rim of fire due to the existence of active
volcanoes in this area.
• Convergent Boundaries: Where the crust is destroyed as one plate dived under another, it is
called convergent boundaries.
• Subduction Zone: The location where sinking of a plate occurs is called a subduction zone.
• Divergent Boundaries: Where new crust is generated as the plates pull away from each other,
these are called divergent boundaries.
• Spreading Sites: The sites where the plates move away from each other are called spreading
sites.
• Transform Boundaries: Where the crust is neither produced nor destroyed as the plates slide
horizontally past each other.
• Tectonic plate: It is a massive, irregularly-shaped slab of solid rock, generally composed of both
continental and oceanic lithosphere. Plates move horizontally over the asthenosphere as rigid
units. .
• Tillite: It is the sedimentary rock formed out of deposits of glaciers.
• Sea Floor Spreading: The deep trenches have deep-seated earthquake occurrences while in the
mid- oceanic ridge areas, the quake foci have shallow depths. These facts and a detailed
analysis of magnetic properties of the rocks on either sides of the mid-oceanic ridge led Hess in
1961 to propose his hypothesis. It was called the “sea floor spreading”.
Class 11 Notes Chapter 5 Minerals and Rocks
About 98 per cent of the total crust of the earth is composed of eight elements like oxygen, silicon,
aluminium, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium, and the rest is constituted by titanium,
hydrogen, phosphorous, manganese, sulphur, carbon, nickel and other elements.
Thus, a mineral is a naturally occurring organic and inorganic substance, having an orderly atomic
structure and a definite chemical composition and physical properties. A mineral is composed of two
or more elements. But, sometimes single element minerals like sulphur, copper, silver, gold, graphite
etc. are found.
There are many different kinds of rocks which are grouped under three families on the basis of their
mode of formation. They are:
• Igneous Rocks — solidified from magma and lava;

• Sedimentary Rocks—the result of deposition of fragments of rocks by exogenous processes;
• Metamorphic Rocks — formed out of existing rocks undergoing recrystallisation.
The basic source of all minerals is the hot magma in the interior of the earth. When magma cools,
crystals of minerals appear and a systematic series of minerals are formed in sequence to solidify so
as to form rocks.
Granite, gabbro, pegmatite, basalt, volcanic breccia and tuff are some of the examples of . igneous
rocks.
The word ‘sedimentary’ is derived from the Latin word sedimentum, which means settling.
There are at least 2,000 minerals that have been named and identified in the earth crust; but almost
all the commonly occurring ones are related to six major mineral groups that are known as major rock
forming minerals.
Important terms:
• Petrology: It is science of rocks. A petrologist studies rocks in all their aspects viz., mineral
composition, texture, structure, origin, occurrence, alteration and relationship with other rocks.
• Igneous Rocks: Igneous rocks form out of magma and lava from the interior of the earth, they are
known as primary rocks. The igneous rocks (Ignis – in Latin means ‘Fire’) are formed when
magma cools and solidifies.
• Sedimentary Rocks: The word ‘sedimentary’ is derived from the Latin word sedimentum, which
means settling.
• Metamorphic Rocks: The word metamorphic means ‘change of form’. These rocks form under the
action of pressure, volume and temperature (PVT) changes. Metamorphism occurs when rocks
are forced down to lower levels by tectonic processes or when molten magma rising through the
crust comes in contact with the crustal rocks or the underlying rocks are subjected to great
amounts of pressure by overlying rocks.
• Lithification: Rocks (igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic) of the earth’s surface are exposed
to denudational agents, and are broken up into various sizes of fragments. Such fragments are
transported by different exogenous agencies and deposited. These deposits through compaction
turn into rocks. This process is called lithification.
• Metamorphism: It is a process by which already consolidated rocks undergo recrystallisation and
reorganization of materials within original rocks.
• Dynamic Metamorphism: Mechanical disruption and reorganization of the original minerals within
rocks due to breaking and crushing without any appreciable chemical changes is called dynamic
metamorphism.
• Rock Cycle: Rock cycle is a continuous process through which old rocks are transformed into
new ones.
• Lineation: In the process of metamorphism in some rocks grains or minerals get arranged in
layers or lines. Such an arrangement of minerals or grains in metamorphic rocks is called foliation
or lineation.
• Banding: Sometimes minerals or materials of different groups are arranged into alternating thin to
thick layers appearing in light and dark shades. Such a structure in metamorphic rocks is called
banding.
• Banding Rocks: Rocks displaying banding are called banded rocks.
Class 11 Notes Chapter 6 Geomorphic Processes
The earth’s crust is dynamic. It is undergoing change continuously. Some powers have led to
changes in form of the earth. These powers have been divided into two parts: internal and external.
Internal forces keep giving birth to new land forms. External forces keep changing the forms of exiting
land forms. In other words, the earth’s surface is being continuously subjected to by external forces
originating within the earth’s atmosphere and by internal forces from within the earth. The external
forces are known as exogenic forces and the internal forces are known as endogenic forces.
The endogenic and exogenic forces causing physical stresses and chemical actions on earth
materials and bringing about changes in the configuration of the surface of the earth are known as
geomorphic processes. Diastrophism and volcanism are endogenic geomorphic processes.
Weathering, mass wasting, erosion and deposition are exogenic geomorphic processes.
All processes that move, elevate or build up portions of the earth’s crust come under
diastrophism. They include:
• orogenic processes
• epeirogenic processes
• earthquakes
• plate tectonics.
Temperature and precipitation are the two important climatic elements that control various processes.
There are three major groups of weathering processes :
• chemical
• physical or mechanical
• biological weathering processes
A group of weathering processes viz; solution, carbonation, hydration, oxidation and reduction act on
the rocks to decompose, dissolve or reduce them to a fine clastic state through chemical reactions by
oxygen, surface and/or soil water and other acids. Water and air (oxygen and carbon dioxide) along
with heat must be present to speed up all chemical reactions. Over and above the carbon dioxide
present in the air, decomposition of plants and animals increases the quantity of carbon dioxide
underground.
Oxidation occurs where there is ready access to the atmosphere and oxygenated waters. The
minerals most commonly involved in this process are iron, manganese, sulfur etc. In the process of
oxidation rock breakdown occurs due to the disturbance caused by addition of oxygen. Red color of
iron upon oxidation turns to brown or yellow.
Hydration is the chemical addition of water. Minerals take up water and expand; this expansion
causes an increase in the volume of the material itself or rock. The process causes fatigue in the
rocks and may lead to their disintegration,
Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate with minerals and is a common process
helping the breaking down of feldspars and carbonate minerals. Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
and soil air is absorbed by water, to form carbonic acid that acts as a weak acid. Calcium carbonates
and magnesium carbonates are dissolved in carbonic acid and are removed in a solution without
leaving any residue resulting in cave formation.
When oxidized minerals are placed in an environment where oxygen is absent, reduction takes place.
Such conditions exist usually below the water table, in areas of stagnant water and waterlogged
ground. Red colour of iron upon reduction turns to greenish or bluish grey.
Debris Avalanches and landslides transfer the mass of rock debris down the slopes under the direct
influence of gravity. That means, air, water or ice do not carry debris with them from place to place
but on the other hand the debris may carry with it air, water or ice.
In our country, debris avalanches and landslides occur very frequently in the Himalayas. There are
many reasons for this. One, the Himalayas are tectonically active. They are mostly made up of
sedimentary rocks and unconsolidated and semi-consolidated deposits. The slopes are very steep.
Important Terms:
• Landslides: These are relatively rapid and perceptible movements. The materials involved are
relatively dry. The size and shape of the detached mass depends on the nature of discontinuities
in the rock, the degree of weathering and the steepness of the slope.
• Gradation: The phenomenon of wearing down of relief variations of the surface of the earth
through erosion is known as gradation.
• Geomorphic processes: The endogenic and exogenic forces causing physical stresses and
chemical actions on earth materials and bringing about changes in the configuration of the
surface of the earth are known as geomorphic processes.
• Exogenic forces: The external forces are known as exogenic forces. These forces derive their
energy from atmosphere determined by the ultimate energy from the sun and also the gradients
created by tectonic factors.
• Endogenic forces: The internal forces are known as endogenic forces.
• Geomorphic agents: An agent is a mobile medium (like running water, moving ice masses, wind,
waves and currents etc.) which removes, transports and deposits earth materials. Running
water, groundwater, glaciers, wind, waves and currents, etc., can be called geomorphic agents.
• Diastrophism: All processes that move, elevate or build up portions of the earth’s crust come
under diastrophism.
• Orogepy: It is a mountain building process
• Epeirogeny: It is continental building process.
• Volcanism: Volcanism includes the movement of molten rock called magma onto or toward the
earth’s surface and also formation of many intrusive and extrusive volcanic forms.
• Stress: Gravitational force acts upon all earth materials having a sloping surface and tend to
produce movement of matter in down slope direction. Force applied per unit area is called stress.
• Weathering: Weathering is defined as mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition of
rocks through the actions of various elements of weather and climate.
• Denudation: The term ‘denude’ means to strip off or to uncover. Weathering, mass wasting/
movements, erosion and transportation are included in denudation.
• Solution: When something is dissolved in water or acids, the water or acid with dissolved
contents is called solution.
• Carbonation: Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate with minerals and is a
common process helping the breaking down of feldspars and carbonate minerals.
• Hydration: Hydration is the chemical addition of water.
• Structure: The term structure includes such aspects of rocks as folds, faults, orientationand
inclination of beds, presence or absence of joints, bedding planes, hardness or softness of
constituent minerals, chemical susceptibility of mineral constituents; the permeability or
impermeability etc. ,
• Enrichment: When rocks undergo weathering, some materials are removed through chemical or
physical leaching by groundwater and thereby the concentration of valuable materials increases.
It makes the concentration of the same valuable material sufficient and economically viable to be
exploited, processed and refined. This is called enrichment.
• Debris Slide: Rapid rolling or sliding of earth debris without backward rotation of mass is known
as debris slide.
• Erosion: The erosion can be defined as “application of the kinetic energy associated with the
agent to the surface of the land along which it moves”.
• Soil: A pedologist who studies soils defines soil as a collection of natural bodies on the earth’s
surface containing living and/or dead matter and supporting or capable of supporting plants. Soil
is a dynamic medium in which many chemical, physical and biological activities go on constantly.
• Deposition: The erosional agents loose their velocity and hence energy on gentler slopes and the
materials carried by them start to settle themselves. Therefore, deposition is not actually the work
of any agent. The coarser materials get deposited first and finer ones later. By deposition
depressions get filled up.
• Slump: Slump is slipping of one or several units of rock debris with a backward rotation with
respect to the slope over which the movement takes place.
• Pedology: It is soil science.
• Pedologist: A pedologist is a soil-scientist.
• Parent Material: Parent material is a passive control factor in soil formation.
• Earth Flow: Movement of water-saturated clayey or silty earth materials down low-angle terraces
or hillsides is known as earth flow.
• Nitrogen Fixation: Humus accumulates in cold climates as bacterial growth is slow. With
undecomposed organic matter because of low bacterial activity, layers of peat develop in sub-
arctic and tundra climates. In humid tropical and equatorial climates, bacterial growth and action
is intense and dead vegetation is rapidly oxidised leaving very low humus content in the soil.
Further, bacteria and other soil organisms take gaseous nitrogen from the air and convert it into a
chemical form that can be used by plants. This process is known as nitrogen fixation.
• Desilication: Removal of silica from the soil is known as desilication.
• Exfoliation: It is a result but not a process. Flaking off of more or less curved sheets of shells from
over rocks or bedrock results in smooth and rounded surfaces is called exfoliation.
• Exfoliation domes: Large, smooth rounded domes are called exfoliation domes.
• Tors: In rocks like granites, smooth surfaced and rounded small to big boulders form due to such
exfoliation. It is called tors.
Class 11 Notes Chapter 7 Land forms and their
Evolution
After weathering processes have had their actions on the earth materials making up the surface of
the earth, the geomorphic agents like running water, ground water, wind, glaciers, waves perform
erosion.
Due to changes in climatic conditions and vertical or horizontal movements of landmasses, either the
intensity of processes or the processes themselves might change leading to new modifications in the
land forms.
A landmass passes through stages of development somewhat comparable to the stages of life —
youth, mature and old age. .
Changes on the surface of the earth owe mostly to erosion by various geomorphic agents. Of course,
the process of deposition too, by covering the land surfaces and filling the basins, valleys or
depressions brings changes in the surface of the land.
The geomorphic agents acting over long periods of time produce systematic changes leading to
sequential development of land forms. Each geomorphic agent produces its own assemblage of land
forms.
Many varieties of land forms develop by the action of each of the geomorphic agents depending upon
especially the type and structure i.e. folds, faults, joints, fractures, hardness and softness,
permeability and impermeability, etc.
In humid regions, which receive heavy rainfall running water is considered the most important of the
geomorphic agents in bringing about the degradation of the land surface.
The gentler the river channels in gradient or slope, the greater is the deposition.
Streams are few during youth stage with poor integration and flow over original slopes showing
shallow V-shaped valleys with no floodplains or with very narrow floodplains along trunk streams.
Streams divides are broad and flat with marshes, swamp and lakes.
During mature stage, streams are plenty with good integration. The flat and broad inter stream areas
and swamps and marshes of youth disappear and the stream divides turn sharp. Waterfalls and
rapids disappear.
Smaller tributaries during old age meander freely over vast floodplains showing natural levees, oxbow
lakes, etc.
Any limestone or dolomitic region showing typical land forms produced by the action of groundwater
through the processes of solution and deposition is called Karst topography after the typical
topography developed in limestone rocks of Karst region in the Balkans adjacent to Adriatic sea.
Drumlins are smooth oval shaped ridge-like features composed mainly of glacial till with some
masses of gravel and sand. The long axes of drumlins are parallel to the direction of ice movement.
They may measure up to 1 km in length and 30 m or so in height.
A glacier in its valley is slow unlike water flow. The movement could be a few centimeters to a few
meters a day or even less or more. Glaciers move basically because of the force of gravity.
We have many glaciers in our country moving down the slopes and valleys in Himalayas. Higher
reaches of Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir, are places to see some of them.
The highest peak in the Alps, Matterhorn and the highest peak in the Himalayas, Everest are in fact
horns formed through headward erosion of radiating cirques.
Erosional forms dominate in the west coast. The east coast of India is a low sedimentary coast.
Depositional forms dominate in the east coast.
Important Terms:
• Landforms: In simple words, small to medium tracts or parcels of the earth’s surface are called
land forms.
• Landscape: Several related landforms together make up landscapes.
• Geomorphology: Geomorphology deals with the reconstruction of the history of the surface of the
earth through a study of its forms, the materials of which is made up of and the processes that
shape it.
• Outwash Deposits: Some amount of rock debris small enough to be carried by such melt¬water
streams is washed down and deposited. Such glacio- fluvial deposits are called outwash
deposits.
• Gorge: A gorge is a deep valley with very steep to straight sides.
• Canyon: A canyon is characterised by steep step-like side slopes and may be as deep as a
gorge.
• Delta Plains: The flood plains in a delta are called delta plains.
• Potholes: Over the rocky beds of hill-streams more or less circular depressions are formed
because of stream erosion aided by the abrasion of rock fragments. They are called potholes.
• Plunge Tools: A series of such depressions eventually join and the stream valley gets deepened.
At the foot of waterfalls also, large potholes, quite deep and wide, form because of the sheer
impact of water and rotation of boulders. Such large and deep holes at the base of waterfalls are
called plunge pools.
• Plunge Pools: At the foot of waterfalls also, large potholes, quite deep and wide, form because of
the sheer impact of water and rotation of boulders. Such large and deep holes at the base of
waterfalls are called plunge pools.
• Incised Or Entrenched Meanders : Very deep and wide meanders can also be found cut in hard
rocks. Such meanders are called incised or entrenched meanders
• Karst Topography: Any limestone or dolomitic region showing typical land forms produced by the
action of groundwater through the processes of solution and deposition is called Karst
topography.
• Paired Terraces: The river terraces may occur at the same elevation on either side of the rivers,
these are called paired terraces.
• Unpaired Terraces: When a terrace is present only on one side of the stream and with none on
the other side or one at quite a different elevation on the other side, the terraces are called
unpaired terraces.
• Glacial Till: The unassorted coarse and fine debris dropped by the melting glaciers is called
glacial till.
• Ground Moraines: Many valley glaciers retreating rapidly leave an irregular sheet of till over their
valley floors. Such deposits varying greatly in thickness and in surface topography are called
ground moraines.
• Medial Moraine: The moraine in the centre of the glacial valley flanked by lateral moraines is
called medial moraine.
• Barrier bars: Bars are submerged features and when bars show up above water, they are called
barrier bars.
• Spit: Barrier bar which get keyed up to the headland of a bay is called a spit.
• Sea Stacks: Retreat of the cliff may leave some remnants of rock standing isolated as small
islands just off the shore. Such resistant masses of rock, originally parts of a cliff or hill are called
sea stacks.
• Wave-Cut Terrace: At the foot of such cliffs there may be a flat or gently sloping platform covered
by rock debris derived from the sea cliff behind. Such platforms occurring at elevations above the
average height of waves is called a wave-cut terrace.
• Off-Shore Bar: A ridge of sand and shingle formed in the sea in the off-shore zone (from the
position of low tide waterline to seaward) lying approximately parallel to the coast is called an off-
shore bar.
• Parallel Retreat of Slopes Through Backwasting : Once, pediments are formed with a steep wash
slope followed by cliff or free face above it, the steep wash slope and free faceretreat backwards.
This method of erosion is termed as parallel retreat of slopes through backwasting.
• Pediments: Gently inclined rocky floors close to the mountains at their foot with or without a thin
cover of debris, are called pediments.
• Pediplains: Through parallel retreat of slopes, the pediments extend backwards at the expense of
mountain front, and gradually, the mountain gets reduced leaving an inselberg which is a
remnant of the mountain. These low featureless plains are called pediplains.
• Playas plains: These are by far the most prominent land forms in the deserts. In basins with
mountains and hills around and along, the drainage is towards the centre of the basin and due to
gradual deposition of sediment from basin margins, a nearly level plain forms at the centre of the
basin. In times of sufficient water, this plain is covered up by a shallow water body. Such types of
shallow lakes are called as playas where water is retained only for short duration due to
evaporation and quite often the playas contain good deposition of salts.
• Alkali Flats: The playa plain covered up by salts is called alkali flats.
• Deflation hollows: Deflation hollows and caves weathered mantle from over the rocks or bare soil,
gets blown out by persistent movement of wind currents in one direction. This process may
create shallow depressions called deflation hollows.
• Caves: Deflation also creates numerous small pits or cavities over rock surfaces. The rock faces
suffer impact and abrasion of wind-borne sand and first shallow depressions called blow outs are
created, and some of the blow outs become deeper and wider fit to be called caves.
• Tunnels: Caves having openings at both the ends are called tunnels.
• Glaciers: Masses of ice moving as sheets over the land or as linear flows down the slopes of
mountains in broad trough-like valleys (mountain and valley glaciers) are called glaciers.
• Fiords: Very deep glacial troughs filled with sea water and making up shorelines (in high
latitudes) are called fiords.
• Tam Lakes: A lake of water can be seen quite often within the cirques after the glacier
disappears. Such lakes are called cirque or tarn lakes.
Class 11 Notes Chapter 8 Composition and Structure
of Atmosphere
The air is an integral part of the earth’s mass and 99 per cent of the total mass of the atmosphere is
confined to the height of 32 km from the earth’s surface.
The air is colorless and odorless and can be felt only when it blows as wind.
The atmosphere is composed of gases, water vapour and dust particles. The proportion of gases
changes in the higher layers of the atmosphere in such a way that oxygen will be almost in negligible
quantity at the height of 120 km. Similarly, carbon dioxide and water vapour are found only up to 90
km from the surface of the earth.
Carbon dioxide is meteor logically a very important gas as it is transparent to the incoming solar
radiation but opaque to the outgoing terrestrial radiation. It absorbs a part of terrestrial radiation and
reflects back some part of it towards the earth’s surface. It is largely responsible for the green house
effect.
Due to burning of fossil fuels, the volume of other gases is constant but the volume of carbon dioxide
has been rising in the past few decades. It has also increased the temperature of the air.
Ozone is another important component of the atmosphere. It is found between 10 and 50 km above
the earth’s surface and acts as a filter. It absorbs the ultra-violet rays radiating from the sun. It
prevents them from reaching the surface of the earth.
Water vapour is such a variable gas in the atmosphere, which decreases with altitude. In the warm
and wet tropics, it may account for four per cent of the air by volume, while in the dry and cold areas
of desert and polar regions, it may be less than one per cent of the air.
Water vapour also decreases from the equator towards the poles. It absorbs parts of the isolation
from the sun and preserves the earth’s radiated heat. It thus, acts like a blanket allowing the earth
neither to become too cold nor too hot. Water vapour also contributes to the stability and instability in
the air.
Atmosphere has a sufficient capacity to keep small solid particles, which may originate from different
sources and include sea salts, fine soil, smoke-soot, ash, pollen, dust and disintegrated particles of
meteors.
Dust particles are generally concentrated in the lower layers of the atmosphere yet convectional air
currents may transport them to great heights.
The higher concentration of dust particles is found in subtropical and temperate regions due to dry
winds in comparison to equatorial and polar regions.
Dust and salt particles act as hygroscopic nuclei around which water vapour condenses to produce
clouds.
The atmosphere consists of different layers with varying density and temperature. Density is highest
near the surface of the earth and decreases with increasing altitude.
The column of atmosphere is divided into five different layers depending upon the temperature
condition. They are: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere.
The troposphere is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere. Its average height is 13 km and extends
roughly to a height of 8 km near the poles and about 18 km at the equator. Thickness of the
troposphere is greatest at the equator because heat is transported to great heights by strong
convectional currents. This layer contains dust particles and water vapour. All changes in climate and
weather take place in this layer. The temperature in this layer decreases at the rate of 1°C for every
165m of height.
The zone separating the troposphere from stratosphere is known as the tropopause. The air
temperature at the tropopause is about minus 80°C over the equator and about minus 45°C over the
poles.
The stratosphere is found above the tropopause and extends up to a height of 50 km. One important
feature of the stratosphere is that it contains the ozone layer. This layer absorbs ultra-violet radiation
and shields life on the earth from intense, harmful form of energy.
The mesosphere lies above the stratosphere, which extends up to a height of 80 km. In this layer,
temperature starts decreasing with the increase in altitude and reaches up to minus 100°C at the
height of 80 km.
The upper limit of mesosphere is known as the mesopause. The ionosphere is located between 80
and 400 km above the mesopause. It contains electrically charged particles known as ions, and
hence, it is known as ionosphere. Radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the
earth by this layer. Temperature here starts increasing with height.
The uppermost layer of the atmosphere above the thermosphere is known as the exosphere. This is
the highest layer but very little is known about it.
Important Terms:
• Ions: Electrically charged particles are called ions.
• Atmosphere: Atmosphere is a mixture of different gases and it envelopes the earth all round. It
contains life-giving gases like oxygen for humans and animals and carbon dioxide for plants.
• Tropopause: The zone separating the troposphere from stratosphere is known as the
tropopause.
• Mesopause: The upper limit of mesosphere is known as the mesopause.
• Troposphere: The troposphere is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere. Its average height is 13
km and extends roughly to a height of 8 km near the poles and about 18 km at the equator.
Thickness of the troposphere is greatest at the equator because heat is transported to great
heights by strong convectional currents.
• Stratosphere: The stratosphere is found above the tropopause and extends up to a height of 50
km. This layer absorbs ultra-violet radiation and shields life on the earth from intense, harmful
form of energy.
• Mesosphere: The mesosphere lies above the stratosphere, which extends up to a height of 80
km. In this layer, temperature starts decreasing with the increase in altitude and reaches up to
minus 100°C at the height of 80 km.
• Ionosphere: The ionosphere is located between 80 and 400 km above the mesopause. It
contains electrically charged particles known as ions, and hence, it is known as ionosphere.
• Exosphere: The uppermost layer of the atmosphere above the thermosphere is known as the
exosphere. This is the highest layer but very little is known about it.
Class 11 Notes Chapter 9 Solar Radiation, Heat
Balance and Temperature
We live at the bottom of a huge pile of air. We inhale and exhale but we feel the air when it is in
motion. It means air in motion is wind.
Envelop of air is atmosphere which is formed of multitude gases. These gases support life over the
earth’s surface.
The earth’s surface receives most of its energy in short wavelengths.
The annual insolation received by the earth on 3rd January is slightly more than the amount received
on 4th July. However, the effect of this variation in the solar output is masked by other factors like the
distribution of land, sea and the atmospheric circulation. Hence, this variation in the solar output does
not have great effect on daily weather changes on the surface of the earth.
The earth receives its entire energy from the sun and reflect most of it back to the space. Therefore,
we see that the earth neither remains cold nor hot for too long. And hence temperature at different
places of the earth is different. This difference in temperature causes difference in pressure.
As the earth is a geoid resembling a sphere, the sun’s rays fall obliquely at the top of the atmosphere
and the earth intercepts a very small portion of the sun’s energy. On an average the earth receives
1.94 calories per sq. cm per minute at the top of its atmosphere.
The solar output received at the top of the atmosphere varies slightly in a year due to the variations in
the distance between the earth and the sun.
During its revolution around the sun, the earth is farthest from the sun (152 million km) on 4th July, ‘t
his position of the earth is called aphelion.
On 3rd January, the earth is the nearest to the sun (147 million km). This position is called perihelion.
The annual insolation received by the earth on 3rd January is slightly more than the amount received
on 4th July.
The amount of solar radiation keeps changing daily, on the basis of weather and per year.
Output is masked by other factors like the distribution of land and sea and the atmospheric
circulation. Hence, this variation in the solar output does not have great effect on daily weather
changes on the surface of the earth.
The earth’s axis makes an angle of 6614 with the plane of its orbit round the sun has a greater
influence on the amount of insolation received at different latitudes.
The insolation received at the surface varies from about 320 Watt/m2 in the tropics to about 70
Watt/m2 in the poles.
Maximum insolation is received over the subtropical deserts, where the cloudiness is the least.
Equator receives comparatively less insolation than the tropics. Generally, at the same latitude the
insolation is more over the continent than over the oceans. In winter, the middle and higher latitudes
receive less radiation than in summer.
The earth after being heated by insolation transmits the heat to the atmospheric layers near to the
earth in long wave form. The air in contact with the land gets heated slowly and the upper layers in
contact with the lower layers also get heated. This process is called conduction.
The air in cpntact with the earth rises vertically on heating in the form of currents and further transmits
the heat of the atmosphere. This process of vertical heating of the atmosphere is known as
convection.
Out of 100 units of heat received, roughly 35 units are reflected back to space even before reaching
the earth’s surface. Of these, 27 units are reflected back from the top of the clouds and 2 units from
the snow and ice-covered areas of the earth. The remaining 65 units are absorbed, 14 units within the
atmosphere and 51 units by the earth’s surface.
Normally, temperature decreases with increase in elevation. It is called normal lapse rate. At times,
the situations is reversed and the normal lapse rate is inverted. It is called Inversion of temperature.
Inversion is usually of short duration but quite common nonetheless.
A long winter night with clear skies and still air is ideal situation for inversion. The heat of the day is
radiated off during the night, and by early morning hours, the earth is cooler than the air above. Over
polar areas, temperature inversion is normal throughout the year.
Surface inversion promotes stability in the lower layers of the atmosphere. Smoke and dust particles
get collected beneath the inversion layer and spread horizontally to fill the lower strat a of the
atmosphere. Dense fogs in mornings are common occurrences especially during winter season. This
inversion commonly lasts for few hours until the sun comes up and beings to warm the earth. The
inversion takes place in hills and mountains due to air drainage.
Blowing of cold air at the hills and mountains, during night, flows under the influence of gravity. Being
heavy and dense, the cold air acts almost like water and moves down the slope to pile up deeply in
pockets and valley bottoms with warm air above.
Important Terms:
• Insolation: The energy received by the earth is known as incoming solar radiation which in short
is termed as insolation.
• Aphelion: During its revolution around the sun, the earth is farthest from the sun (152 million km)
on 4th July. This position of the earth is called aphelion.
• Perihelion: On 3rd January, the earth is the nearest to the sun (147 million km). This position is
called perihelion.
• Terrestrial radiation: The insolation received by the earth is in short waves forms and heats up its
surface. The earth after being heated itself becomes a radiating body and it radiates energy to
the atmosphere in long wave form. This energy heats up the atmosphere from below. This
process is known as terrestrial radiation.
• Conduction: The earth after being heated by insolation transmits the heat to the atmospheric
layers near to the earth in long wave form. The air in contact with the land gets heated slowly and
the upper layers in contact with the lower layers also get heated. This process is called
conduction.
• Convection: The air in contact with the earth rises vertically on heating in the form of currents and
further transmits the heat of the atmosphere. This process of vertical heating of the atmosphere
is known as convection.
• Advection: The convective transfer of energy is confined only to the troposphere. The transfer of
heat through horizontal movement of air is called advection.
• Albedo: While passing through the atmosphere some amount of energy is reflected, scattered
and absorbed. Only the remaining part reaches the earth surface. The reflected amount of
radiation is called the albedo of the earth.
• Normal lapse rate: Normally, temperature decreases with increase in elevation. It is called normal
lapse rate.
• Loo: Summer season local winds is called ‘loo’. It is the result of advection.
• Isotherms: The Isotherms are lines joining places having equal temperature.
• Inversion of temperature: At times, the situations is reversed and the normal lapse rate is
inverted. It is called Inversion of temperature.
• Air drainage: Being heavy and dense, the cold air acts almost like water and moves down the
slope to pile up deeply in pockets and valley bottoms with warm air above. This is called air
drainage. It protects plants from frost damages.
• Plank’s law: Plank’s law states that hotter a body, the more energy it will radiate and shorter the
wavelength of that radiation.
• Specific heat: Specific heat is the energy needed to raise the temperature of one gram of
substance by one Celsius.
Class 11 Notes Chapter 10 Atmospheric Circulation
and Weather Systems
Air expands when heated and gets compressed when cooled. This results in variations in the
atmospheric pressure. The result is that it causes the movement of air from high pressure to low
pressure, setting the air in motion.
Air in horizontal motion is wind. Atmospheric pressure also determines when the air will
rise or sink.
The wind redistributes the heat and moisture across the planet, thereby, maintaining a constant
temperature for the planet as a whole. The vertical rising of moist air cools it down to form the clouds
and bring precipitation.
As one moves up the air gets varified and one feels breathless.
The atmospheric pressure is expressed in units of millibar or Pascal. Widely used unit is called
kilopascal which is expressed as hpa.
At sea level the average atmospheric pressure is 1,013.2 millibar. Due to gravity the air at the surface
is denser and hence has higher pressure.
Air pressure is measured with the help of a mercury barometer or the aneroid barometer.
The pressure decreases with height. At any elevation it varies from place to place and its variation is
the primary cause of air motion, i.e. wind which moves from high pressure areas to low pressure
.areas.
In the lower atmosphere the pressure decreases rapidly with height. The decrease amounts to about
1 mb for each 10 m increase in elevation. It does not always decrease at the same rate.
Air is set in motion due to the differences in atmospheric pressure. The air in motion is called wind.
The wind blows from high pressure to low pressure.
Frictional force is greatest at the surface and its influence generally extends upto an elevation of 1 – 3
km. Over the sea surface the friction is minimal.
The rotation of the earth about its axis affects the direction of the wind. This force is called the Coriolis
force after the French physicist who described it in 1844.
It deflects the wind to the right direction in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern
hemisphere. The deflection is more when the wind velocity is high.
The Coriolis force is directly proportional to the angle of latitude. It is maximum at the poles and is
absent at the equator. The Coriolis force acts perpendicular to the pressure gradient force. The
pressure gradient force is perpendicular to an isobar. The higher the pressure gradient force, the
more is the velocity of the wind and the larger is the deflection in the direction of wind.
The velocity and direction of the wind are the net result of the wind generating forces. The winds in
the upper atmosphere, 2 – 3 km above the surface, are free from frictional effect of the surface and
are controlled mainly by the pressure gradient and the Coriolis force.
During the day, the land heats up faster and becomes warmer than the sea. Therefore, over the land
the air rises giving rise to a low pressure area, whereas the sea is relatively cool and the pressure
over sea is relatively high. Thus, pressure gradient from sea to land is created and the wind blows
from the sea to the land as the sea breeze. In the night the reversal of condition takes place. The land
loses heat faster and is cooler than the sea. The pressure gradient is from the land to the sea and
hence land breeze results.
In mountainous regions, during the day the slopes get heated up and air moves upslope and to fill the
resulting gap the air from the valley blows up the valley. During the night the slopes get cooled and
the dense air descends into the valley as the mountain wind. The cool air, of the high plateaus and
ice fields draining into the valley.
Important Terms:
• Atmospheric pressure: The weight of a column of air contained in a unit area from the mean sea
level to the top of the atmosphere is called the atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure
is expressed in units of millibar.
• Wind: The air in motion is called wind.
• Pressure gradient force: The differences in atmospheric pressure produces a force. The rate of
change of pressure with respect to distance is the pressure gradient.
• Frictional force: It affects the speed of the wind. It is greatest at the surface and its influence
generally extends upto an elevation of 1 – 3 km. Over the sea surface the friction is minimal.
• Coriolis force: The rotation of the earth about its axis affects the direction of the wind. This force
is called the Coriolis force after the French physicist who described it in 1844.
• Geostrophic wind: When isobars are straight and when there is no friction, the pressure gradient
force is balanced by the Coriolis force and the resultant wind blows parallel to the isobar. This
wind is known as the geostrophic wind.
• General circulation of the atmosphere: The pattern of the movement of the planetary winds is
called the general circulation of the atmosphere.
• Cell: The easterlies from either side of the equator converge in the Inter Tropical Convergence
Zone (ITCZ). Such circulations from the surface upwards and vice-versa are called cells.
• Hadley cells: A cell in the tropics is called Hadley cell.
• Ferrel cells: In the middle latitudes the circulation is that of sinking cold air that comes from the
poles and the rising warm air that blows from the subtropical high. At the surface these winds are
called westerlies and the cell is known as the Ferrel cell.
• Polar cell: At polar latitudes the cold dense air subsides near the poles and blows towards middle
latitudes as the polar easterlies. This cell is called the polar cell.
• Valley breeze: In mountainous regions, during the day the slopes get heated up and air moves
upslope and to fill the resulting gap the air from the valley blows up the valley. This wind is known
as the valley breeze.
• Polar high: Near the poles the pressure is high and it is known as the polar high.
• El Nino: The warm water of the central Pacific Ocean slowly drifts towards South American coast
and replaces the cool Peruvian current. Such appearance of warm water off the coast of Peru is
known as the El Nino.
• Southern oscillation: The change in pressure condition over Pacific is known as the southern
oscillation.
• ENSO: The combined phenomenon of southern oscillation and El Nino is known as ENSO.
• Katabatic wind: During the night, the slopes get cooled and the dense air descends into the valley
as the mountain wind. The cool air, of the high plateaus and ice fields draining into the valley is
called katabatic wind.
• Air mass: The air with distinctive characteristics in terms of temperature and humidity is called an
air mass. It is
• defined as a large body of air having little horizontal variation in temperature and moisture.
• Source regions: The homogeneous surfaces which are formed over air masses are called the
source regions.
• Fronts: When two different air masses meet, the boundary zone between them is called a front.
• Cold front: When the cold air moves towards the warm air mass, its contact zone is called the
cold front.
• Warm front: If the warm air mass moves towards the cold air mass, the contact zone is called
warm front.
• Occluded front: If an air mass is fully lifted above the land surface, it is called the occluded front.
• Extra tropical cyclone: The systems developing in the mid and high latitude, beyond the tropics
are called the middle latitude or extra tropical cyclones.
• Landfall of the cyclone: The place where a tropical cyclone crosses the coast is called the landfall
of the cyclone.
• A mature tropical cyclone: It is characterized by the strong spirally circulating wind around the
centre, called the eye. The diameter of the circulating system can vary between 150 and 250 km.
The eye is a region of calm with subsiding air.
• Tropical cyclones: Tropical cyclones are violent storms that originate over oceans in tropical
areas and shift to the coastal areas bringing about large scale destruction caused by violent
winds, very heavy rainfall and storm surges. This is one of the most devastating natural
calamities.
• Tornado: From severe thunderstorms sometimes spiralling wind descends like a trunk of an
elephant with great force, with very low pressure at the centre, causing massive destruction on its
way. Such a phenomenon is called a tornado.
• Water spouts: The tornado over the sea is called water spouts.
Class 11 Notes Chapter 11 Water in the Atmosphere
The air contains water vapour. It varies from zero to four per cent by volume of the atmosphere and
plays an important role in the weather phenomena.
Water is present in the atmosphere in three forms namely—gaseous, liquid and solid.
The moisture in the atmosphere is derived from water bodies through evaporation and from plants
through transpiration. Thus, there is a continuous exchange of water between the atmosphere, the
oceans and the continents through the processes of evaporation, transpiration, condensation and
precipitation.
The air containing moisture to its full capacity at a given temperature is said to be saturated. It means
that the air at the given temperature is incapable of holding any additional amount of moisture at that
stage. The temperature at which saturation occurs in a given sample of air is known as dew point.
The ability of the air to hold water vapour depends entirely on its temperature. The absolute humidity
differs from place to place on the surface of the earth. The percentage of moisture present in the
atmosphere as compared to its full capacity at a given temperature is known as the relative humidity.
With the change of air temperature, the capacity to retain moisture increases or decreases and the
relative humidity is also affected. It is greater over the oceans and least over the continents.
Movement of air replaces the saturated layer with the unsaturated layer. Hence, the greater the
movement of air, the greater is the evaporation.
The transformation of water vapour into water is called condensation. Condensation is caused by the
loss of heat. When moist air is cooled, it may reach a level when its capacity to hold water vapour
ceases.
Condensation also takes place when the moist air comes in contact with some colder object and it
may also take place when the temperature is close to the dew point.
After condensation the moisture of atmosphere or humidity gets converted into dew, fog, mist, frost
and clouds.
The ideal conditions for formation of dew are clear sky, calm air, high relative humidity, and cold and
long nights.
Frost forms on cold surfaces when condensation takes place below freezing point (0°C), i.e. the dew
point is at or below the freezing point.
The only difference between the mist and fog is that mist contains more moisture than the fog. In mist
each nuclei contains a thicker layer of moisture.
Fogs are drier than mist and they are prevalent where warm currents of air come in contact with cold
currents. Fogs are mini clouds in which condensation takes place around nuclei provided by the dust,
smoke, and the salt particles.
Cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or tiny crystals of ice formed by the condensation of the
water vapour in free air at considerable elevations. According to their height, expanse, density and
transparency or opaqueness clouds are grouped under four types :
• cirrus
• cumulus
• stratus
• nimbus.
Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes (8,000-12,000m). They are thin and detatched clouds
having a feathery appearance. They are always white in colour.
Cumulus clouds look like cotton wool. They are generally formed at a height of4,000-7,000 m. They
exist in patches and can be seen scattered here and there. They have a flat base.
Stratus are layered clouds covering large portions of the sky. These clouds are generally formed
either due to loss of heat or the mixing of air masses with different temperatures.
Nimbus clouds are black or dark gray. They form at middle levels or very near to the surface of the
earth.
On the basis of origin, rainfall may be classified into three main types — the convectional, orographic
or relief and the cyclonic or frontal.
Convectional rain takes place when the air on being heated, becomes light and rises up in convection
currents. As it rises, it expands and loses neat and consequently, condensation takes place and
cumulous clouds are formed. With thunder and lightening, heavy rainfall takes place but this does not
last long.
Orographic rain occurs when the saturated air mass comes across a mountain, it is forced to ascend
and as it rises, it expands; the temperature falls, and the moisture is condensed. The chief
characteristic of this sort of rain is that the windward slopes receive greater rainfall.
Different places on the earth’s surface receive different amounts of rainfall in a year and that too in
different seasons. In general, as we proceed from the equator towards the poles, rainfall goes on
decreasing steadily. The coastal areas of the world receive greater amounts of rainfall than the
interior of the continents. The rainfall is more over the oceans than on the landmasses of the world.
Between the latitudes 35° and 40° N and S of the equator, the rain is heavier on the eastern coasts
and goes on decreasing towards the west. But, between 45° and 65° N and S of equator, the rainfall
is first received on the western margins of the continents and it goes on decreasing towards the east.
In some regions rainfall is distributed evenly throughout the year such as in the equatorial belt and in
the western parts of cool temperate regions.
Distribution Of Clouds:
Classification of clouds on the Sub-categories or types of
Features or characteristics
basis of average height clouds
Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes.

Cirrus
They are soft and silk like shaped.
They are thin and detatched clouds having a
High Clouds 5 km to 14 km Cirrostratus feathery appearance. They are always white
in colour.
These clouds look like small white circular

Corrocumulus
shaped. They do not have any shadow
They are blue or brown in colour. They have

Altostratu
fibres like look.
Medium Clouds
These are flattened circles like clouds which

Altocumulus
are organised like waves.
Soft and brownish clouds in a group which

Stratocumulus
have a shining.
Low Clouds
They are low and same layer clouds which
Nimobostratus look like fog but they are not stable on
surface of the earth.
Cumulus clouds look like cotton wool. They
are generally formed at a height of 4,000-
Cumulus 7,000 m. They exist in patches and can be
Clouds with extensive vertical seen scattered here and there. They have a
development flat base.
They are formed on mountains and cause

Cumulonimbus
rainfall.
Important Terms:
• Humidity: Water vapour present in the air is known as humidity.
• Evaporation: It is a process by which water is transformed from liquid to gaseous state. Heat is
the main cause for evaporation.
• Latent heat of vaporisation: The temperature at which the water starts evaporating is referred to
as the latent heat of vaporisation.
• Absolute humidity: The actual amount of the water vapour present in the atmosphere is known as
the absolute humidity. It is the weight of water vapour per unit volume of air and is expressed in
terms of grams per cubic metre.
• Relative humidity: The percentage of moisture present in the atmosphere as compared to its full
capacity at a given temperature is known as the relative humidity.
• Dew points: The temperature at which saturation occurs in a given sample of air is known as dew
point.
• Dew: When the moisture is deposited in the form of water droplets on cooler surfaces of solid
objects (rather than nuclei in air above the surface) such as stones, grass blades and plant
leaves, it is known as dew.
• Condensation: The transformation of water vapour into water is called condensation.
Condensation is caused by the loss of heat.
• Sublimation: When moist air is cooled, it may reach a level when its capacity to hold water vapour
ceases. Then, the excess water vapour condenses into liquid form. If it directly condenses into
solid form, it is known as sublimation.
• Precipitation: After the condensation of water vapour, the release of moisture is known as
precipitation. This may take place in liquid or solid form.
• Rainfall: The precipitation in the form of water is called rainfall.
• Snowfall: When the temperature is lower than the 0°C, precipitation takes place in the form of fine
flakes of snow and is called snowfall.
• Orographic rain: When the saturated air mass comes across a mountain, it is forced to ascend
and as it rises, it expands; the temperature falls, and the moisture is condensed. It is also known
as the relief rain.
• Rain shadow area: The area situated on the leeward side, which gets less rainfall is known as the
rain-shadow area.
• Cyclonic rain: Rain caused by a cyclone is called cyclonic rain.
• Hailstones: Sometimes, drops of rain after being released by the clouds become solidified into
small rounded solid pieces of ice and which reach the surface of the earth are called hailstones.
• Convectional rain: The air on being heated, becomes light and rises up in convection currents. As
it rises, it expands and loses heat and consequently, condensation takes place and cumulous
clouds are formed. With thunder and lightening, heavy rainfall takes place but this does not last
for long.
• Frost: Frost forms on cold surfaces when condensation takes place below freezing point (0°C),
i.e. the dew point is at or below the freezing point.
• Fog and Mist: When the temperature of an air mass containing a large quantity of water vapour
falls all of a sudden, condensation takes place within itself on fine dust particles. So, the fog is a
cloud with its base at or very near to the ground.
• Smog: A condition when fog is mixed with smoke, is described as smog.
• Clouds: Cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or tiny crystals of ice formed by the
condensation of the water vapour in free air at considerable elevations. As the clouds are formed
at some height over the surface of the earth, they take various shapes.
Class 11 Notes Chapter 12 World Climate and
Climate Change
Three broad approaches have been adopted for classifying climate. They are empirical, genetic and
applied.
Koeppen identified a close relationship between the distribution of vegetation and climate. He
selected certain values of temperature and precipitation and related them to the distribution of
vegetation and used these values for classifying the climates.
Climatic Groups According to Koeppen:
Group Characteristics
A – Tropical Average temperature of the coldest month is 18° C or higher.
B – Dry Climates Potential evaporation exceeds precipitation.
The average temperature of the coldest month of the (Mid-latitude)

C – Warm Temperature
climates years is higher than minus 3°C but below 18°C.
D – Cold Snow Forest Climates The average temperature of the coldest month is minus 3°C or below.
E – Cold Climates Average temperature for all months is below 10°C.
H – High Land Cold due to elevation.
Koeppen introduced the use of capital and small letters to designate climatic groups and types.
It was developed in 1918 and modified over a period of time, but Koeppen’s scheme is still popular
and in use. Koeppen recognized five major climatic groups, four of them are based on temperature
and one on precipitation.
The capital letters: A,C, D and E delineate humid climates and B dry climates. The climatic groups
are subdivided into types, designated by small letters, based on seasonality of precipitation and
temperature characteristics. The seasons of dryness are indicated by the small letters : f, m, w and s.
Tropical humid climates exist between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. The sun being
overhead throughout the year and the presence of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) make the
climate hot and humid. Annual range of temperature is very low and annual rainfall is high.
The tropical group is divided into three types, namely
• Af – Tropical wet climate;

• Am – Tropical monsoon climate;
• Aw – Tropical wet and dry climate.
Tropical wet climate is found near the equator. The major areas are the Amazon Basin in South
America, western equatorial Africa and the islands of East Indies. Significant amount of rainfall occurs
in every month of the year as thunder showers in the afternoon.
The temperature is uniformly high and the annual range of temperature is negligible. The maximum
temperature on any day is around 30°C while the minimum temperature is around. 20°C. Tropical
evergreen forests with dense canopy cover and large biodiversity are found in this climate.
Tropical monsoon climate (Am) is found over the Indian sub-continent, North Eastern part of South
America and Northern Australia. Heavy rainfall occurs mostly in summer. Winter is dry.
Climatic Types:
Dry climates are characterized by very low rainfall that is not adequate for the growth of plants. These
climates cover a very large area of the planet extending over large latitudes from 15° – 60° north and
south of the equator.
Subtropical Steppe (BSh) and Subtropical Desert (BWh) climates have common precipitation and
temperature characteristics. These are located in the transition zone between humid and dry
climates, subtropical steppe receives slightly more rainfall than the desert, adequate enough for the
growth of sparse grasslands.
Maximum temperature in the summer is very high. The highest shade temperature of 58° C was
recorded at A1 Aziziyah, Libya on 13 September 1922. The annual and diurnal ranges of temperature
are also high.
Mediterranean climate occurs around Mediterranean sea, along the west coast of continents in
subtropical latitudes between 30° – 40° latitudes.
Central California, Central Chile, along the coast in south eastern and south western Australia are
examples of Mediterranean climate. These areas come under the influence of subtropical high in
summer and westerly wind in winter. Hence, the climate is characterised by hot, dry summer and
mild, rainy winter. Monthly average temperature in summer is around 25° C and in winter below 10°C.
The annual precipitation ranges between 35 – 90 cm.
Humid subtropical climate occur in eastern United States of America, southern and eastern China,
southern Japan, north eastern Argentina, coastal south Africa and eastern coast of Australia. The
annual average of precipitation vary from 75-150 cm. Thunderstorms in summer and frontal
precipitation in winter are common. Mean monthly temperature in summer is around 27°C, and in
winter it varies from 5°-12° C. The daily range of temperature is small.
India also witnessed alternate wet and dry periods. Archaeological findings show that the Rajasthan
desert experienced wet and cool climate around 8,000 B.C. The period 3,000-1,700 B.C. had higher
rainfall. From about 2,000-1,700 B.C., this region was the centre of the Harappan civilisation.
Dry conditions accentuated since then. In the geological past, the earth was warm some 500-300
million years ago, through the Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian periods. During the Pleistocene
epoch, glacial and inter-glacial periods occurred, the last major peak glacial period was about 18,000
years ago. The present inter-glacial period started 10,000 years ago.
The 1990s recorded the warmest temperature of the century and some of the worst floods around the
world. The worst devastating drought in the Sahel region, south of the Sahara desert, from 1967-1977
is one such variability.
During the 1930s, severe drought occurred in south-western Great Plains of the United States,
described as the dust bowl. Historical records of crop yield or crop failures, of floods and migration of
people tell about the effects of changing climate.
Europe witnessed “Little Ice Age” from 1550 to about 1850. From about 1885-1940 world temperature
showed an upward trend. After 1940, the rate of increase in temperature slowed down.
The term greenhouse is derived from the analogy to a greenhouse used in cold areas for preserving
heat. A greenhouse is made up of glass. The glass which is transparent to incoming short wave solar
radiation is opaque to outgoing long wave radiation. The glass, therefore, allows in more radiation
and prevents the long wave radiation going outside the glass house, causing the temperature inside
the glasshouse structure warmer than outside. When you enter a car or a bus, during summers,
where windows are closed, you feel more heat than outside. Likewise during winter the vehicles with
closed doors and windows remain warmer than the temperature outside. This is another example of
the greenhouse effect.
Greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (C02), Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methane (CH4), nitrous
oxide (N20) and ozone (03). Some other gases such as nitric oxide (NO) and carbon monoxide (CO)
easily react with GHGs and affect their concentration in the atmosphere.
The largest concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere is carbon dioxide. The emission of C02 comes
mainly from fossil fuel combustion (oil, gas and coal).
Ozone occurs in the stratosphere where ultra-violet rays convert oxygen into ozone. Thus, ultra violet
rays do not reach the earth’s surface. The CFCs which drift into the stratosphere destroy the ozone.
Large depletion of ozone occurs over Antarctica. The depletion of ozone concentration in the
stratosphere is called the ozone hole.
International efforts have been initiated for reducing the emission of GHGs into the atmosphere. The
most important one is the Kyoto protocol proclaimed in 1997.\
Important Terms:
• Empirical Classification: It is based on observed data, particularly on temperature and
precipitation.
• Genetic Classification: It attempts to organise climates according to their causes.
• Applied Classification: It is used when classification is done for specific purpose.
• Koeppen’s scheme of classification of climate: It is the most widely used classification of climate
is the empirical climate classification scheme developed by V. Koeppen. Koeppen identified a
close relationship between the distribution of vegetation and climate. He selected certain values
of temperature and precipitation and related them to the distribution of vegetation and used these
values for classifying the climates.
• Ozone Hole: The depletion of ozone concentration in the stratosphere is called the ozone hole.
• Greenhouse gases: The gases that absorb long wave radiation are called greenhouse gases.
• Greenhouse effect: The processes that warm the atmosphere are often collectively referred to as
the greenhouse effect.
• Daily range of temperature: The differences between the highest and lowest temperature of a
place in a day is called daily range of temperature.
• Dust bowl: During the 1930’s, severe drought occurred in southwestern Great Plains of the
United States. These are described as the dust bowl.
• Greenhouse: The term greenhouse is derived from the analogy to a greenhouse used in cold
areas for preserving heat. A greenhouse is made up of glass. The glass which is transparent to
incoming short wave solar radiation is opaque to outgoing long wave radiation.
• Sunspots: Sunspots are dark and cooler patches on the sun which increase and decrease in a
cyclical manner.
Class 11 Notes Chapter 13 Water (Oceans)
It is said that water is life. Water is an essential component of all life forms that exist over the surface
of the earth.
Water is a cyclical resource. It can be used and reused in the form of a cycle. Water keeps on moving
from the ocean to land and land to ocean.
The hydro logical cycle describes the movement of water on, in, and above the earth. The water cycle
has been working for billions of years and all the life on earth depends on it.
The distribution of water on earth is quite uneven. Many locations have plenty of water while others
have very limited quantity.
Table 1: Water on the Earth’s surface
Volume
Reservoir Percentage of the total
(Million of the Total Cubic km)
Oceans 1,370 97.25
Ice Caps and Glaciers 29 2.05
Groundwater 9.5 0.68
Lakes 0.125 0.01
Soil Moisture 0.065 0.005
Atmosphere 0.013 0.001
Streams and Rivers 0.0017 0.0001
Biosphere 0.0006 0.00004
The hydro logical cycle, is the circulation of water within the earth’s hydrosphere in different forms i.e,
the liquid, solid and the gaseous phases.
About 71 per cent of the planetary water is found in the oceans. The remaining is held as freshwater
in glaciers and ice caps, groundwater sources, lakes, soil moisture, atmosphere, streams and within
life.
Nearly 59 per cent of the water that falls on land returns to the atmosphere through evaporation from
over the oceans as well as from other places. The remainder runs-off on the surface, infiltrates into
the ground or a part of it becomes glacier.
The geographers have divided the oceanic part of the earth into five oceans, namely the Pacific, the
Atlantic, the Indian, Southern ocean and the Arctic.
The floors of the oceans are rugged with the world’s largest mountain ranges, deepest trenches and
the largest plains. These features are formed, like those of the continents, by the factors of tectonic,
volcanic and depositional processes.
The ocean floors can be divided into four major divisions:
• the Continental Shelf;

• the Continental Slope;
• the Deep Sea Plain;
• the Oceanic Deeps.
Besides, these divisions there are also major and minor relief features in the ocean floors like ridges,
hills, sea mounts, guyots, trenches, canyons, etc.
Table 2: Components and Processes of the Water Cycle
Components Processes
Water storage in oceans Evaporation , Evapotranspiration Sublimation
Water in the atmosphere Condensation, Precipitation
Water storage in ice and snow Snow melt runoff to streams
Surface runoff Stream flow freshwater storage and infiltration
Groundwater storage Groundwater discharge springs
The continental shelf is the extended margin of each continent occupied by relatively shallow seas
and gulfs. It is the shallowest part of the ocean showing an average gradient of 1° or even less.
The Siberian shelf in the Arctic Ocean, the largest in the world, stretches to 1,500 km in width. The
depth of the shelves also varies. It may be as shallow as 30 m in some areas while in some areas it is
as deep as 600 m.
The continental slope connects the continental shelf and the ocean basins. It begins where the
bottom of the continental shelf sharply drops off into a steep slope. The gradient of the slope region
varies between 2-5°. The depth of the slope region varies between 200 and 3,000 m.
Deep sea plains are gently sloping areas of the ocean basins. These are the flattest and smoothest
regions of the world. The depths vary between 3,000 and 6,000 m. These plains are covered with
fine-grained sediments like clay and silt.
Oceanic Deeps or Trenches are the deepest parts of the oceans. The trenches are relatively • steep
sided, narrow basins. They are some 3-5 km deeper than the surrounding ocean floor.
A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of two chains of mountains separated by a large depression. The
mountain ranges can have peaks as high as 2,500 m and some even reach above the ocean’s
surface. Iceland, a part of the mid- Atlantic Ridge, is an example.
The average temperature of surface water of the oceans is about 27°C and it gradually decreases
from the equator towards the poles. The rate of decrease of temperature with increasing latitude is
generally 0.5 CC per latitude.
The average salinity of the Indian Ocean is 35%. The low salinity trend is observed in the Bay of
Bengal due to influx of river water. On the contrary, the Arabian Sea shows higher salinity due to high
evaporation and low influx of fresh water.
Table 3
Dissolved salts in sea water gm of salt per kg of water
Chlorine 18.97
Sodium 10.47
Sulphate 2.65
Magnesium 1.28
Calcium 0.41
Potassium 0.38
Bicarbonate 0.14
Bromine 0.06
Borate 0.02
Strontium 0.01
The salinity fluctuates from 0 – 35%, seasonally. In hot and dry’ regions, v’here evaporation is high,
the salinity sometimes reaches to 70%. The salinity variation in the Pacific Ocean is mainly due to its
shape and larger areal extent. Salinity decreases from 35% — 31% on the western parts of the
northern hemisphere because of the influx of melted water from the Arctic region.
Important Terms:
• Continent shelf: The continental shelf is the extended margin of each continent occupied by
relatively shallow seas and gulfs. It is the shallowest part of the ocean showing an average
gradient of 1° or even less.
• Thermocline: The boundary region, from where there is a rapid decrease of temperature, is called
the thermocline.
• Trenches: These areas are the deepest parts of the oceans. The trenches are relatively steep
sided, narrow basins. They are some 3-5 km deeper than the surrounding ocean floor.
• Mid-oceanic ridges: A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of two chains of mountains separated by a
large depression. The
• mountain ranges can have peaks as high as 2,500 m and some even reach above the ocean’s
surface.
• Continental slope: The continental slope connects the continental shelf and the ocean basins. It
begins where the bottom of the continental shelf sharply drops off into a steep slope. The
gradient of the slope region varies between 2-5°.
• Seamount: It is a mountain with pointed summits, rising from the seafloor that does not reach the
surface of the ocean. Seamounts are volcanic in origin. These can be 3,000 — 4,500 m tall.
• Shelf break: The shelf typically ends at a very steep slope, called the shelf break.
• Submarine canyons: These are deep valleys, some comparable to the Grand Canyon of the
Colorado river. They are sometimes found cutting across the continental shelves and slopes,
often extending from the mouths of large rivers. The Hudson Canyon is the best known
submarine canyon in the world.
• Guyot: It is a flat topped seamount. It shows evidences of gradual subsidence through stages to
become flat topped submerged mountains. It is estimated that more than 10,000 seamounts and
guyots exist in the Pacific Ocean alone.
• Water cycle: All living organisms, the atmosphere and the lithosphere maintain between them a
circulation of water in solid, liquid or gaseous form referred to as the water or hydro-logic cycle.
• Atoll: These are low islands found in the tropical oceans consisting of coral reefs surrounding a
central depression. It may be a part of the sea (lagoon), or sometimes form enclosing a body of
fresh, brackish, or highly saline water.
• Salinity: Salinity is the term used to define the total content of dissolved salts in sea water. It is
calculated as the amount of salt (in gm) dissolved in 1,000 gm (1 kg) of seawater.
• Halocline: It is a distinct zone where salinity increases sharply.
Class 11 Notes Chapter 14 Movements of Ocean
Water
The ocean water is dynamic. The horizontal and vertical motions are common in ocean water bodies.
The horizontal motion refers to the ocean currents and waves. The vertical motion refers to tides.
Ocean currents are the continuous flow of huge amount of water in a definite direction while the
waves are the horizontal motion of water.
Water moves ahead from one place to another through ocean currents while the water in the waves
does not move, but the wave trains move ahead.
Water particles only travel in a small circle as a wave passes. Wind provides energy to the waves.
Wind causes waves to travel in the ocean and the energy is released on shorelines.
The largest waves are found in the open oceans. Waves continue to grow larger as they move and
absorb energy from the wind.
Most of the waves are caused by the wind driving against water. When a breeze of two knots or less
blows over calm water, small ripples form and grow as the wind speed increases until white caps
appear in the breaking waves. Waves may travel thousands of kilometers before rolling ashore,
breaking and dissolving as surf. A wave’s size and shape reveal its origin.
The moon’s gravitational pull to a great extent and to a lesser extent the sun’s gravitational pull, are
the major causes for the occurrence of tides. Another factor is centrifugal force, which is the force that
acts to counter balance the gravity.
Together, the gravitational pull and the centrifugal force are responsible for creating the two major
tidal bulges on the earth.
On the side of the earth facing the moon, a tidal bulge occurs while on the opposite side though the
gravitational attraction of the moon is less as it is farther away, the centrifugal force causes tidal bulge
on the other side.
The highest tides in the world occur in the Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, Canada. The tidal bulge is 15
– 16 m. Because there are two high tides and two low tides every day (roughly a 24 hour period);
then a tide must come in within about a six hour period. As a rough estimate, the tide rises about 240
cm an hour (1,440 cm divided by 6 hours).
The most common tidal pattern is semi-diurnal tide, featuring two high tides and two low tides each
day. The successive high or low tides are approximately of the same height.
The height of rising water (high tide) varies appreciably depending upon the position of sun and moon
with respect to the earth. When the sun, the moon and the earth are in a straight line, the height of
the tide will be higher. These are called spring tides and they occur twice a month, one on full moon
period and another during new moon period.
Normally, there is a seven day interval between the spring tides and neap tides. At this time the sun
and moon are at right angles to each other and the forces of the sun and moon tend to counteract
one another.
Once in a month, when the moon’s orbit is closest to the earth (perigee), unusually high and low tides
occur. During this time the tidal range is greater than normal.
When the earth is closest to the sun (perihelion), around 3rd January each year, tidal ranges are also
much greater, with unusually high and unusually low tides. When the earth is farthest from the sun
(aphelion), around 4th July each year, tidal ranges are much less than average.
Usually, the currents are strongest near the surface and may attain speeds over five knots. At depths,
currents are generally slow with speeds less than 0.5 knots. We refer to the speed of a current as its
“drift.” Drift is measured in terms of knots. The strength of a current refers to the speed of the current.
A fast current is considered strong. A current is usually strongest at the surface and decreases in
strength (speed) with depth. Most currents have speeds less than or equal to 5 knots.
Surface currents constitute about 10 per cent of all the water in the ocean, these waters are the upper
400 m of the ocean and deep water currents make up the other 90 per cent of the ocean water.
These waters move around the ocean basins due to variations in the density and gravity.
Heating by solar energy causes the water to expand. That is why, near the equator the ocean water is
about 8 cm higher in level than in the middle latitudes. This causes a very slight gradient and water
tends to flow down the slope. Wind blowring on the surface of the ocean pushes the water to move.
Ocean currents are classified into cold currents and warm currents on the basis of temperature. Cold-
water ocean currents occur when the cold water at the poles sinks and slowly moves towards the
equator. Warm-water currents travel out from the equator along the surface, flowing towards the
poles to replace the sinking cold water.
The mixing of warm and cold currents help to replenish the oxygen and favour the growth of
planktons, the primary food for fish population. The best fishing grounds of the world exist mainly in
these mixing zones.
Important Terms:
• Waves: Waves are actually the energy, not the water as such, which moves across the ocean
surface.
• Tides: The periodical rise and fall of the sea level, once or twice a day, mainly due to the
attraction of the sun and the moon, is called a tide.
• Surges: Movement of water caused by meteorological effects (winds and atmospheric pressure
changes) are called surges.
• Tide generating force: The ‘tide-generating’ force is the difference between two forces; i. e. the
gravitational attraction of the moon and the centrifugal force.
• Tidal currents: When the tide is channelled between islands or into bays and estuaries they are
called tidal currents.
• Ebb: The time between the high tide and low tide, when the water level is falling, is called the
ebb.
• Flow or Flood: The time between the low tide and high tide, when the tide is rising, is called the
flow or flood.
• Crest: The highest point of a wave is called the crest
• Trough: The lowest point of a wave is called trough.
• Wave height: It is the vertical distance from the bottom of a trough to the top of a crest of a wave.
• Wave amplitude: It is one-half of the wave height.
• Wave period: It is merely the time interval between two successive wave crests or troughs as
they pass a fixed point.
• Wavelength: It is the horizontal distance between two successive crests.
• Wave speed: It is the rate at which the wave moves through the water, and is measured in knots.
• Wave frequency: It is the number of waves passing a given point during a one second time
interval.
• Semi-diurnal tide: The most common tidal pattern, featuring two high tides and two low tides each
day. The successive high or low tides are approximately of the same height.
• Diurnal tide: There is only one high tide and one low tide during each day. The successive high
and low tides are approximately of the same height.
• Mixed tide: Tides having variations in height are known as mixed tides. These tides generally
occur along the west coast of North America and on many islands of the Pacific Ocean.
• Spring tides: The position of both the sun and the moon in relation to the earth has direct bearing
on tide height. When the sun, the moon and the earth are in a straight line, the height of the tide
will be higher. These are called spring tides.
• Perigee: The time when the moon’s orbit is closest to the earth is called perigee.
• Apogee: The time when the moon is farthest from earth is called apogee.
• Perihelion: When the earth is closest to the sun.
• Aphelion: When the earth is farthest from the sun
• Gyres: Gravity tends to pull the water down the pile and create gradient variation. The Coriolis
force intervenes and causes the water to move to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the
left in the southern hemisphere. These large accumulations of water and the flow around them
are called Gyres
Class 11 Notes Chapter 15 Life on the Earth
Life on the earth is found almost everywhere. Living organisms are found from the poles to the
equator, from the bottom of the sea to several km in the air, from freezing waters to dry valleys, from
under the sea to underground water lying below the earth’s surface.
The biosphere includes all the living components of the earth. It consists of all plants and animals,
including all the micro-organisms that live on the planet earth and their interactions with the
surrounding environment.
The biosphere and its components are very significant elements of the environment. These elements
interact with other components of the natural landscape such as land, water and soil.
They are also influenced by the atmospheric elements such as the temperature, rainfall, moisture and
sunlight. The interactions of biosphere with land, air and water are important to the growth,
development and evolution of the organism.
The term ecology is derived from the Greek word ‘oikos’ meaning ‘house’, combined with the word
‘logy’ meaning the ‘science of or ‘the study of. Literally, ecology is the study of the earth as a
‘household’, of plants, human beings, animals and micro-organisms.
A German zoologist Ernst Haeckel, who used the term as ‘oekologie’ in 1869, became the first person
to use the term ‘ecology’. The study of interactions between life forms (biotic) and the physical
environment (abiotic) is the science of ecology. Hence, ecology can be defined as a scientific study of
the interactions of organisms with their physical environment and with each other.
Ecosystems are of two major types: terrestrial and aquatic. Terrestrial ecosystem can be further be
classified into ‘biomes’.
A biome is a plant and animal community that covers a large geographical area. The boundaries of
different biomes on land are determined mainly by climate.
From a structural point of view, all ecosystems consist of abiotic and biotic factors. Abiotic factors
include rainfall, temperature, sunlight, atmospheric humidity, soil conditions, inorganic substances
(carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, potassium, etc.).
Biotic factors include the producers, the consumers (primary, secondary, tertiary) and the
decomposers. The producers include all the green plants, which manufacture their own food through
photosynthesis.
The primary consumers include herbivorous animals like deer, goats, mice and all plant-eating
animals.
The carnivores include all the flesh-eating animals like snakes, tigers and lions. Certain carnivores
that feed also on carnivores are known as top carnivores like hawks and mongooses.
Decomposers are those that feed on dead organisms (for example, scavengers like vultures and
crows), and further breaking down of the dead matter by other decomposing agents like bacteria and
various micro-organisms.
Generally, two types of food-chains are recognised: grazing food-chain and detritus food- chain. In a
grazing food-chain, the first level starts with plants as producers and ends with carnivores as
consumers at the last level, with the herbivores being at the intermediate level.
There are five major biomes — forest, desert, grassland, aquatic and altitudinal biomes.
The sun is the basic source of energy on which ail life depends. This energy’ initiates life processes in
the biosphere through photosynthesis, the main source of food and energy for green plants.
During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is converted into organic compounds and oxygen. Out of the
total solar insolation that reaches the earth’s surface, only a very small fraction (0.1 per cent) is fixed
in photosynthesis. More than half is used for plant respiration and the remaining part is temporarily
stored or is shifted to other portions of the plant.
Oxygen is the main by-product of photosynthesis. Oxygen occurs in a number of chemical forms and
combinations. It combines with nitrogen to form nitrates and with many other minerals and elements
to form various oxides such as the iron oxide, aluminium oxide and others. Much of oxygen is
produced from the decomposition of water molecules by sunlight during photosynthesis and is
released in the atmosphere through transpiration and respiration processes of plants.
Other than carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen being the principal geochemical components of
the biosphere, many other minerals also occur as critical nutrients for plant and animal life. These
mineral elements required by living organisms are obtained initially from inorganic sources such as
phosphorus, sulphur, calcium and potassium.
Important Terms:
• Biosphere: The biosphere includes all the living components of the earth. It consists of all plants
and animals, including all the micro-organisms that live on the planet earth and their interactions
with the surrounding environment.
• Environment: The environment is made up of abiotic and biotic components.
• Ecology: The term ecology is derived from the Greek word ‘oikos’ meaning ‘house’, combined
with the word ‘logy’ meaning the ‘science of or ‘the study of. Literally, ecology is the study of the
earth as a ‘household’, of plants, human beings, animals and micro-organisms.
• Ecological systems: The interactions of a particular group of organisms with abiotic factors within
a particular habitat resulting in clearly defined energy flows and material cycles on land, water
and air, are called ecological systems.
• Habitat: A habitat in the ecological sense is the totality of the physical and chemical factors that
constitute the general environment.
• Ecosystem: A system consisting of biotic and abiotic components is known as ecosystem.
• Ecological adaptation: All these components in ecosystem are inter-related and interact with each
other. Different types of ecosystems exist with varying ranges of environmental conditions where
various plants and animal species have got adapted through evolution. This phenomenon is
known as ecological adaptation.
• Abiotic factors: Abiotic factors include rainfall, temperature, sunlight, atmospheric humidity, soil
conditions, inorganic substances (carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus,
potassium, etc.).
• Biotic factors: Biotic factors include the producers, the consumers (primary, secondary, tertiary)
and the decomposers.
• Producers: The producers include all the green plants, which manufacture their own food through
photosynthesis.
• Primary consumers: The primary consumers include herbivorous animals like deer, goats, mice
and all plant-eating animals.
• Carnivores: The carnivores include all the flesh-eating animals like snakes, tigers and lions.
Certain carnivores that feed also on carnivores are known as top carnivores like hawks and
mongooses.
• Decomposers: Decomposers are those that feed on dead organisms (for example, scavengers
like vultures and crows), and further breaking down of the dead matter by other decomposing
agents like bacteria and various micro- organisms.
• Biome: A biome is a plant and animal community that covers a large geographical area. The
boundaries of different biomes on land are determined mainly by climate. Therefore, a biome
can.be defined as the total assemblage of plant and animal species interacting within specific
conditions.
• Food Chain: This sequence of eating and being eaten and the resultant transfer of energy from
one level to another is known as the food-chain.
• Flow of energy: Transfer of energy that occurs during the process of a food chain from one level
to another is known as flow of energy.
• Food web: The food- chains get interlocked with one another. This inter- connecting network of
species is known as food web.
• Water cycle: All living organisms, the atmosphere and the lithosphere maintain between them a
circulation of water in solid, liquid or gaseous form. This is known as the water or hydrologic
cycle.
• Oxygen cycle: Oxygen is the main by-product of photosynthesis. It is involved in the oxidation of
carbohydrates with the release of energy, carbon dioxide and water. The cycling of oxygen is a
highly complex process.
• Denitrification: Some bacteria can even convert nitrites into nitrates that can be used again by
green plants. There are still other types of bacteria capable of converting nitrates into free
nitrogen, a process known as denitrification.
• Biogeochemical cycle: Bio refers to living organisms and geo to rocks, soil, air and water of the
earth. These cyclic movements of chemical elements of the biosphere between the organism and
the environment are referred to as biogeochemical cycles.
• Ecological balance: Ecological balance is a state of dynamic equilibrium within a community of
organisms in a habitat or ecosystem. It can happen when the diversity of the living organisms
remains relatively stable.
• Succession: This change is due to competition where the secondary forest species such as
grasses, bamboos or pines overtakes the native species changing the original forest structure.
This is called succession.
Class 11 Notes Chapter 16 Biodiversity and
Conversation
The average half-life of a species is estimated at between one and four million years, and 99 per
cent of the species that have ever lived on the earth are today extinct.
Biodiversity is not found evenly on the earth. It is consistently richer in the tropics. As one approaches
the polar regions, one finds larger and larger populations of fewer and fewer species.
Genes are the basic building blocks of various life forms. The diversity in gene in a species is called
genetic biodiversity.
Human beings genetically belong to the homo sapiens group and also differ in their characteristics
such as height, colour, physical appearance, etc., considerably. This is due to genetic diversity. This
genetic diversity is essential for a healthy breeding of population of species.
Genetic diversity has given a great contribution in development of human culture. In a similar way
human species has also contributed in maintaining natural diversity at genetic, species and
ecosystem level.
Different species of ecosystem are busy in one activity or the other. Without activities they can neither
survive nor develop.
Ecosystem evolves and sustains without any reason. That means, every organism, besides extracting
its needs, also contributes something of useful to other organisms.
Ecological functions are important for ecosystem function and human survival. The more diverse an
ecosystem, better are the chances for the species to survive through adversities and attacks, and
consequently, is more productive. Just like a species with a high genetic diversity, an ecosystem with
high biodiversity may have a greater chance of adapting to environmental change. In other words, the
more the variety of species in an ecosystem, the more stable the ecosystem is likely to be.
Biodiversity as we have today is the result of 2.5-3.5 billion years of evolution. Before the advent of
humans, our earth supported more biodiversity than in any other period.
Since, the emergence of humans, however, biodiversity has begun a rapid decline, with one species
after another bearing the brunt of extinction due to overuse. The number of species globally vary from
2 million to 100 million, with 10 million being the best estimate.
For all humans, biodiversity is an important resource in their day-to-day life. One important part of
biodiversity is ‘crop diversity’, which is also called agro-biodiversity. Biodiversity is seen as a reservoir
of resources to be drawn upon for the manufacture of food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic products.
Since the last few decades, growth in human population has increased the rate of consumption of
natural resources. It has accelerated the loss of species and habitation in different parts of the world.
Tropical regions which occupy only about one-fourth of the total area of the world, contain about
three- fourth of the world human population. Over-exploitation of resources and deforestation have
become rampant to fulfil the needs of large population. As these tropical rain forests contain 50 per
cent of the species on the earth, destruction of natural habitats have proved disastrous for the entire
biosphere.
Natural calamities such as earthquakes, floods, volcanic eruptions, forest fires, droughts, etc. cause
damage to the flora and fauna of the earth, bringing change to the biodiversity of respective affected
regions. Pesticides and other pollutants such as hydrocarbons and toxic heavy metals destroy the
weak and sensitive species.
The International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) has classified the
threatened species of plants and animals into three categories for the purpose of their conservation:
(a) Endangered species (b) Vulnerable species and (c) Rare species.
Biodiversity is important for human existence. All forms of life are so closely interlinked that
disturbance in one gives rise to imbalance in the others. If species of plants and animals become
endangered, they cause degradation in the environment, which may threaten human being’s own
existence.
The Government of India along with 155 other nations have signed the Convention of Biodiversity at
the Earth Summit held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 1992.
Government of India passed the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, under which national parks and
sanctuaries were established and biosphere reserves declared.
There are some countries which are situated in the tropical region; they possess a large number of
the world’s species diversity. They are called mega diversity centers. There are 12 such countries,
namely Mexico, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Democratic Republic of Congo, Madagascar,
China, India, Malaysia, Indonesia and Australia in which these centers are located.
Hotpots are defined according to their vegetation. Plants are important because these determine the
primary productivity of an ecosystem. Most, but not all, of the hotpots rely on species-rich ecosystems
for food, firewood, cropland, and income from timber. In Madagascar, for example, about 85 per cent
of the plants and animals are found nowhere else in the world. Other hotspots in wealthy countries
are facing different types of dangers.
Important Terms:
• Biodiversity: Biodiversity refers to the varieties of plants, animals and micro-organisms, the genes
they contain and the ecosystems they form. It relates to the variability among living organisms on
the earth, including the variability within and between the species and that within and between
the ecosystems.
• Species: Groups of individual organisms having certain similarities in their physical
characteristics are called species.
• Genetic biodiversity: Genetic biodiversity refers to the variation of genes within species.
• Species diversity: Species diversity refers to the variety of species. It relates to the number of
species in a defined area. The diversity of species can be measured through its richness,
abundance and types.
• Ecosystem diversity: The broad differences between ecosystem types and the diversity of
habitats and ecological processes occurring within each ecosystem type constitute the
ecosystem diversity.
• Hotspots: Some areas are richer in species than others. Areas rich in species diversity are called
hotspots of diversity.
• Exotic species: Species which are not the natural inhabitants of the local habitat but are
introduced into the system, are called exotic species.
• Sensitive species: Pesticides and other pollutants such as hydrocarbons and toxic heavy metals
destroy the weak species. These are called sensitive species.
• Mega diversity centre: There are some countries which are situated in the tropical region; they
possess a large number of the world’s species diversity. They are called mega diversity centres.
• IUCN: The International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources is an
international organization which published information about species under the red list.
• Endangered species: Endangered species includes those species which are in danger of
extinction. The IUCN publishes information about endangered species world-wide as the red list
of threatened species.
• Vulnerable species: Vulnerable species includes the species which are likely to be in danger o’f
extinction in near future if the factors threatening to their extinction continue. Survival of these
species is not assured as their population has reduced greatly.
• Rare species: Rare species are those species whose population is very small in the world and
they are confined to limited areas or thinly scattered over a wider area.
PART 2
Class 11 Notes Chapter 1 India: Location
Historical Perspective:
Ancient King Dushyant had a son whose name was Bharat. In his name, this country was named as
Bharat. According to some scholars, Bharat name was given according to a caste living in India in
ancient times.
The name ‘India’ was originated from Indus valley civilization.
Huns, Egyptians, Persians, and other countrymen used to enter India by crossing Indus river. The
word Hindu originated from Sindhu. People from these countries used to pronounce S as H and so
they called Sindhu as Hindu.
Egyptians and Romans used to call Indus as Sindhu valley and eastern part of it as India.
India’s boundaries are clear from geographical point of viewT. There are great mountains on its north-
east and north-west side and there are great ocean in its south-east and south-west sides. Foreigners
can enter India by crossing Khyber and Bolan straits.
Among all the living civilisation of the world, India is probably the oldest.
Around 2000-3000 BC a group of food gatherers developed a highly developed civilization.
With the destruction of Harappa civilization, a new civilization took birth in India. In 1500 BC, Aryans
came to India which gave birth to Vedic culture.
According to historians, Aryans had not come from some other place. They had a community. They
were divided in many castes. They kept roaming in Persia in West, Ganga Valley in the east and
regions of Caspian Sea.
By 1000 BC, Aryans reached to the southern comer of India to tie India in a cultural knot. According
to Aryans, the society was divided into four Vama: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra.
Study of Ved, Prayers, etc were the responsibility of Brahmins. Saving people from enemies was the
responsibility of Kshatriyas. Vaishyas used to take care of business activities and economy of the
nation. Shudra used to provide labour for different tasks. It was occupational classification on the
basis of activity.
Present Perspective:
India is the seventh largest country in the world with total area of 32,87,263 sq. km which is 2.42 per
cent of the world’s area. It is the second most populous country after China in the world with a
population of 1.21 billion.
The mainland of India, extends from Kashmir in the north to Kanniyakumari in the south and
Arunachal Pradesh in the east to Gujarat in the west. India extends from territorial limit further
extends towards the sea upto 12 nautical miles (about 21.9 km) from the coast. India lies entirely in
the Northern hemisphere. The mainland extends between latitudes 8°4′ N (Kanniyakumari, Cape
Caverian) and 37° 6′ N (Indira col, Jammu and Kashmir) and longitudes 68° 7′ E (Dwarka, Gujarat)
and 97° 25′ E (Sadiya, Arimachal Pradesh).
Longitudinal extent of India is 68° 7′ to 97° 25′ E-(29°). The latitudinal and longitudinal extent of India
are roughly about 30 degrees, whereas the actual distance measured from north to south extremity is
3,214 km, and that from east to west is only 2,933 km.
This difference is based on the fact that the distance between two longitudes decreases towards the
poles whereas the distance between two latitudes remains the same everywhere.
The southern part of the country lies within the tropics and the northern part lies in the sub¬tropical
zone or the warm temperate zone. This location is responsible for large variations in landforms,
climate, soil types and natural vegetation in the country.
There is a variation of nearly 30 degrees from west to east in India which causes a time difference of
nearly two hours between the easternmost and the westernmost parts of our country.
While the sun rises in the northeastern states about two hours earlier as compared to Jaisalmer, the
watches in Dibrugarh, Imphal in the east and Jaisalmer, Bhopal or Chennai in the other parts of India
shows the same time because we follow one standard time all over India called Indian Standard Time
(1ST)
There is a general understanding among the countries of the world to select the standard meridian in
multiples of 7°30′ of longitude. That is why 82°30′ E has been selected as the ‘standard meridian’ of
India. Indian Standard Time is ahead of Greenwich Mean Time by 5 hours and 30 minutes. There are
some countries where there are more than one standard meridian due to their vast east-to-west
extent. For example, the USA has seven time zones.
The size of India has endowed her with great physical diversity. India is gifted with the presence of
lofty mountains in the north; large rivers such as Ganga, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Krishna, Godavari
and Kaveri; green forested hills in northeast and south India; and the vast sandy expanse of
Marusthali.
India has second position in terms of Agrarian land after USA.
It is bounded by the Himalayas in the north, Hindukush and Sulaiman ranges in the north-west,
Purvachal hills in the north-east and by the large expanse of the Indian ocean in the south, it forms a
great geographic entity known as the Indian subcontinent. It includes the countries — Pakistan,
Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and India.
India’s land length is 15,200 km and it has a coastline of 6,100 km in the mainland and 7,517 km in
the entire geographical coast of the mainland plus the island groups Andaman and Nicobar located in
the Bay of Bengal and the Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea. Thus India, as a country, is a physically
diverse land providing occurrence of varied resources.
India is located in the south-central part of the continent of Asia, bordering the Indian ocean and its
two arms extending in the form of Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. This maritime location of
Peninsular India has provided links to its neighbouring regions through the sea and air routes. Sri
Lanka and Maldives are the two island countries located in the Indian Ocean, which are our
neighbours. Sri Lanka is separated from India by the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait.
India has 29 states and 7 union territories. It is situated in the middle of western Asia and Eastern
Asia.
Important Terms:
• Siam: Old name of Thailand.
• Aryavarta: Old name of India. It was in the name of Aryans who came to India in ancient times.
• Indira Point: It is the southernmost part of India.
• Varna System: According to Aryans the society was divided into four Varna: Brahmin, Kshatriya,
Vaishya and Shudra.
• Suba: In Mughal periods, states were called suba.
• Sarkar: Districts in Mughal period were called sarkar.
• Mahal: Towns and villages were called mahal in Mughal period.
• Subcontinent: Himalayas in the north, Hindukush and Sulaiman ranges in the north¬west,
Purvachal hills in the north-east and by the large expanse of the Indian ocean in the south forms
a great geographic entity known as the Indian subcontinent. It includes the countries — Pakistan,
Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and India.
Class 11 Notes Chapter 2 Structure and
Physiography
These geological regions broadly follow the physical features:
• The Peninsular Block

• The Himalayas and other Peninsular Mountains
• Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain.
The northern boundary of the Peninsular Block may be taken as an irregular line running from
Kachchh along the western flank of the Aravali Range near Delhi and then roughly parallel to the
Yamuna and the Ganga as far as the Rajmahai Hills and the Ganga delta. Apart from these, the Karbi
Anglong and the Meghalaya Plateau in the north-east and Rajasthan in the west are also extensions
of this block.
The Peninsula is formed essentially by a great complex of very ancient gneisses and granites, which
constitutes a major part of it. The rift valleys of the Narmada, the Tapi and the Mahanadi and the
Satpura block mountains are some examples of it. The Peninsula mostly consists of relict and
residual mountains like the Aravali hills, the Nallamala hills, the Javadi hills, the Veliconda hills, the
Palkonda range and the Mahendragiri hills, etc.
Most of the east flowing rivers form deltas before entering into the Bay of Bengal. The deltas formed
by the Mahanadi, the Krishna, the Kaveri and the Godavari are important examples.
The Himalayas along with other Peninsular mountains are young, weak and flexible in their geological
structure unlike the rigid and stable Peninsular Block. Consequently, they are still subjected to the
interplay of exogenic and endogenic forces, resulting in the development of faults, folds and thrust
plains.
The third geological division of India comprises the plains formed by the river Indus, the Ganga and
the Brahmaputra. Originally, it was a geo-synclinal depression which attained its maximum
development during the third phase of the Himalayan mountain formation approximately about 64
million years ago. Since then, it has been gradually filled by the sediments brought by the Himalayan
and Peninsular rivers. Average depth of alluvial deposits in these plains ranges from 1,000-2,000 m.
India can be divided into the following physio-graphic divisions:
• The Northern and North-eastern Mountains

• The Northern Plain
• The Indian Desert
• The Islands.
The North and North-eastern Mountains consist of the Himalayas and the North-eastern hills. The
Himalayas consist of a series of parallel mountain ranges. Some of the important ranges are the
Greater Himalayan range, which includes the Great Himalayas and the Trans-Himalayan range, the
Middle Himalayas and the Shiwalik.
The approximate length of the Great Himalayan range, also known as the central axial range, is 2,500
km from east to west, and their width varies between 160-400 km from north to south.
On the basis of relief, alignment of ranges and other geomorphological features, the Himalayas can
be divided into the following sub-divisions:
• Kashmir or North-western Himalayas.
• Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalayas.
• Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas.
• Arunachal Himalayas.
• Eastern Hills and Mountains.
Kashmir or North-western Himalayas comprise a series of ranges such as the Karakoram, Ladakh,
Zaskar and Pir Panjal. The north-eastern part of the Kashmir Himalayas is a cold desert, which lies
between the Greater Himalayas and the Karakoram ranges.
The word shiwalik has its origin in the geological formation found in and around a place called
Sivawala near Dehra Dun which was once a headquarter of the Imperial Survey and which
subsequently established its permanent headquarters at Dehra Dun.
The Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas lies approximately between the Ravi in the west and the
Kali (a tributary of Ghaghara) in the east. In this section of Lesser Himalayas, the altitude between
1,000-2,000 m specially attracted to the British colonial administration, and subsequently, some of the
important hill stations such as Dharamshala, Mussoorie, Shimla, Kaosani and the cantonment towns
and health resorts such as Shimla, Mussoorie, Kasauli, Almora, Lansdowne and Ranikhet, etc. were
developed in this region.
The two distinguishing features of this region from the point of view of physiography are the ‘Shiwalik’
and ‘Dun formations’, Some important duns located in this region are the Chandigarh – Kalka Dun,
Nalagarh Dun, Dehra Dun, Harike Dun and the Kota Dun.
In the Great Himalayan range, the valleys are mostly inhabited by the Bhotia’s. These are nomadic
groups who migrate to ‘Bugyals’ (the summer glass lands in the higher reaches) during summer
months and return to the valleys during winters. The famous ‘Valley of flowers’ is also situated in this
region. The places of pilgrimage such as the Gangotri, Yamunotri, Kedarnath, Badrinath and
Hemkund Sahib are also situated in this part.
Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas are also known for their scenic beauty and rich flora and fauna,
particularly various types of orchids.
An important aspect of the Arunachal Himalayas is the numerous ethnic tribal community inhabiting in
these areas. Some of the prominent ones from west to east are the Monpa, Daffla, Abor, Mishmi,
Nishi and the Nagas. Most of these communities practise Jhumming. It is also known as shifting or
slash and burn cultivation. This region is rich in biodiversity which has been preserved by the
indigenous communities. Due to rugged topography, the inter-valley transportation linkages are
nominal. Hence, most of the interactions are carried through the duar region along the Arunachal-
Assam border.
The Eastern Hills and Mountains are having their general alignment from the north to the south
direction. They are known by different local names. In the north, they are known as Patkai Bum, Naga
hills, the Manipur hills and in the south as Mizo or Lushai hills. These are low hills, inhabited by
numerous tribal groups practising Jhum cultivation.
The northern plains are formed by the alluvial deposits broiight by the rivers – the Indus, the Ganga
and the Brahmaputra. These plains extend approximately 3,200 km from the east to the west. The
average width of these plains varies between 150-300 km. The maximum depth of alluvium deposits
varies between 1,000-2,000 m. From the north to the south, these can be divided into three major
zones: the Bhabar, the Tarai and the alluvial plains. The alluvial plains can be further divided into the
Khadar and the Bhangar.
Bhabar is a narrow belt ranging between 8-10 km parallel to the Shiwalik foothills at the break-up of
the slope. As a result of this, the streams and rivers coming from the mountains deposit heavy
materials of rocks and boulders, and at times, disappear in this zone. South of the Bhabar is the Tarai
belt, with an approximate width of 10-20 km where most of the streams and rivers re-emerge without
having any properly demarcated channel, thereby, creating marshy and swampy conditions known as
the Tarai.
Northern Plains is a featureless plain with a general elevation of 50-150 m above the mean sea level.
The states of Haryana and Delhi form a water divide between the Indus and the Ganga river systems.
Rising from the height of 150 m above the river plains up to an elevation of 600-900 m is the irregular
triangle known as the Peninsular plateau. Delhi ridge in the northwest, (extension of Aravalis), the
Rajmahal hills in the east, Gir range in the west and the Cardamom hills in the south constitute the
outer extent of the Peninsular plateau. However, an extension of this is also seen in the northeast, in
the form of Shillong and Karbi-Anglong plateau. The Peninsular India is made up of a series of
patland plateaus such as the Hazaribagh plateau, the Palamu plateau, the Ranchi plateau, the Malwa
plateau, the Coimbatore plateau and the Karnataka plateau, etc.
On the basis of the prominent relief features, the Peninsular plateau can be divided into three broad
groups:
• The Deccan Plateau

• The Central Highlands
• The North-eastern Plateau.
The Deccan Plateau is bordered by the Western Ghats in the west, Eastern Ghats in the east and the
Satpura, Maikal range and Mahadeo hills in the north. Western Ghats are locally known by different
names such as Sahyadri in Maharashtra, Nilgiri hills in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and Anaimalai hills
and Cardamom hills in Kerala. Western Ghats are comparatively higher in elevation and more
continuous than the Eastern Ghats. Their average elevation is about 1,500 m with the height
increasing from north to south. ‘Anaimudi (2,695 m), the highest peak of Peninsular plateau is located
on the Anaimalai hills of the Western Ghats followed by Dodabetta (2,637 m) on the Nilgiri hills.
Some of the important ranges in Eastern Ghats include the Javadi hills, the Palconda . range, the
Nallamala hills, the Mahendragiri hills, etc.
The Meghalaya plateau is further sub-divided into three:
• The Garo Hills

• The Khasi Hills
• The Jaintia Hills
These are named after the tribal groups inhabiting this region. An extension of this is also seen in the
Karbi Anglong hills of Assam.
To the north-west of the Aravali hills lies the Great Indian Desert. It is a land of undulating topography
dotted with longitudinal dunes and barchans. This region receives low rainfall below 150 mm per
year; hence, it has arid climate with low vegetation cover.
On the basis of the location and active geomorphological processes, it can be broadly divided into
two:
• The western coastal plains

• The eastern coastal plains.
There are two major island groups in India – one in the Bay of Bengal and the other in the Arabian
Sea. The Bay of Bengal island groups consist of about 572 islands/islets. These are situated roughly
between 6°N-14°N and 92°E -94°E. The two principal groups of islets include the Ritchie’s
archipelago and the Labrynth island.
Some important mountain peaks in Andaman and Nicobar islands are Saddle peak (North Andaman
– 738 m), Mount Diavolo (Middle Andaman – 515 m), Mount Koyob (South Andaman – 460 m) and
Mount Thuiller (Great Nicobar – 642 m). These islands are located at a distance of 280 km-480 km off
the Kerala coast. The entire island group.is built of coral deposits. There are approximately 36 islands
of which 11 are inhabited. Minicoy is the largest island with an area of 453 sq. km.
Important Terms:
• Physiography: ‘Physiography’ of an area is the outcome of structure, process and the stage of
development.
• Central axial range: The approximate length of the Great Himalayan range is known as the
central axial range. It is 2,500 km from east to west
• Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain: It is a geological division of India that comprises the plains
formed by the river Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra.
• Bhabar: Bhabar is a narrow belt ranging between 8-10 km parallel to the Shiwalik foothills at the
break-up of the slope. As a result of this, the streams and rivers coming from the mountains
deposit heavy materials of rocks and boulders, and at times, disappear in this zone.
• Kashmir or North-western Himalayas: It comprise a series of ranges such as the Karakoram,
Ladakh, Zaskar and Pir Panjal. The north-eastern part of the Kashmir Himalayas is a cold desert,
which lies between the Greater Himalayas and the Karakoram ranges.
• Duns: The southernmost part of this region consists of longitudinal valleys. These are known as
‘duns’. Jammu dun and Pathankot dun are important examples.
• Tarai: South of the Bhabar is the Tarai belt, with an approximate width of 10-20 km where most of
the streams and rivers re-emerge without having any properly demarcated channel, thereby,
creating marshy and swampy conditions known as the Tarai.
• Bhangar: The south of Tarai is a belt consisting of old alluvial deposits which is known as the
Bhangar.
• Khadar: The south of Tarai is a belt consisting of new alluvial deposits is known as Khadar.
• Dhaoladhar: The Lesser Himalayas is locally known as Dhaoladhar in Himachal Pradesh.
• Nagtibha: The Lesser Himalayas are called Nagtibha in Uttarakhand.
• Ten Degree Channel: The Andaman in the north and the Nicobar in the south are separated by a
water body. It is called the Ten degree channel.
• The Peninsular Plateau: Rising from the height of 150 m above the river plains upto an elevation
of 600-900 m is the irregular triangle known as the Peninsular plateau.
• The Central Highlands: They are bounded to the west by the Aravali range.
• Satpura Range: The Satpura range is formed by a series of scarped plateaus on the south,
generally at an elevation varying between 600-900 m above the mean sea level.
• Barchans: The extension of the Peninsular plateau can be seen as far as Jaisalmer in the West,
where it has been covered by the longitudinal sand ridges and crescent-shaped sand dunes.
These are called barchans.
• Loktak: The physiography of Manipur is unique by the presence of a large lake known as
‘Loktak’.
• Molassis Basin: Mizoram is also known as the ‘Molassis basin’ which is made up of soft
unconsolidated deposits.
• Kayals: Boatwaters are called kayals in Kerala.
• Karewas: Karewas are the thick deposits of glacial clay and other materials embedded with
moraines.
• Dhaya: Bangal is called dhaya in Punjab.
• Bate: Khadar is called bate in Punjab.
Class 11 Notes Chapter 3 Drainage System
On the basis of discharge of water (orientations to the sea), it may be grouped into:
• The Arabian Sea drainage; and

• The Bay of Bengal drainage.
Nearly 77 per cent of the drainage area consisting of the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Mahanadi, the
Krishna, etc. are oriented towards the Bay of Bengal while 23 per cent comprising the Indus, the
Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi and the Periyar systems discharge their waters in the Arabian Sea.
On the basis of the size of the watershed, the drainage basins of India are grouped into three
categories:
• Major river basins with more than 20,000 sq. km of catchment area. It includes 14 drainage
basins such as the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Krishna, the Tapi, the Narmada, the Mahi, the
Penner, the Sabarmati, the Barak, etc.
• Medium river basins with catchment area between 2,000-20,000 sq. km incorporating 44 river
basins such as the Kalindi, the Periyar, the Meghna, etc.
Minor river basins with catchment area of less than 2,000 sq. km include fairly good number of rivers
flowing in the area of low rainfall.
The Indus System is one of the largest river basins of the world, covering an area of 11,65,000 sq. km
(in India it is 321, 289 sq. km) and a total length of 2,880 km and in India its length is 1,114 km.
The Jhelum, an important tributary of the Indus, rises from a spring at Verinag situated at the foot of
the Pir Panjal in the south-eastern part of the valley of Kashmir. It flows through Srinagar and the
Wular lake before entering Pakistan through a deep narrow gorge. It joins the Chenab near Jhang in
Pakistan.
The Chenab is the largest tributary of the Indus. It is formed by two streams, the Chandra and the
Bhaga, which join at Tandi near Keylong in Himachal Pradesh. Hence, it is also known as
Chandrabhaga.
The Ravi is another important tributary of the Indus. It rises west of the Rohtang pass in the Kullu hills
of Himachal Pradesh and flows through the Chamba valley of the state.
The Beas is another important tributary of the Indus, originating from the Beas Kund near the
Rohtang Pass at an elevation of 4,000 m above the mean sea level. The river flows through the Kullu
valley and forms gorges at Kati and Largi in the Dhaoladhar range.
Satluj river flows almost parallel to the Indus for about 400 km before entering India, and comes out of
a gorge at Rupar. It passes through the Shipki La on the Himalayan ranges and enters the Punjab
plains. It is an antecedent river. It is a very important tributary as it feeds the canal system of the
Bhakra Nangal project.
The Ganga System rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh (3,900 m) in the Uttarkashi district of
Uttarakhand. Here, it is known as the Bhagirathi. It cuts through the Central and the Lesser
Himalayas in narrow gorges. At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi meets the Alaknanda; hereafter, it is
known as the Ganga. The Alaknanda has its source in the Satopanth glacier above Badrinath.
The Alaknanda consists of the Dhauli and the Vishnu Ganga which meet at Joshimath or Vishnu
Prayag. The other tributaries of Alaknanda such as the Pindar joins it at Kama Prayag while
Mandakini or Kali Ganga meets it at Rudra Prayag.
The Ganga river has a length of 2,525 km. It is shared by Uttarakhand (110 km) and Uttar Pradesh
(1,450 km), Bihar (445 km) and West Bengal (520 km).
The Ganga basin covers about 8.6 lakh sq. km area in India alone. The Ganga river system is the
largest in India having a number of perennial and non-perennial rivers originating in the Himalayas in
the north and the Peninsula in the south, respectively. The Son is its major right bank tributary. The
important left bank tributaries are the Ramganga, the Gomati, the Ghaghara, the Gandak, the Kosi
and the Mahananda.
The Yamuna is the western most and the longest tributary of the Ganga. It has its source in the
Yamunotri glacier on the western slopes of Banderpunch range (6,316 km). It joins the Ganga at
Prayag in Allahabad. It is joined by the Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa and the Ken on its right bank
which originates from the Peninsular plateau while the Hindan, the Rind, the Sengar, the Varuna, etc.
join it on its left bank.
The Chambal rises near Mhow in the Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh and flows northwards
through a gorge up wards of Kota in Rajasthan, where the Gandhisagar dam has been constructed.
From Kota, it traverses down to Bundi, Sawai Madhopur and Dholpur, and finally joins the Yamuna.
The Gandak comprises two streams, namely Kaligandak and Trishulganga. It rises in the Nepal
Himalayas between the Dhaulagiri and Mount Everest and drains the central part of Nepal.
The Brahmaputra is one of the largest rivers of the world. It has its origin in the Chemayungdung
glacier of the Kailash range near the Mansarovar lake.
The Brahmaputra receives numerous tributaries in its 750 km long journey through the Assam valley.
Its major left bank tributaries are the Burhi Dihing and Dhansari (South) whereas the important right
bank tributaries are the Subansiri, Kameng, Manas and Sankosh.. The Subansiri which has its origin
in Tibet, is an antecedent river.
The Peninsular drainage system is older than the Himalayan one. This is evident from the broad,
largely-graded shallow valleys, and the maturity of the rivers.
Most of the major Peninsular rivers except Narmada and Tapi flow from west to east. The Chambal,
the Sind, the Betwa, the Ken, the Son, originating in the northern part of the Peninsula belong to the
Ganga river system. The other major river systems of the Peninsular drainage are – the Mahanadi,
the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri. Peninsular rivers are characterised by fixed course,
absence of meanders and non- perennial flow of water.
Three major geological events in the distant past have shaped the present drainage systems of
Peninsular India:
• Subsidence of the western flank of the Peninsula leading to its submergence below the sea
during the early tertiary period.
• Upheaval of the Himalayas when the northern flank of the Peninsular block was subjected to
subsidence and the consequent trough faulting.
• Slight tilting of the Peninsular block from north-west to the south-eastern direction gave
orientation to the entire drainage system towards the Bay of Bengal during the same period.
There are some problems in river water usage. Some of these are:
• No availability in sufficient quantity.

• River water pollution.
• Load of silt in the river water.
• Uneven seasonal flow of water.
• River water disputes between states.
• Shrinking of channels due to the extension of settlements towards the thalweg.
Important Terms:
• Drainage: The flow of water through well-defined channels is known as ‘drainage.’
• Drainage System: The network of drainage channels is called a ‘drainage system’.
• Dendritic Drainage System: The drainage pattern resembling the branches of a tree is known as
“dendritic” the examples of which are the rivers of northern plain.
• Radial Drainage System: When the rivers originate from a hill and flow in all directions, the
drainage pattern is known as ‘radial’. The rivers originating from the Amarkantak range present a
good example of it.
• Trellis: When the primary tributaries of rivers flow parallel to each other and secondary tributaries
join them at right angles, the pattern is known as ‘trellis’.
• Centripetal Drainage System: When the rivers discharge their waters from all directions in a lake
or depression, the pattern is known as ‘centripetal’.
• Catchment area: A river drains the water collected from a specific area, which is called its
‘catchment area’.
• Drainage Basin: An area drained by a river and its tributaries is called a drainage basin.
• Watershed: The boundary line separating one drainage basin from the other is known as the
watershed.
• Sorrow of Bengal: River Damodar is also known as the ‘Sorrow of Bengal’ as it changes its
course very frequently and causes floods in Bihar.
• Sorrow of Bihar: River Kosi is called Sorrow of Bihar.
• River System: A river or a river system is a body of water flowing in a channel through the
surface of the earth. It consists of four important parts: river course, river source, tributaries and
river mouth.
• River Source: A place at which begins or originates. This is usually found in mountainous areas.
The source may be melting snow from the top of a mountain on a lake with stream flowing out of
it. A river flow downhill from its source due to the force of gravity
• River Course: The path on which the river flows along.
• Singi Khamban or Lion’s mouth: Kailash Mountain range is known as ‘Singi Khamban; or Lion’s
mouth in Tibet.
• Regime: The pattern of flow of water in a river channel over a year is known as its regime.
• Cusecs: It means cubic feet per second.
• Cumecs: It stands for cubic metres per second.
Class 11 Notes Chapter 4 Climate
Weather is the momentary state of the atmosphere while climate refers to the average of the weather
conditions over a longer period of time. Weather changes quickly, may be within a day or week but
climate changes imperceptively and may be noted after 50 years or even more.
India has hot monsoonal climate which is the prevalent climate in south and south-east Asia.
While in the summer the mercury occasionally touches 55°C in the western Rajasthan, it drops down
to as low as minus 45°C in winter around Leh. Churu in Rajasthan may record a temperature of 50°C
or more on a June day while the mercury hardly touches 19°C in Tawang (Arunachal Pradesh) on the
same day. On a December night, temperature in Drass (Jammu and Kashmir) may drop down to
minus 45°C while Thiruvananthapuram or Chennai on the same night records 20°C or 22°C.
In Kerala and in the Andaman Islands, the difference between day and night temperatures may be
hardly seven or eight degree Celsius. But in the Thar desert, if the day temperature is around 50°C, at
night, it may drop down considerably upto 15°-20°C.
While snowfall occurs in the Himalayas, it only rains over the rest of the country. Similarly, variations
are noticeable not only in the type of precipitation but also in its amount. While Cherrapunji and
Mawsynram in the Khasi Hills of Meghalaya receive rainfall over 1,080 cm in a year, Jaisalmer in
Rajasthan rarely gets more than 9 cm of rainfall during the same period.
Tura situated in the Garo Hills of Meghalaya may receive an amount of rainfall in a single day which
is equal to 10 years of rainfall at Jaisalmer. While the annual precipitation is less than 10 cm in the
north-west Himalayas and the western deserts, it exceeds 400 cm in Meghalaya.
The Ganga delta and the coastal plains of Orissa are hit by strong rain-bearing storms almost every
third or fifth day in July and August while the Coromandal coast, a thousand km to the south, goes
generally dry during these months.
Most parts of the country get rainfall during June-September, but on the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu,
it rains in the beginning of the winter season. In spite of these differences and variations, the climate
of India is monsoonal in rhythm and character.
With a long coastline, large coastal areas have an equable climate. Areas in the interior of India are
far away from the moderating influence of the sea. Such areas have extremes of climate.
Temperature decreases with height. Due to thin air, places in the mountains are cooler than places
on the plains. With increase in height by 165 metres, temperature decreases by one degree celcius.
Agra and Darjiling are located on the same latitude, but temperature of January in Agra is 16°C
whereas it is only 4°C in Darjiling.
An easterly jet stream flows over the southern part of the Peninsula in June, and has a maximum
speed of 90 km per hour. In August, it is confined to 15°N latitude, and in September up to 22°N
latitudes. The easterlies normally do not extend to the north of 30°N latitude in the upper atmosphere.
The monsoon may burst in the first week of June in the coastal areas of Kerala, Karnataka, Goa and
Maharashtra while in the interior parts of the country, it may be delayed to the first week of July. The
day temperature registers a decline of 5°C to 8°C between mid- June and mid-July.
The mean daily temperature remains below 21°C over most parts of northern India. The night
temperature may be quite low, sometimes going below freezing point in Punjab and Rajasthan.
The mean maximum temperature for January at Thiruvananthapuram is as high as 31°C, and for
June, it is 29.5°C. Temperatures at the hills of Western Ghats remain comparatively low.
April, May and June are the months of summer in north India. In most parts of India, temperatures
recorded are between 30°-32°C. In March, the highest day temperature of about 38°C occurs in the
Deccan Plateau while in April, temperature ranging between 38°C and 43°C are found in Gujarat and
Madhya Pradesh.
The average annual rainfall in India is about 125 cm, but it has great spatial variations.
The highest rainfall occurs along the west coast, on the Western Ghats, as well as in the Sub-
Himalayan areas in the north-east and the hills of Meghalaya. Here the rainfall exceeds 200 cm. In
some parts of Khasi and Jaintia hills, the rainfall exceeds 1,000 cm. In the Brahmaputra valley and
the adjoining hills, the rainfall is less then 200 cm.
Rainfall between 100-200 cm is received in the southern parts of Gujarat, east Tamil Nadu, north-
eastern Peninsula covering Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar, eastern Madhya Pradesh, northern Ganga
plain along the sub-Himalayas and the Cachar Valley and Manipur.
Areas of Low Rainfall: Western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir, eastern
Rajasthan, Gujarat and Deccan Plateau receive rainfall between 50-100 cm.
Areas of Inadequate Rainfall: Parts of the Peninsula, especially in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and
Maharashtra, Ladakh and most of western Rajasthan receive rainfall below 50 cm. Snowfall is
restricted to the Himalayan region.
The mean annual surface temperature of the earth in the past 150 years has increased. It is projected
that by the year 2,100, global temperature will increase by about 2°C. This rise in temperature will
cause many other changes: one of these is a rise in sea level, as a result of melting of glaciers and
sea-ice due to warming.
Important Terms:
• Monsoon: Monsoon connotes the climate associated with seasonal reversal in the direction of
winds.
• Weather: Weather is conditions of temperature, humidity, pressure, etc at a given point of time.
• Climate: Climate is condition of temperature, humidity and pressure for a longer period of time.
• Break in the monsoon: During the south-west monsoon period after having rains for a few days, if
rain fails to occur for one or more weeks, it is known as break in the monsoon.
• Dust storms: Dust storms in the evening are very common during May in Punjab, Haryana,
Eastern Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.
• Mango shower: Towards the end of summer, there are pre-monsoon showers which are a
common phenomena in Kerala and coastal areas of Karnataka. Locally, they are known as
mango showers since they help in the early ripening of
• mangoes.
• Blossom shower: With this shower, coffee flowers blossom in Kerala and nearby areas.
• Nor westers: These are dreaded evening thunderstorms in Bengal and Assam. Their notorious
nature can be understood from the local nomenclature of‘Kalbaisakhi’, a calamity of the month of
Baisakh. These showers are useful for tea, jute and rice cultivation.
• Breaks: The wet spells are interspersed with rainless interval known as ‘breaks’.
• Climatic region: A climatic region has a homogeneous climatic condition which is the result of a
combination of factors.
• Disturbances: Inflow of western cyclones is generally known as disturbances during the winter
season.
• The Inter tropical convergence zone (ITCZ): It is a low pressure zone located at the equator
where trade winds converge, and so, it is a zone where air tends to ascend.
• Monsoon trough: In July, the ITCZ is located around 20°N-25°N latitudes over the Gangetic plain.
These are sometimescalled the monsoon trough.
• ITCZ: The inter tropical convergence Zone (ITCZ) is a low pressure zone located at the Equator
where trade winds converge and so it is a zone where air trends to ascend. In July the ITCZ is
located around 20°N-25° N latitudes (over the Gangetic Plain) sometimes called the monsoon
trough.
• Northeast monsoon: In winter, the ITCZ moves southward, and so the reversal of winds from
northeast to south and southwest, takes place. They are called northeast monsoons.
• Tropical depressions: Inflow of western cyclones is generally known as tropical depressions
during the south-west monsoon period in India.
• Bardoli chheerha: In Assam, Nor Westers storms are known as “Bardoli Chheerha”.
• Loo: Hot, dry and oppressing winds blowing in the Northern plains from Punjab to Bihar with
higher intensity between Delhi and Patna.
• Bursting of the monsoon: High velocity winds with extreme thundering and lightening . cause
sudden rainfall. It is
• Jet stream: The winds blow across the Asian continent at latitudes north of the Himalayas roughly
parallel to the Tibetan highlands are called jet stream.
• Monsoon winds: Winds that bring rainfall are called monsoon winds.
• Drought: It is a situation of scarce rainfall causing problem of usable water, failure of crops and
sometimes famine like conditions.
• Western cyclone: The western cyclonic disturbances enter the Indian subcontinent from the west
and the north-west during the winter months. It originate over the Mediterranean Sea and are
brought into India by the westerly jet stream.
• Tropical cyclones: Tropical cyclones originate over the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean.
These tropical cyclones have very high wind velocity and heavy rainfall.
• October-heat: Owing to the condition of high temperature and humidity, the weather becomes
rather oppressive and this is known as the October-heat.
Class 11 Notes Chapter 5 Natural Vegetation
On the basis of certain common features such as predominant vegetation type and climatic regions,
Indian forests can be divided into the following groups:
• Tro23ral and Swamp forests.
Tropical Evergreen forests are found in the western slope of the Western Ghats, hills of the north-
eastern region and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. They are found in warm and humid areas with
an annual precipitation of over 200 cm and mean annual temperature above 22°C. In these forests,
trees reach great heights up to 60 m or above. There is no definite time for trees to shed their leaves,
flowering and fruition. As such these forests appear green all the year round. Species found in these
forests include rosewood, mahogany, aini, ebony, etc.
The semi evergreen forests are found in the less rainy parts of these regions. Such forests have a
mixture of evergreen and moist deciduous trees. The under growing climbers provide an evergreen
character to these forests. Main species are white cedar, hollock and kail.
Tropical Deciduous Forests are the most widespread forests in India. They are also called the
monsoon forests. They spread over regions which receive rainfall between 70-200 cm. On the basis
of the availability of water, these forests are divided into two types: moist and dry deciduous.
The Moist deciduous forests are more pronounced in the regions which record rainfall between 100-
200 cm. These forests are found in the north-eastern states along the foothills of Himalayas, eastern
slopes of the Western Ghats and Odisha. Teak, sal, shisham, hurra, mahua, amla, semul, kusum,
and sandalwood etc. are the main species of these forests.
Dry deciduous forest covers vast areas of the country, where rainfall ranges between 70-100 cm. On
the wetter margins, it has a transition to the moist deciduous, while on the drier margins to thorn
forests. These forests are found in rainier areas of the Peninsula and the plains of Uttar Pradesh and
Bihar.
Tropical thorn forests occur in the areas which receive rainfall less than 50 cm. These consist of a
variety of grasses and shrubs. It includes semi-arid areas of south west Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan,
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
In mountainous areas, the decrease in temperature with increasing altitude leads to a corresponding
change in natural vegetation. Mountain forests can be classified into two types, the northern mountain
forests and the southern mountain forests.
The Himalayan ranges show a succession of vegetation from the tropical to the tundra, which change
in with the altitude. Deciduous forests are found in the foothills of the Himalayas. It is succeeded by
the wet temperate type of forests between an altitude of 1,000-2,000 m.
In the higher hill ranges of north-eastern India, hilly areas of West Bengal and Uttarakhand,
evergreen broad leaf trees such as oak and chestnut are predominant. Between 1,500-1,750 m, pine
forests are also well-developed in this zone, with Chir Pine as a very useful commercial tree.
Deodar, a highly valued endemic species grows mainly in the western part of the Himalayan range.
Deodar is a durable wood mainly used in construction activity. Similarly, the chinar and the walnut,
which sustain the famous Kashmir handicrafts, belong to this zone. Blue pine and spruce appear at
altitudes of 2,225-3,048 m.
In India, the mangrove forests spread over 6,740 sq. km which is 7 per cent of the world’s mangrove
forests. They are highly developed in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Sunderbans of West
Bengal. Other areas of significance are the Mahanadi, the Godavari and the Krishna deltas. These
forests too, are being encroached upon, and hence, need conservation.
According to state records, the forest area covers 23.28 per cent of the total land area of the
country. It is important to note that the forest area and the actual forest cover are not the same.
Both forest area and forest cover vary from state to state. Lakshadweep has zero per cent approx
forest area; Andaman and Nicobar Islands have 86.93 per cent. Some of the states with less than 10
per cent of the forest area lie in the north and north-western part of the country. These are Rajasthan,
Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana and Delhi.
Geographical area under forests are:
The Government of India proposed to have a nation-wide forest conservation policy, and adopted a
forest policy in 1952, which was further modified in 1988.
The National Commission on Agriculture (1976) has classified social forestry into three categories.
These are urban forestry, rural forestry and farm forestry.
Urban forestry pertains to the raising and management of trees on public and privately owned lands
in and around urban centres such as green belts, parks, roadside avenues, industrial and commercial
green belts, etc.
Rural forestry lays emphasis on promotion of agro-forestry and community-forestry. Agro-forestry is

the raising of trees and agriculture crops on the same land inclusive of the waste patches. It
combines forestry with agriculture, thus, altering the simultaneous production of food, fodder, fuel,
timber and fruits.
In 1972, a comprehensive Wildlife Act was enacted, which provides the main legal framework for
conservation and protection of wildlife in India.
Now, there are 105 National parks and 514 wildlife sanctuaries covering an area of about 15.67
million hectares in the country.
Special schemes like Project Tiger and Project Elephant have been launched to conserve these
species and their habitat in a sustainable manner. Project Elephant has been implemented since
1992.
Under Project Tiger, launched on 1 April 1973, 27 tiger reserves have been set up in 17 states
covering an area of about 37,761 sq. km.
There are 18 Biosphere Reserves in India. Nine of them are recognized by UNESCO. They are :
• Nilgiri
• Nanda Devi
• Sunderbans
• Gulf of Mannar
• Great Nicobar
• Pachmarhi
• Amarkantak
• Norkek
• Simlipal.
Out of a total of 593 districts, 188 have been identified as tribal districts. The tribal districts account for
about 59.61 per cent of the total forest cover of the country whereas the geographical area of 188
tribal districts forms only 33.63 per cent of the total geographical area of the country.
Important Terms:
• Natural vegetation: Natural vegetation refers to a plant community that has been left undisturbed
over a long time, so as to allow its individual species to adjust themselves to climate and soil
conditions as fully as possible.
• Planted vegetation: It refers to planting of trees under human supervision.
• International convention: An international convention is an agreement among member states of
the United Nations.
• Forest area: The forest area is the area notified and recorded as the forest land irrespective of
the existence of trees. It is based on the records of the State Revenue Department.
• Actual forest cover: The actual forest cover is the area occupied by forests with canopy. It is
based on aerial photographs and satellite imageries.
• Social forestry: Social forestry means the management and protection of forests and afforestation
on barren lands with the purpose of helping in the environmental, social and rural development.
• Community forestry: It involves the raising of trees on public or community land such as the
village pasture and temple land, roadside, canal bank, strips along railway lines, and schools etc.
• Rural forestry: It lays emphasis on promotion of agro-forestry and community-forestry. Agro-
forestry is the raising of trees and agriculture crops on the same land inclusive of the waste
patches.
• Biosphere reserve: A Biosphere reserve is a unique and representative ecosystem of terrestrial
and coastal areas which are internationally recognised within the framework of UNESCO’s Man
and Biosphere (MAB) Programme.
• National park: A national park is an area which is strictly reserved for the protection of the wildlife
and where activities such as forestry, grazing or cultivation are not allowed.
• Reserved forest: An area notified under the provisions of Indian Forest acts having full degree of
protection. In protected forests, all activities are prohibited unless permitted.
• Protected forest: An area notified under the provisions of Indian Forest Act or the State Forest
Acts having limited degree of protection. In Protected Forests, all activities are permitted unless
prohibited.
• Sanctuary: A sanctuary is an area which is reserved for the conservation of animals only and
operations such as harvesting of timber, collection of minor forest products are allowed so long
as they do not affect the animals adversely.
• Unclassed forest: An area recorded as forest but not included in reserved or protected forest
category. Ownership status of such forests varies from state to state.
• Conservation: The protection of natural environment and natural resources for the future is called
conservation. It includes the management of minerals, landscape, soil and forests to prevent their
destruction and over exploitation.
Class 11 Notes Chapter 6 Soils
Soil is the mixture of rock debris and organic materials which develop on the earth’s surface.
The major factors affecting the formation of soil are relief, parent material, climate, vegetation and
other life-forms and time. Besides these, human activities also influence it to a large extent.
Components of the soil are mineral particles, humus, water and air. The actual amount of each of
these depends upon the type of soil.
Soil is bifurcated into three layers called horizons. ‘Horizon A’ is the topmost zone, where organic
materials have got incorporated with the mineral matter, nutrients and water, which are necessary for
the growth of plants. ‘Horizon B’ is a transition zone between the ‘horizon A’ and ‘horizon C’, and
contains matter derived from below as well as from above. It has some organic matter in it, although
the mineral matter is noticeably weathered. ‘Horizon C’ is composed of the loose parent material. This
layer is the first stage in the soil formation process and eventually forms the above two layers.
In ancient times, soils used to be classified into twro main groups – Urvara and Usara, which were
fertile and sterile, respectively.
In the 16th century A.D., soils were classified on the basis of their inherent characteristics and
external features such as texture, colour, slope of land and moisture content in the soil. Based on
texture, main soil types were identified as sandy, clayey, silty and loamy, etc. On the basis of colour,
they wrere red, yellow, black, etc.
On the basis of genesis, colour, composition and location, the soils of India have been classified into:
• Alluvial soils
• Black soils
• Red and Yellow soils
• Laterite soils
• Arid soils
• Saline soils
• Peaty soils
• Forest soils.
Alluvial Soils Alluvial soils are widespread in the northern plains and the river valleys. These soils
cover about 40 per cent of the total area of the country. They are depositional soils, transported and
deposited by rivers and streams.
The alluvial soils vary in nature from sandy loam to clay. They are generally rich in potash but poor in
phosphorous. In the Upper and Middle Ganga plain, two different types of alluvial soils have
developed, viz. Khadar and Bhangar.
Khadar is the new alluvium and is deposited by floods annually, which enriches the soil by depositing
fine silts. Bhangar represents a system of older alluvium, deposited away from the flood plains.
Black soil covers most of the Deccan Plateau which includes parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Gujarat, .Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Tamil Nadu. In the upper reaches of the Godavari and
the Krishna, and the north western part of the Deccan Plateau, the black soil is very deep.
Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and southern part
of the Deccan Plateau. Along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghat, long stretch of area is
occupied by red loamy soil.
Laterite has been derived from the Latin word ‘Later’ which means brick. The laterite soils develop in
areas with high temperature and high rainfall. These are the result of intense leaching due to tropical
rains. With rain, lime and silica are leached away, and soils rich in iron oxide and aluminium
compound are left behind.
Arid soils range from red to brown in colour. They are generally sandy in structure and saline in
nature. In some areas, the salt content is so high that common salt is obtained by evaporating the
saline water. Due to the dry climate, high temperature and accelerated evaporation, they lack
moisture and humus.
Saline soils are also known as Usara soils. Saline soils contain a larger proportion of sodium,
potassium and magnesium, and thus, they are infertile, and do not support any vegetative growth.
They have more salts, largely because of dry climate and poor drainage. They occur in arid and semi-
arid regions, and in waterlogged and swampy areas.
Peaty soils are found in the areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity, where there is a good growth of
vegetation. Thus, large quantity of dead organic matter accumulates in these areas, and this gives a
rich humus and organic content to the soil. Organic matter in these soils may go even up to 40-50 per
cent.
Forest soils are formed in the forest areas where sufficient rainfall is available. The soils vary in
structure and texture depending on the mountain environment where they are formed. They are
loamy and silty on valley sides and coarse-grained in the upper slopes.
Soil degradation can be defined as the decline in soil fertility, when the nutritional status declines and
depth of the soil goes down due to erosion and misuse. Soil degradation is the main factor leading to
the depleting soil resource base in India. The degree of soil degradation varies from place to place
according to the topography, wind velocity and amount of the rainfall.
The destruction of the soil cover is described as soil erosion. Forest and other natural vegetation are
removed for human settlement, for cultivation, for grazing animals and for various other needs. Wind
and water are powerful agents of soil erosion because of their ability to remove soil and transport it.
Soil erosion is a serious problem for Indian agriculture and its negative eff ects are seen in other
spheres also. Eroded materials are carried down to rivers and they lower down their carrying
capacity, and cause frequent floods and damage to agricultural lands.
Deforestation is one of the major causes of soil erosion. Plants keep soils bound in locks of roots, and
thus, prevent erosion. They also add humus to the soil by shedding leaves and twigs. The salt lodged
in the lower profiles of the soil comes up to the surface and destroys its fertility. Chemical fertilizers in
the absence of organic manures are also harmful to the soil.
If soil erosion and exhaustion are caused by humans; by corollary, they can also be prevented by
humans. Contour bunding, Contour terracing, regulated forestry, controlled grazing, cover cropping,
mixed farming and crop rotation are some of the remedial measures which are often adopted to
reduce soil erosion.
Experiments have been made to stabilize sand dunes in western Rajasthan by the Central Arid Zone
Research Institute (CAZRI). The Central Soil Conservation Board, set up by the Government of India,
has prepared a number of plans for soil conservation in different parts of the country.
Important Soils Found In India:
Important Terms:
• Soil: Soil is the mixture of rock debris and organic materials which develop on the earth’s surface.
• Bad land topography: A region with a large number of deep gullies or ravines is called a bad land
topography.
• Horizons: When we dig a pit on land and look at the soil, we find that it consists of three layers.
These are called horizons.
• Horizon A: It is the topmost zone, where organic materials have got incorporated with the •
mineral matter, nutrients and water, which are necessary for the growth of plants.
• Horizon B: It is a transition zone between the ‘horizon A’ and ‘horizon C’, and contains matter
derived from below as well as from above. It has some organic matter in it, although the mineral
matter is noticeably weathered.
• Horizon C: It is composed of the loose parent material. This layer is the first stage in the soil
formation process and eventually forms the above two layers.
• Soil profile: The arrangement of layers in three horizons, A, B and C is known as the soil profile.
• Parent rock: Underneath the three horizons there is the rock which is known as the parent rock or
the bedrock.
• Estuary: The tidal mouth of a river where fresh and saline water get mixed.
• Gully erosion: It is the erosion of the soil and rock by the concentration of runoff into gullies.
• Humus: The dead organic content of the soil.
• Khadar: Khadar is the new alluvium and is deposited by floods annually, which enriches the soil
by depositing fine silts.
• Bhangar: Bhangar represents a system of older alluvium, deposited away from the flood plains.
• Alluvial soil: They are depositional soils, transported and deposited by rivers and streams.
• Laterite soil: Laterite has been derived from the Latin word ‘Later’ which means brick. The laterite
soils develop in areas with high temperature and high rainfall.
• Black soil: These soils are made from volcanoes. These soils are also known as the ‘RegurSoil’
or the ‘Black Cotton Soil’.
• Forest soils: Forest soils are formed in the forest areas where sufficient rainfall is available.
• Peaty soils: They are found in the areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity, where there is a
good growth of vegetation.
• Soil erosion: The destruction of the soil cover is described as soil erosion.
• Soil degradation: Soil degradation can be defined as the decline in soil fertility, when the
nutritional status declines and depth of the soil goes down due to erosion and misuse. Soil
degradation is the main factor leading to the depleting soil resource base in India.
• Soil Conservation: Soil conservation is a methodology to maintain soil fertility, prevent soil
erosion and exhaustion, and improve the degraded condition of the soil.
Class 11 Notes Chapter 7 Natural Hazards and
Disasters
Disaster is an undesirable occurrence resulting from forces that are largely outside human control,
strikes quickly with little or no warning, which causes or threatens serious disruption of life and
property including death and injury to a large number of people, and requires therefore, mobilisation
of efforts in excess of that which are normally provided by statutory emergency services.
Change is the law of nature. It is a process present everywhere with variations in terms of magnitude,
intensity and scale. Change can be as sudden and swift as volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, earthquakes
and lightening, etc.
Disasters are also caused by some human activities. There are some activities carried by human
beings that are directly responsible for disasters. Bhopal Gas tragedy, Chernobyl nuclear disaster,
wars, release of CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons) and increase of green house gases, environmental
pollutions like noise, air, water and soil are some of the examples.
Establishment of National Institute of Disaster Management, India, Earth Summit at Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil, 1993 and the World Conference on Disaster Management in May 1994 at Yokohama, Japan,
etc. are some of the concrete steps towards disaster management initiated at different levels.
Geological Survey of India, Department of Meteorology, Government of India, along with the recently
formed National Institute of Disaster Management, have divided India into the following five
earthquake zones:
(i) Very high damage risk zone
(ii) High damage risk zone
(,iii) Moderate damage risk zone
(iv) Low damage risk zone
(v) Very low damage risk zone.
Disaster Management issue was raised at the U.N. General Assembly in 1989 and it was finally
formalised at the World Conference on Disaster Management in May 1994 at Yokohama, Japan. This
was subsequently called the Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action for a Safer World.
Cyclones originate between 10°-15° north latitudes during the monsoon season. In Bay of Bengal,
cyclones mostly develop during the months of October and November. Here, they originate between
16°-2° N latitudes and to the west of 92° E. By July, the place of origin of these storms shifts to
around 18° N latitude and west of 90°E near the Sunderban Delta.
Floods occur commonly when water in the form of surface run-off exceeds the carrying capacity of
the river channels and streams and flows into the neighbouring low-lying flood plains.
Various states of India face heavy loss of lives and property due to recurrent floods. Rashtriya Barh
Ayog (National Flood Commission) identified 40 million hectares of land as flood-prone in India.
According to some estimates, nearly 19 per cent of the total geographical area of the country and 12
per cent of its total population suffer due to drought every year. About 30 per cent of the country’s
total area is identified as drought prone affecting around 50 million people.
On the basis of severity of droughts, India can be divided into the following regions:
(i) Extreme Drought Affected Areas
(ii) Severe Drought Prone Area
(Hi) Moderate Drought Affected Area
Different natural calamities, their causes and measures to reduce their impact
Important Terms:
• Disaster: Disaster is an undesirable occurrence resulting from forces that are largely outside
human control, strikes quickly with little or no warning, which causes or threatens serious
disruption of life and property including death and injury to a large number of people, and
requires therefore, mobilisation of efforts in excess of that which are normally provided by
statutory emergency services.
• Natural hazards: Natural Hazards are elements of circumstances in the natural environment that
have the potential to cause harm to people or property or both.
• Drought: The term ‘drought’ is applied to an extended period when there is a shortage of water
availability due to inadequate precipitation, excessive rate of evaporation and over¬utilisation of
water from the reservoirs and other storages, including the ground water.
• Landslide: A form of mass movement in which rock and debris moves rapidly downslope under
the influence of gravity as a result of failure along a shear plane.
• Tsunamis: Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions that cause the sea-floor to move abruptly
resulting in sudden displacement of ocean water in the form of high vertical waves are called
tsunamis (harbour waves) or seismic sea waves.
• Flood: When a river bursts its banks and the water spills out onto the floodplain, it is called flood.
• Meteorological drought: When there is a prolonged period of inadequate rainfall marked with mal-
distribution of the same over time and space, it is called meterological drought.
• Agricultural drought: When there is by low soil moisture that is necessary to support the crops,
thereby resulting in crop failures, it is called agricultural drought.
• A tropical cyclone or hurricane: It is like a heat engine that is energised by the release of latent
heat on account of the condensation of moisture that the wind gathers after moving over the
oceans and seas.
• Hydrological drought: It results when the availability of water in different storages and reservoirs
like aquifers, lakes, reservoirs, etc. falls below what the precipitation can replenish.
• Ecological drought: When the productivity of a natural ecosystem fails due to shortage of water
and as a consequence of ecological distress, damages are induced in the ecosystem. It is called
ecological drought.
• Eye of the storm: The centre of the cyclone is mostly a warm and low-pressure, cloudless core. It
is known as eye of the storm.
• Storm Surge: Abnormal rise in the sea level is known as Storm Surge.
• Famine: Extreme scarcity of food as a result of drought is called famine.
• Earthquake: An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the result of a sudden
release of energy in the Earth’s crust that creates seismic waves.
• Seismicity: The seismicity, seismism or seismic activity of an area refers to the frequency, type
and size of earthquakes experienced over a period of time.
Class 12 Notes Chapter 1 Human Geography
Nature of Human Geography
• Human Geography studies the inter-relationship between the physical

environment and socio- cultural environment created by human beings through
mutual interaction with each other.
• The elements like villages, cities, road-rail networks, etc and all other elements of
material culture have been created by human beings using the resources provided
by the physical environment. Thus, In the saying of Ellen Semple “Human
geography is a study of changing relationship between unresting man and
unstable earth”.
Naturalisation of Humans and Humanisation of Nature
• Humans interact with their physical environment with the help of technology. This
indicates the level of cultural development.
• The interaction of primitive societies with the physical environment is termed as
environmental determinism which is naturalisation of humans.
• With the development of technology, humans began to modify nature and created
cultural landscape. This is called possiblism or humanisation of nature.
• A middle path of neo determinism was introduced by Griffith Taylor which means
that neither is there a situation of absolute necessity (environmental determinism)
nor is there a condition of absolute freedom (possibilism).
History of Human Geography
• The emergence of human geography started with the interaction, adaptation,

adjustment and modification between the humans and the environment.
• Before the age of discovery, there was very little interaction between different
societies but in the late 15th Century information about the unknown societies
were made available now. Exploration by travellers expanded the area of human
geography and interacted with different societies.
• With this, new approaches can across like welfare or humanistic school of
thought, radical school of thought and behavioural school of thought.
Field and Sub-fields of Human Geography
• Human geography is inter-disciplinary in nature and develops vast linkages with
other sister disciplines in social sciences.
• The fields and sub-fields of human geography explains every aspect of all
elements of human life on the surface of the earth.
Human Geography and Sister Disciplines of Social Sciences
Class 12 Notes Chapter 2 The World Population
Patterns of Population Distribution
• Population distribution means arrangement distribution of people over the earth’s surface. Population is
not evenly distributed as 90 percent of the world’s population lives in about 10 percent of its land area.
• The 10 most populous countries of the world contribute about 60 per cent of the world’s population. Out
of these 10 countries, 6 are located in Asia.
Density of Population
• This means the ratio between the number of people to the size of the land. It is usually measured in
persons per sq km density of population/area. Some areas are densely populated like North-Eastern
USA, North-Western Europe, South, South-West and East Asia.
• Some areas are sparsely populated like near the polar areas and high rainfall zones near the equator
while some areas have medium density like Western China, Southern India, Norway, Sweden, etc.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION
1. GEOGRAPHICAL FACTORS
• Availability of water- resides in those area where fresh water can be easily available, used for drinking,
bathing and cooking, for cattle,crops, industries and navigation. These river valleys are densly
populated
• land forms- prefer living on flat plains and gentle slopes. Because areas are favourable for the crops
production and to build roads and industries, for example, Ganga plains. Whereas mountainous and
hilly regions are less populated due to lack of transport, agricultural and industrial development, for
example Himalayan region
• climate- Areas with very heavy rainfall or extreme and harsh climates have low population, for example
Mediterranean regions.Areas with a comfortable climate, where there is not
much seasonal variation attract more people.
• soils- Fertile soils are important for agricultural and allied activities. Therefore,
areas which have fertile loamy soils have dense population. Eg. Northern plains of India
2. ECONOMIC FACTORS
• Minerals- Areas with mineral deposits attract industries and therefore generate employment. Skilled
and semi-skilled workers move to these areas and make them densely populated. Example Katanga
Zambia copper belt in Africa
• urbanization- Cities offer better employment opportunities, educational and medical facilities, better
means of transport and communication and good civic aminities which attract more population.
• industrialization-Industrial belts provide job opportunities and attract large
numbers of people. Example The Kobe-Osaka region of Japan
3. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL FACTORS
• Attract more people due to religious and cultural significance
• People also move away from places due to political and social unrest
• Many a times governments offer incentives to people to live in sparsely
populated areas or move away from overcrowded places
Population Growth
This refers to the change in number of inhabitants of a territory during a specific period of time. When
change in population is expressed in percentage, then it is called Growth Rate of Population.
When there is an increase in population by taking the difference between births and deaths, then it is
called Natural Growth of Population. There is also Positive Growth of Population which happens
when birth rate is more than death rate and Negative Growth of Population when birth rate is lower
than death rate.
Components of Population Change
There are three components of population change i.e., births, deaths and migration.
Crude Birth Rate [CBR]
Number of births in a year per thousand of population is expressed as Crude Birth Rate (CBR). It is
calculated as:
CBR=BiP×100
Here, Bi= live Births during the year; P = Mid year population of the area.
Crude Death Rate (CDR)
Number of deaths in a year per thousand of population is expressed as Crude Death Rate (CDR). It is
calculated as:
CDR=DP×100
Here, D= Number of Deaths; P= Estimated mid-year population of that year.
Migration
It is movement of people across region on permanent, temporary or seasonal basis. The place they
move is called place of origin and the place they move to is called place of destination.
Push and Pull Factors of Migration
The Push factors make the place of origin seem less attractive for reasons like unemployment, poor
living conditions, political turmoil, unpleasant climate, natural disasters, epidemics and socio-
economic backwardness.
The Pull factors make the place of destination seem more attractive than the place of origin for
reasons like better job opportunities and living condition eace and stability, security of life and
property and pleasant climate.
Trends in Population Growth
• Trends show that initially growth of population was very slow but after the improvement in Science and
Technology, there had been tremendous growth in population which is called population explosion.
• About 8000 to 12000 years ago world population was 8 million and now it has reached to 7 billion.
• In every 12 years, 1 billion people are added. Increased agriculture and industrial production, inoculation
against epidemics, improvement in medical facilities have reduced death rates.
Doubling Time of World Population
• Developed countries are taking more time to double their population as compared to developing
countries.
• Oman, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Liberia, Yemen have high population growth rates while Latvia, Estonia,
Russia, Germany, etc have low growth rates.
Spatial Pattern of Population Change
• The world population growth rate is 1.4%, it is highest in Africa i.e. 2.6% and lowest in Europe i.e. 0.0%
means neither grow nor decline.
• So even when a small annual rate is applied to very large population, it will lead to a large population
change. There is negative correlation between economic development and population growth.
Impact of Population Change
High increase in population leads to problems like depletion of natural resources, unemployment and
scarcity. Decline in population indicates that resources are insufficient to maintain a population.
Demographic Transition Theory
This theory studies the changes in the population of a region as it moves from high births and high
deaths to low births and low deaths. This happens when a society progresses from rural agrarian and
illiterate to urban, industrial and literate.
There are three-staged model of Demographic Transition Theory. They are:
First Stage
• This stage is marked by high fertility high mortality rate because people reproduce more to compensate
for the deaths due to epidemics and variable food supply.
• People are poor, illiterate and mostly engaged in agriculture. Life expectancy is low and population
growth is slow.
Second Stage
• Level of technology increases and other facilities like medical, health, sanitation improves due to which
the death rate reduces.
• But the fertility rate and birth rate remains high due to which there is huge rise in population. Population
expands rapidly as there is wide gap between birth and death rate.
Third Stage
• The birth and death rate both reduces and the population moves towards stability.
• People become literate, urbanised and control the size of the family. There is good judicious use of
technology also.
Population Control Measures
• Family planning is the spacing and preventing the birth of children. Thomas Malthus theory (1793) states
that the number of people would grow faster than the food supply thus leading to famine, diseases and
war.
• Therefore, it is essential to control the population. This is undertaken through measures like awareness
for family planning, free availability of contraceptives, tax disincentives and active propaganda.
Class 12 Notes Chapter 3 Population Composition
Sex Composition
• Sex composition refers to the number of men and women in a country. It is taken out as a sex ratio
which is the ratio between the number of men and women. It is calculated by the formula:
• Sex ratio in the world is 990 females per 1000 males’with highest in Latvia (1187 females per 1000
males) and lowest in UAE (468 females per 1000 males).
• The sex ratio is unfavourable in 72 countries of the world as there is gender discrimination leading to
female foeticide, female infanticide as well as low economic status of women.
• In general, Asian countries like China, India have low sex ratio while European countries have higher sex
ratio.
Age Structure
The age structure of a population refers to the number of people of different age groups. It is divided
into three groups i.e. children (0-14 years), adult or working population (15-59 years) and old or
ageing population (60 years and above).
Age-sex Pyramid
The age-sex pyramid refers to the number of females and males in different age groups. The
characteristic of a population is shown by population pyramid. The pyramid is interpreted in the
following ways:
Expanding Population A triangular pyramid with a wide base due to high birth rate is mostly in less
developed countries like Nigeria, Mexico and Bangladesh.
Constant Population A bell shaped pyramid and tapered towards the top shows almost equal birth and death
rates like in Australia.
Declining Population A pyramid with narrow base and top wife a wider central part shows low birth and death
rates. This is in developed countries like Japan.
IMPACT OF POPULATION CHANGE

1. Depletion of resources
2. Spread of epidemics
3. Reduced life expectancy
4. Increase in social crime rate
5. Health problems
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION
1. Predict the future pop. Of any area
2. Any region changes from high BR & DR to low BR& DR
3. progress from rural to urban
4. Illiterate to literate
5. These are collectively known as demographic cycle
STAGE-I ;
• High fertility,
• High mortality,
• Low growth,
• More epidemics,
• Variable food supply ,
• Agriculture is occupation,
• Low life expectancy,
• Illiteracy,
• Low level of technology –
• Rain forest tribes, Bangladesh
STAGE -II
• Fertility remains high ,but decline with time,
• Reduced mortality,
• Improved sanitation,
• Medical facilities
• High growth rate
• Ex. Peru, Sri Lanka, Kenya
STAGE -III:
• Low birth rate and
• Death rate
• Slow GR .
• Stable growth rate
URBANISED POP. HIGH TECHNOLOGY. SMALL FMALIES. FLEXIBLE FAMILIES EX. CANADA
JAPAN USA
POPULATION CONTROL MEASURES:

• Limiting the population growth,
• improving women‟s health,
• access to family planning services
• Free availability of contraceptives,
• tax disincentives for large families,
• Government incentives for small families.
POPULATION COMPOSITION
PEOPLE ARE DIFFERENT IN DIFFERENT WAYS
• Age.
• Sex.
• Place of residence,
• Occupation,
• Education,
• Life expectancy
SEX COMPOSITION
The ratio between number of men and women is called SEX RATIO
SEX RATIO
IN INDIA IT IS CALCULATED AS
SEX RATIO
• It shows the status of women in the country

• It is unfavorable to women
• Lower socio economic status
• due to female feticide, female infanticide, domestic violence against women
• Sometimes men might have migrated so women no. Is more
• Natural advantages of women: they are more resilient, more resistant power, more patience
• Sex ratio of the world is: 990 females/ 1000 males
• Latvia highest 1187 lowest is 468/1000 males
• It is favorable in 139 countries
• Unfavorable in 72 countries
• Asia has low sex ratio Europe has highest
• Europe has better status of women
• Male dominated out migration
AGE STRUCTURE
• No. of people in different age groups.
• It is an important indicator of pop. Composition
• A large group of population is in age group of 15-59 years
• Large group of pop. Is above 60 years is called aged population
• More expenditure on medical facilities
• High 5 of young pop. Shows high birth rate
• AGE- SEX PYRAMID
• Number of females and males in different age groups
• Pop. Pyramid is used to show age sex structure
• Shape of pyramid shows the characteristics of population
• Left side male and right side female
• Types of age sex pyramid
I-EXPANDING POPULATION
1. triangular shape , 2. Less developed countries , 3. young pop. is more, 4. ex. Bangladesh, Mexico,
Nigeria
II-CONSTANT POPULATION
1. A bell shaped, 2. Birth and death rates are equal, 3. Ex Australia
III-DECLINING POPULATION
1.narrow base , 2. Low birth and death , 3. Shows developed countries , 4. Growth is negative or zero
ex. Japan
RURAL-URBAN COMPOSITION
1. It is based on residence
2. They differ from each other
3. The criteria for rural and urban varies from country to country
4. Rural population engaged in primary activities where as urban other than primary activities
5. ural and urban composition of west European countries is different from African countries
6. Sex ratio is also different in European countries than African countries
7. In west European countries males are more in rural areas and females are more in urban
areas
8. in Asian countries female is more in rural areas
9. In Asian countries female is less in urban areas due to shortage of housing, high cost of living,
paucity of jobs, lack of security in cities
LITERACY
• Literacy indicated the socio economic development
• Standard of living
• Social status of women
• Availability of facilities
• Policies of government
• In India literate means: pop above 7 years age who is able to read write and have the ability to
do arithmetic calculations with understanding.
Rural Urban Composition
• The division of rural and urban areas based on residence, indicates the pattern of occupations and social
conditions. People are predominantly engaged in primary activities in rural areas while in urban areas
majority of working population is engaged in non-primary activities.
• In developed countries like Canada, West European countries, females outnumber males in urban areas
while in developing countries like Nepal and Pakistan, it is vice versa.
Literacy
• Level of literate population of a country indicates the standard of living, social status of females,
availability of educational facilities.
• In India literacy rate is the percentage of population above 7 years who are able to read, write and do
arithmetic calculations.
Occupational Structure
• This is proportional distribution of working population (age group 15 to 59) in various occupations.
Agriculture, forestry, fishing and mining are classified under primary activities.
• Manufacturing as secondary activity, transport, communication and other services as tertiary and jobs
related to research and developing ideas are quaternary activities. In developed economics more
number of people are engaged in secondary, tertiary and quaternary sector than primary.
Class 12 Notes Chapter 4 Human Development
Growth and Development
• Growth and development refers to changes over a period of time but the difference between growth and
development is that growth is quantitative but development is qualitative. Therefore, development is
always positive.
• Development cannot take place unless there is an increment or addition to the existing conditions, but
growth can be positive, negative or neutral, positive growth does not always led to development.
• Development occurs when there is a positive change in qualities. Earlier economic growth and
development of country was seen as one but now they are studied separately.
Human Development
• This concept was introduced by Dr Mahbub-ul-Haq in 1990. Human development is described as that
which enlarges people’s choices and improves their lives, thus creating conditions where people can
lead meaningful lives.
• This means that people develop talent, participate in society and be free to achieve their goals.
According to Prof. Amartya Sen, the main objective of development is an increase in freedom. Freedom
to make choices brings development, and social and political institutions play a major role in increasing
freedom.
• Building people capabilities in health, education and equal access to resources increases freedom and
enlarges choices.
Four Pillars of Human Development
The idea of human development is supported by the concepts of the following four pillars of
development:
Equity It refers to equal access to opportunities available to everybody irrespective to their gender,
race, income and caste.
Sustainability It means continuity in the availability of opportunities so that future generations can
even use the present resources.
Productivity It means human labour which must be enriched by building capabilities in people.
Empowerment It means having the power to make choices which is possible by increasing freedom
and capability.
Approaches to Human Development
There are four ways of looking at or approach the problems of human development. Some of the
important approaches are:
Income Approach This approach links the development to incomes as it believes that income
determines the level of freedom that one enjoys.
Welfare Approach Under this approach, government is responsible for providing basic facilities like
health, education and amenities to people.
Basic Needs Approach In this approach, emphasis is on providing six basic needs i.e. health,
education, food, water supply, ” sanitation and housing.
Capability Approach This approach is associated with Prof. Amartya Sen and aims to build human
capabilities in health, education and-access to resources in order to increase human development.
Measuring Human Development
Following are the ways of measuring human development
Human Development Index
• Human development is measured through Human Development Index (HDI) which ranks the countries
between 0 to 1 based on their performance in the key areas of health, education and access to
resources.
• It is the sum total of the weights assigned to health, education and access to resources. Indicator to
access health is life expectancy at birth, to access knowledge it is adult literacy rate and gross
enrollment ratio and resources are measured in terms of purchasing power
Human Poverty Index
This index measures the shortfall in human development. The index is based on the probability of not
surviving till 40, adult literacy rate, people not having access to clean drinking water and number of
underweight children.
United Nations Development Programme
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) since 1990, publishes the Human
Development Report by measuring the Human Development Index and Human Poverty Index.
Gross National Happiness
This is Gross National Happiness (GNH) which is another measure of accessing human development
and Bhutan is the only country in the world to measure the country’s progress through GNH. The
GNH encourages the qualitative aspect of development.
International Comparisons
• On comparing the human development of different countries, it is revealed that the size of the territory
and per capita income are not directly related to human development.
• For comparisons, the countries are classified into four groups on the basis of human development
scores earned by them.
Very High Level of Human Development
• The countries scoring above 0.802 are categorised under it. There are 49 countries in this group.
• Top ten countries with very high value index are Norway, Australia, Netherlands, United States, New
Zealand, Canada, Ireland, Liechtenstein, Germany and Sweden.
• The countries in this group provide education and healthcare which is an important government priority
as well as invest a lot in the social sector.
High Level of Human Development
• Countries scoring between 0.702 and 0.801 are grouped under it. They are 56 in number.
• Good governance and lot of investment in social sector has led to high level of human development in
these countries.
Medium Level of Human Development
• Countries scoring between 0.555 and 0.701 are grouped under it and there are 39 countries in this
group. ‘
• Many of these countries were former colonies and are facing political instability as well as high social
diversity.
Low Level of Human Development
• Countries scoring below 0.554 are grouped under it and there are 44 countries in it. These countries are
going through political turmoil, social instability, civil war, famine or high incidence of diseases.
• Internal comparisons reveal that the culture, religion or community are non-determinants of human
development. Rather, pattern of government expenditure on the social sector, political environment,
amount of freedom people have and the distribution of resources play a decisive role in the level of
human development.
Class 12 Notes Chapter 5 Primary Activities
Hunting and Gathering
• Hunting and gathering are the oldest primitive activities of man. Early man lived in forests and sustained
his life by hunting animals. He has also been gathering various products from the forests to satisfy his
needs in early days. Thus, early men sustained on edible plants which they hunted and edible plants
which they gathered from the forests.
• Early human beings practised these activities with the help of primitive tools, made of stones, twigs or
arrows, so the number of animals killed was limited. But now modem equipments led to the widespread
poaching of animals due to which hunting is declared illegal.
• Gathering is practised in high latitude zones oi North Canada, Northern Eurasia and Southern Chile, low
latitude zones of Amazon Basin, tropical Africa, interiors of South-East Asia. This activity requires small
capital investment and low level of technology. Valuable plants, leaves, bark, etc are collected and after
simple processing they are sold in local markets. These products cannot compete the world market as
synthetic products are lower in price and of better quality.
Pastoralism
• This means domestication and rearing of animals on pastures. This is carried either at subsistence level
known as nomadic herding or at commercial level known as commercial livestock rearing.
Nomadic Herding
• Also called pastoral nomadism, it is a primitive activity where herders move with their livestock from one
place to another in search of food and water. They rely on animals for food, clothing, shelter, tools and
transport.
• Depending on geographical factors different animals are reared in different regions like cattle in tropical
Africa, sheep, goat and camel in Sahara, Asiatic deserts, Yak, llamas in Tibet and Andes, reindeer in
Arctic and Sub-Arctic areas. Other areas include Mongolia, Central China, Eurasia, South-West Africa
and Madagascar.
Commercial Livestock Rearing
• This practise is associated with western culture, it is more organised and capital intensive. This activity is
done on vast ranches that are permanent.
• Modem scientific technology with emphasis on breeding, genetic improvement, disease control and
health care is done. Production of meat, wool, hides is done and exported to different world markets.
• Sheep, cpttle, goat and horses are reared in the ranches. Australia, New- Zealand, Argentina, Uruguay,
South-West Africa, Western United States and Central Asia are major centers of commercial livestock
rearing.
Agriculture
Agriculture is practised under multiple combinations of physical and socio- economic conditions,
which gives rise to different types of agriculture systems.
Based on methods of farming, different type of crops are grown and livestock raised. The following
are the main agricultural systems:
Subsistence Agriculture
In this type of agriculture, farmers consume all or nearly all of the produce as the size of the farm is
very small. It can be divided into primitive subsistence agriculture and intensive subsistence
agriculture.
Primitive Subsistence Agriculture This is widely practised in tropical areas of Africa/South, Central
America and South-East Asia. Different names are given to it in different places like Milpa, Jhuming,
Ladang. It is also called slash and bum agriculture or shifting agriculture. Cultivation is done through
primitive tools by clearing a patch of land. After 3 to 5 years, when the soil loses its fertility then new
land is cleared for cultivation.
Intensive Subsistence Agriculture This type of agriculture is practised in densely populated regions
of monsoon Asia. This type of cultivation is either dominated by wet paddy cultivation and crops other
than paddy. The per unit area is high but productivity is low as land holdings are small due to high
density of population, less use of machines, family labour involved and farm yard manures are used.
Crops other than paddy are wheat, soybean, barley, sorghum grown in Northern China, Manchuria,
North Korea and Japan. In India, it is practised in Indo-Gangetic plains, dry parts of Western and
Southern India.
Plantation Agriculture
This type of agriculture was introduced by the Europeans like cocoa and coffee in West Africa by
French, Tea in India and Sri Lanka, rubber in Malaysia, sugarcane and banana in West Indies by
British, coconut, sugarcane in Philippines by Spanish, etc.
Here, agriculture is done on large estates or plantations, requires huge capital investment and
scientific methods of cultivation.
Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation
• This is practised in the interiors of semi-arid parts of mid latitudes like Eurasian steppes, Canadian and
American Prairies, Pampas of Argentina, velds of South Africa, Australian Downs and Canterbury plains
of New Zealand.
• Crops like wheat, corn, barley, oats and rye are grown. Agriculture is mechanised as farms are very
large. There is low yield per acre but high yield per person.
Mixed Farming
• This is practised in North-Western Europe, Eastern-North America, parts of Eurasia and temperate
latitudes of Southern continents. Here crop cultivation along with animal husbandry is practised. Crops
like wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize, fodder and root crops along with the rearing of farm animals like
cattle, sheep, pig, poultry is done to provide extra income.
• There is crop rotation and inter cropping along with high capital expenditure on farm inputs.
Dairy Farming
• It is practised near urban and industrial centers of North-Western Europe, Canada, South-Eastern
Australia, New Zealand and Tasmania. It is highly capital intensive due to cost of feeding, milching
machines, animal sheds, storage facilities, veterinary services, etc.
• It is also labour intensive as rigorous care of I animals is also needed. There is no off seasonr during the
year as in case of crop raising.
Mediterranean Agriculture
It is practised on either side of Mediterranean in Europe, North Africa from Tunisia to Atlantic coast,
Southem-Califomia, some i parts of Chile, South-Western parts of South Africa and South-Western
parts of Australia. It is highly specialised commercial agriculture and important supplier of citrus fruits.
Viticulture
This refers to cultivation of grapes in the Mediterranean regions. Inferior grapes are made into raisins
and currants while superior grapes are processed into wines. Figs and olives are also cultivated.
Market Gardening and Horticulture
• It is practised in highly developed and

industrial regions of North-West Europe, North-East United States and Mediterranean regions.
Netherlands specialises in cultivation of Tulip flowers.
• This type of cultivation refers to high value crops like vegetables, fruits and flowers solely for urban
markets. Farms are small and mechanised. It is both capital and labour intensive.
Truck Farming
This refers to the specialisation in the cultivation of vegetables only. The distance between the farms
and urban markets can be covered through trucks overnight, hence its name is known as ‘truck
farming.’
Factory Farming
This refers to livestock rearing mainly poultry and cattle. This is capital intensive, requires
maintenance, supervisation and scientific breeding. It is practised in industrial regions of Europe and
North America.
Co-operative Farming
Under this farming group of farmers form a co-operative society by pooling their resources voluntarily
for more efficient and profitable farming. There is help from societies in buying and selling farm
products. Individual farms remain intact. It is practised in Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden
and Italy.
Collected Farming
• It is based on social ownership of the means of production and collective labour. Here farmers pool their
resources, though they are allowed to keep a small part with themselves.
• Produce is sold to state at prefixed prices. Members paid according to the nature of work done. It was
practised first in Kelkhoz in erstwhile Soviet Union.
Mining
It refers to the extraction of mineral resources from the Earth. Its development began with the
industrial revolution.
Factors affecting Mining Activity

There are two factors that affect the mining activity. These are:
1. Physical factors related to size, grade and mode of occurrence of the deposits.
2. Economic factors related to demand for mineral, technology, capital to develop infrastructure, labour and
transport cost.
Methods of Mining
It is of two types i.e. surface and underground mining. Surface of open cast mining occurs close to
the surface, it is easiest and cheapest. The other is underground mining in which minerals are
extracted from very deep mines using vertical shafts. It requires lifts, drills and very efficient
technology.
The developed economies are retreating from mining due to high labour cost while developing
economies are becoming major exporters of minerals due to their large labour force and striving for
better standard of living.
Class 12 Notes Chapter 6 Secondary Activities
Manufacturing
The literally meaning of manufacturing is to make by hand, but in the present context, the
manufacturing means the conversion of raw material into more useful and valuable fabricated articles
with the help of machines.
Manufacturing Industries
These are geographically located manufacturing units that transform raw materials into finished
goods of higher value for sale in local or distant markets. The term industry is comprehensive and can
also be used in many secondary activities which are not carried on in factories like entertainment
industry, tourism industry, etc.
The manufacturing industries are characterised by the following:
• Specialisation of Skills In industries, one task is done repeatedly that gives specialisation of doing that
task. This involves high cost of manufacturing. On the other hand, mass production involves production
of large quantity of standardised parts by each worker performing only one task repeatedly.
• Mechanisation The industries use automated processes or machines which does the major production.
Human thinking is not required in mechanisation.
• Technological Innovation Latest technology is used and constant innovation is done to eliminate
waste, quality control, combat pollution and bring efficiency.
• Organisational Structure and Stratification Modern manufacturing is characterised by complex
machine technology, extreme specialisation, division of labour, vast capital, large organisations and
executive bureaucracy.
• Uneven Geographic Distribution The industries are concentrated in regions that are rich in mineral and
other resources. These areas cover less than 10% of the world’s land area. These regions have become
the major centres of economic and political power.
Location of industry
The location of industry at a particular place is governed by a large number of geographical and non-
geographical factors. Industries maximise profits by reducing costs. Thus, industries should be
located at points where the production costs are minimum. Following factors influence the location of
industry at particular places:
• Access to Market Areas that provide large markets for finished industrial goods like developed areas of
Europe, America, Japan, Australia, South Asia have huge concentration of industries.
• Access to Sources of Energy Coal, petroleum and hydroelectricity are main sources of energy.
Industries using more power are located close to these sources.
• Access to Raw Material Industries based on cheap, bulky and weight-losing materials (ores) like steel,
sugar are based close to sources of raw materials. Similarly, processing of dairy products, perishable
foods and agro based are done near the sources of raw materials.
• Access to Labour Supply Industries are located where there is availability of skilled labour. Some types
of manufacturing still require skilled labour.
• Acccess to Source of Energy Industries which use more power are located nearer to the source of
energy supply such as iron and steel industries. Energy is most essential to run machines in industries.
The main power resources are coal, petroleum, hydroelectricity, natural gas and nuclear energy.
• Access to Transportation and Communication Facilities Industries are located in places that have
efficient transportation facilities and communication services for the exchange and management of
information.
• Access to Agglomeration Economies Agglomeration economies refer to the benefits derived from the
linkages that exist between different industries. The small industries or ancillary units like to operate near
leader industries to benefit from nearness to big or basic industries.
• Government Policy For the balanced economic development, governments promote various regions by
setting up industries in a particular link between industrial areas.
Classification of Manufacturing Industries
Industries are classified on the basis of their size, inputs/ raw materials, output/ products and
ownership.
Industries Based on Size

Based on amount of capital invested, a number of workers employed and volume of production,
industries are classified into the following:
Household Industries or Cottage Manufacturing It is the smallest manufacturing unit. Artisans use
local raw materials, simple tools and production is done with the help of family members. Production
is done for local consumption and local markets. There is not much capital needed, e.g. mats,
baskets, pottery, jewellery, artefacts and crafts.
Small Scale Manufacturing These type of industries employ semi-skilled labour, operate by power
driven machines, use local raw materials and manufacture products in workshops. It provides
employment and raises local purchasing power. India, China, Indonesia and Brazil have developed
labour intensive small scale manufacturing units.
Large Scale Manufacturing Here mass production takes place, involves large market, many raw
materials, huge energy requirements, specialised workers, advanced technology and large capital.
Large scale manufacturing industries are divided into two parts i.e. Traditional large scale industrial
regions and Higlr technology large scale industrial regions.
Industries Based on Inputs/Raw Materials

On the basis of raw materials used, industries are classified as follow:
• Agro based Industry This involves processing of raw materials from the fields and farms into finished
products like sugar, fruit juices, beverages, oils and textiles (cotton, jute, silk), rubber, etc.
• Food Processing This is part of agro based industry and includes processes like canning, producing
cream, fruit processing, confectionery, drying, fermenting and pickling.
• Agri Business This is commercial farming on an industrial scale. The farms are mechanised, very large
and highly structured, like tea plantation and tea factories near the plantations.
• Mineral based Industry These are industries that use minerals as raw materials such as ferrous like
iron and steel and non-ferrous like aluminium, copper, etc. Mineral based non-metallic industries are of
cement and pottery.
• Chemical based Industry These industries use natural chemical minerals like salts, sulphur, potash,
mineral oil in petrochemical industry and chemicals obtained from wood and coal. Synthetic fiber and
plastics are other examples of chemical based industry.
• Forest based Industry Industries that use forest products such as timber, wood, bamboo, grass, lac,
etc come under forest based industry.
• Animal based Industry Industries that use animal products such as leather, woollen textiles, ivory are
grouped under animal based industry.
Industries based on Output/ Product

This refers to industries based on the finished products or output. These are:
1. Basic Industries These are the industries that produce raw material to be used in other industries such
as iron and steel.
2. Consumer Goods Industries These are the industries which produces what is consumed by
consumers directly such as tea, biscuits, toiletries, etc.
Industries based on Ownership

Based on the ownership, the industries are grouped as:
• Public Sector Industry This refers to industries that are owned and managed by government. In India, it
is called public sector undertakings. Socialist economies have all state owned industries.
• Private Sector Industry This refers to industries that are owned by private individuals and also
managed by them. Capitalist economies have mostly private owned industries.
• Joint Sector Industry Industries that are jointly owned and managed by joint stock companies or
established by private and government sector are called joint sector industries.
Foot Loose Industries

These industries do not depend on any specific raw material so they can be located at any place.
They largely depend on component parts, employ small labour force and produce in small quantity.
Traditional Large Scale Industrial Regions

Traditional large scale industries are mostly heavy industries located near coal fields and involved in
metal smelting, heavy engineering, chemical manufacturing or textile production. Their features are
high employment, high density of housing but poor services, unattractive environment, pollution and
waste heaps. Due to these problems, many industries are closed leading to unemployment,
emigration and wastelands.
The Ruhr Coal Field, Germany
• This area was a major industrial region due to coal and iron-ore deposits. But the industry started
shrinking as demand of coal declined, iron-ore exhausted, industrial waste and pollution increased.
• Now a New Ruhr landscape has emerged that focusses on other products like Opel car assembly plant,
new chemical plants, universities and out of town shopping centres.
High Technology Industry
• Also called high-tech industry, it is highly technical and incorporates advanced scientific and engineering
research and development strategy.
• The workforce are highly skilled specialists, professionals (known as white collar) who outnumber the
production labour (blue collar).
• Robotics, computer aided design and manufacturing, electronics, new chemicals and pharmaceuticals
are examples of these industries.
Iron and Steel Industry
• It is known as basic industry as it provides raw materials or base to other industries. It is also called
heavy industry due to its bulky raw material and heavy finished products.
• These industries are located near the source of raw materials i.e. iron ore, coal, manganese and
limestone or near ports where it could be early brought.
Distribution
This industry is spread in developed and developing countries such as America, UK, Germany,
France, Belgium, Ukraine, Japan, China and India (Jamshedpur, Durgapur, Raurkela, etc.)
Cotton Textile Industry

This industry has three sub-sectors:
1. Handloom This is labour intensive, employs semi-skilled workers, requires small capital and involves
processes like spinning, weaving and finishing of the fabrics.
2. Powerloom This is less labour intensive, uses of machines and production is more.
3. Mill Sector This is highly capital intensive, requires good quality raw cotton and produces in bulk.
India, China, USA, Pakistan, Uzbekistan and Egypt produce more than half of world’s raw cotton. Now
the cotton textile industry is shifting to less developed countries due to labour cost.
Class 12 Notes Chapter 7 Tertiary and Quaternary
Activities
Types of Tertiary Activities
There are four types of tertiary activities. They are trade, transport, communication and services.
These include provision of services in exchange of payments.
Trade and commerce
Trade and commerce is essentially buying and selling of items produced elsewhere. The collection
and distribution points where trading takes place are called trading centres. These centres are divided
into:
• Rural Marketing Centres They are quasi urban and cater to local needs and areas. Most of these have
mandis (wholesale markets) and retail markets. In rural areas, there are periodic markets that may be
weekly or bi-weekly and people from the nearby areas meet their demands. These markets are held on
specified dates and shopkeepers move from one place to another.
• Urban Marketing Centres These markets sell ordinary as well as specialised goods and services, e.g.
markets for labour, housing, semi or finished products. Services of educational institutions and
professionals like teachers, doctors, lawyers also develop.
• Retail Trading In this type of trading, goods are directly sold to consumers. This trading is done through
fixed establishments or stores, small shops, consumer cooperatives, big departmental stores and chain
stores. The chain stores buy commodities in bulk and then hire skilled specialists for executive tasks.
Street peddling, handcarts, trucks, door-to-door, mail order, telephone and Internet are examples of non-
store retail trading.
• Wholesale Trading Here bulk buying takes place directly from the manufacturer by numerous
intermediary merchants. The merchants/ wholesalers extend credit to retailers.
Transport
Transport is a tertiary activity in which people, materials and manufactured goods are physically
carried from one place to another. While selecting the mode of transport, distance, time and cost are
seen.. Distance can be measured as km distance, time taken to travel particular route as time
distance, expense of travelling on a route as cost distance.
Factors Affecting Transport

Demand and routes are two major factors which affect transport services.
• Demand Transport depends on the size of population and standard of living of people. The larger the
population size, the greater is the demand for transport.
• Route It refers to the transport network depend on location of cities, towns, villages, industrial centres,
availability of raw materials, nature of landscape, type of climate, availability of funds, etc.
Network
A network is a well developed transport system that is made up of nodes and links. A node is a
meeting point of two or more routes and every road that joins any two nodes is called a link.
Communication
Communication services involve in the transmission of words, messages, facts and ideas. The
development of transport facilitated communication as messages were carried by hand, animals,
boat, road, rail and air. But new technology has made communication independent of transport, such
as mobiles, telephony and satellites. Some of the communication services are discussed below:
• Telecommunications The development of modem technology has revolutionised communication and it
has become direct and instantaneous, e.g. telegraph, morse code and telex in last century and now
satellites, mobile, telephony, etc are used.
• Mass Media Communication means through which messages could be sent to vast audiences around
the world are called mass media, e.g. radio, television, newspapers, etc. The Internet has revolutionised
the global communication.
Services
There are different levels at which services are provided and availed. Some are meant for industry,
some for people, and some for both industry and people i.e., transport. Services can be divided into
three sub-categories. They are:
• Low Order Services It includes common and widespread services like grocery shops, laundries, etc.
• Domestic Services It includes housekeepers, cooks and gardeners which migrate from rural areas in
search of employment.
• High Order Services These are specialised and less common like accountants, consultants and
physicians. Some services are supervised and/or regulated by government like making, maintaining
highways, bridges, fire fighting departments, education, healthcare, etc.
Thus, services are present in organised sector that is government owned or big corporations. Some
are present in unorganised sector like low order and domestic services. Mumbai’s dabbawala in India
is one such service of unorganised sector.
People Engaged in Tertiary Activities

Earlier more number of people were employed in t he primary and secondary sector as these sectors
provided more jobs. But, now there has been a shift of jobs to tertiary or service sector. In developed
countries, a higher percentage of workers are employed in providing services as compared to less
developed countries.
Some Selected Examples

Some of the selected examples that are related to the people engaged in tertiary activities are as
follows: %
Tourism
Tourism is part of service sector that refers to travel undertaken for purpose of recreation rather than
business. This industry generates jobs as people are engaged in providing accommodation, meals,
transport, entertairment, infrastructure retail trading and crafts.
Tourist Regions
• Tourism can be seasonal or throughout the year like warmer places around the Mediterranean coast,
West coast of India during winters, mountains in summers or winter spots regions found mainly in
mountainous areas.
• Historic towns, religious places, heritage sites offer tourism throughout the year. Factors Affecting
Tourism
• The rise in tourism industry is due to increased demand for it which is thus influenced by improvement in
standard of living and increased leisure time.
• Another factor is improvement in transportation that has made travel easier and destinations reachable.
Tourist Attractions
Tourist attractions are specific features of a place that attract people. These are as follows:
• Climate In winter holidays, areas having warm sunny weather is preferred like beaches in Southern
Europe, so it attracts more number of tourists there.
• Landscape Mountains, lakes, spectacular sea coasts and landscapes not completely altered by man are
good tourist attractions.
• History and Art Ancient or picturesque towns, archaeological sites, historically important places having
castles and palaces attract tourists.
• Culture and Economy Areas having rich cultures attract people as they go their to experience ethnic
and local customs. Places giving economic benefits are also attractions such as cheap home stays in
Goa, Madikere and Coorg in Karnataka.
Medical Services for Overseas Patients in India

Medical services or tourism takes place when medical treatment is combined with international
tourism activity. People from developed countries like US are visiting India for medical tourism or
services. This brings economic benefits to India and other countries where medical tourism is taking
place like Thailand, Singapore and Malaysia.
Other medical related activities such as outsourcing of medical tests, data interpretation, reading
radiology images, interpreting Magnetic Resonance Images (MRIs) and ultrasound tests are taking
place in India, Australia and Switzerland.
Quaternary Activities
The activities related to knowledge oriented, involving collection, production and dissemination of
information come under quaternary activities. They centre around research development and may
involve specialised knowledge and technical skills.
Software developers, mutual fund managers, doctors, accounting, brokerage firms are some
examples of quaternary activities. They can be outsourced even as these are not tied to resources or
affected by the environment or markets. This sector has replaced primary and secondary sector and
absorbs half of the population in developed economies.
Quinary Activities
The activities that are highly specific and specialised are placed under it. These include high level
decision-makers, administrators, government officials, research scientists, etc. They are also known
as gold collar professions.
Outsourcing
• It means contracting out or giving work to an outside agency to improve efficiency and to reduce cost. It
is termed as off-shoring when work is transferred to overseas location.
• Outsourcing provides employment in developing Countries of India, China, Botswana, etc. Information
technology, human resources, customer support, call centres, data processing and other IT related
services are examples of outsourcing.
BPO
• BPO stands for Business Process Outsourcing which involves customer support services, call centres
and similar other processes.
• The developed countries transfer these jobs as overhead costs are much lower making it profitable to
get job work carried out.
KPO
KPO stands for a Knowledge Process Outsourcing which involves skilled workers and enables
companies to create additional business opportunities, e.g. e-leaming, business research, etc.
The Digital Divide
• Development emerging from the information and communication technology is unevenly spread across
the globe. Some regions have prospered while others are lagged behind. This is known as digital divide.
• In developing countries, this kind of divide is seen more than developed countries. Here, the
metropolitan cities are developed more than rural areas.
Class 12 Notes Chapter 8 Transport and
Communication
Transport
Transport is a facility or a service for the carriage of persons and goods from one place to another
using humans, animals and different kinds of vehicles. It is an organised service industry that handles
loading, unloading and delivery.
Modes of Transportation
• The main modes of transportation are land, water, air and pipelines. These are used for inter-regional
and intra-regional transport, and each one (except pipelines) carries both passengers and goods.
• Several places (nodes) join together by a series of routes (links) to form a pattern is called transport
network.
Land Transport
This includes movement of goods and services over land i.e. roads and rails. Earlier humans
themselves were carriers such as in palanquin (palki or doli), later pack animals such as mules,
horses, camels were used. Dogs and reindeers were used in North America. In India, bullocks were
used to pull carts. The revolution came after invention of steam engine in 18th century that started
railways and roadways with the invention of internal combustion engines.
Among the new means of land transport are pipelines, ropeways and cableways. Rope and
cableways are generally found on steep mountain slopes and mines, which are not suitable for
building roads.
Roads
It is most economical for short distance and gaining importance for freight transport due to its door to
door service. Metalled roads are all weather roads while unmetalled roads are not serviceable in all
seasons due to their simple construction. Though heavy rains and floods make both the roads
unserviceable. The quality, construction and maintenance of roads is better in developed countries
than in developing countries as it requires heavy expenditure.
Road Density
• The total motorable road length of the world is only about 15 million km, in which North America
separately accounted 33%. Although, North America in compare to Western Europe registered highest
number of vehicles as well as highest road density.
• Road density is the total length of roads per hundred square kilometre of area.
Countries and their Road Density
Traffic Flows
It refers to traffic on roads that has increased dramatically in recent years. As the road network
cannot cope with the demands of traffic, so congestion occurs.
Highways
• They are metalled roads connecting distant places for unobstructed vehicular movement. These are 80m
wide with separate traffic lanes, bridges, flyovers and dual carriageways
• In North America, there is dense network of highways. Pacific coast is linked to Atlantic coast,
Vancouver is connected to Newfoundland by Trans-Canadian highway and Edmonton is connected to
Anchorage through Alaskan highway.
• Trans-continental Stuart highway connects Darwin, Melbourne to Alice springs in Australia. Europe has
well developed highway network. Moscow-Vladivostok highway is important for Russia. Highways criss-
cross the country in China.
• In India, National Highway No.7 (NH7) connecting Varanasi and Kanyakumari is the longest highway of
the country. (The golden quadrilateral or super expressway is under construction). Now, NH-44 became
the longest running highway in India. It connects Srinagar to Kanyakumari. NH-7 is renamed as National
Highway 44. In Africa, Algiers in North is connected to Guinea and Cairo connected to Capetown in
South.
Border Roads
These are roads laid along international boundaries. These roads help in transport of goods to border
areas and military camps.
Railways
Railways are best suited for the transportation of bulky goods and passengers over long distances.
Highly industrialised areas, urbanised regions and mineral rich areas are linked to railways for the
transportation of ores, grains, timber and machinery. All the continents have dense network while
Europe is having the highest density of railways. The railway network of Africa, Asia and South
America connects the mineral rich and fertile areas and is developed primarily to utilise the natural
resources.
Trans-Continental Railways
The railway line that runs across the continent and links its two ends is called a trans-continental
railway line. They are constructed for economic and political reasons.
The following are the most important of these:
Trans-Siberian Railway
It is in Russia and the longest railway in the world. It runs between St. Petersburg in West to
Vladivostok in East, passing through Moscow, Irkutsk, Chita, etc. It links important agro centre with
fur centre connecting rail routes to important cities of Asia.
Trans-Canadian Railway
Constructed in 1886, it is 7050 km long railway in Canada that links Halifax in East to Vancouver in
West. It passes through the industrial region connecting the wheat belt of Prairies and the coniferous
forest area so it is considered economic artery of Canada. Wheat and meat are the important exports
on this route.
The Union and Pacific Railway

This rail line connects New York on the Atlantic coast to San Francisco on the Pacific coast passing
through Cleveland, Chicago, Omaha, Evans, Ogden and Sacramento. The most valuable exports on
this route are ores, grain, paper, chemicals and machinery.
The Australian Trans-Continental Railway
This rail line runs West-East across the southern part of the continent from Perth on the West coast to
Sydney on the East coast passing through Kalgoorlie broken hill and port Augusta. Another North-
South line connects Adelaide and Alice spring and to be joined later to the Darwin-Birdum link.
The Orient Express

This line runs from Paris to Istanbul passing through Strasbourg, Munich, Vienna, Budapest and
Belgrade. It has reduced the 10-day journey to only 4 days. Cheese, wine, bacon, oats, fruits and
machinery are chief exports on this rail route.
Water Transport
This is the cheapest mode of transport as no construction cost is there and very little maintenance
cost. The linking of oceans have brought greater navigation with ships of various sizes. Water
transport is divided into sea routes and inland waterways.
1. Sea Routes
Sea and oceans provide smooth highway traversable in all directions with no maintenance costs.
Modem passenger ships and cargo ships are equipped with various navigation aids. The important
sea routes are as follows:
• North Atlantic Sea Route It links North-Eastern USA and North-Western Europe. It is the busiest in the
world and also called Big Trunk route.
• Mediterranean-Indian Ocean Sea Route This route connects industrialised Western Europe with West
Africa, South Africa, South-East Asia, Australia and New Zealand. Natural resources such as gold,
diamond, copper, tin, groundnut, oil palm, coffee and fruits are transported through it.
• Cape of Good Hope Sea Route This route links West Europe and West African countries with Brazil,
Argentina and Uruguay in South America. Traffic is less on this route because the countries falling in this
route have similar products and resources.
• The North Pacific Sea Route This route connects the ports on the West coast of North America with
those of Asia. These are Vancouver, Seattle, Portland, San Francisco and Los Angeles of American side
with Yokohama, Kobe, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Manila and Singapore of Asian side.
• The South Pacific Sea Route This route is used for reaching Hong Kong, Philippines and Indonesia
and also links Western Europe and North America with Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islands via
the Panama Canal. Panama is 12000 km far from Sydney. Honolulu is an important port on this route.
• Coastal Shipping Coastal shipping is a convenient mode of transportation with long coastlines, e.g.
USA, China and India. This type of shipping can reduce congestion on land routes.
Shipping Canals
There are two canals that serve as gateways of commerce for both the Eastern and Western worlds.
They are:
• The Suez Canal Constructed in 1869, it is a man-made canal linking the Mediterranean sea and the Red
sea. It is 160 km long and 11 -15 m deep without any locks and sea water flows freely through it.
• The Panama Canal It is a man-made canal linking Atlantic ocean with Pacific ocean. It is 72 km long
and involves a deep cutting for a length of 12 km and has 6 locks. It shortens the distance between New
York and San Francisco by 13000 km by sea.
2. Inland Waterways
Rivers, canals, lakes and coastal areas are inland waterways for the transportation of cargo and
passengers. The development of inland waterways depends on navigability, water flow and transport
technology. The important inland waterways are: The
• Rhine Waterways This waterway links the industrial areas of Switzerland, Germany, France, Belgium
and the Netherlands with the North Atlantic sea routes. The river Rhine flows through Germany and
Netherlands. It flows through a rich coal field, Dusseldorf is an important port in this region. This
waterway is the world’s most heavily used. More than 20,000 ocean-going ships and 200,0 inland
vessels move from this waterways every year.
• The Danube Waterway The Danube river which is navigable upto Tauma Severin, emerges in the Black
Forest. It is used mainly for the export of wheat, maize, timber and machinery.
• The Volga Waterway Volga is one of the developed waterways of Russia. It is navigable upto 11,200
km and drains into the Caspian Sea.
It is connected to Moscow region and the Black Sea through Volga-Moscow canal and Volga-Don canal
respectively.
• The Great Lakes-St Lawrence Seaway The Great Lakes alongwith estury of St Lawrence river form a
waterway in North America. Duluth and Buffalo are two important ports on this route.
• The Mississippi Waterways The Mississippi-Ohio waterway links the interior part of USA with the Gulf
of Mexico in the South. Large steamers can move upto Minneapolis.
Air Transport
It is the fastest means of transport but it is very costly. Air transport has brought connectivity
revolution in inhospitable deserts, mountainous regions and snow fields where other means of
transport are not reachable. Due to high construction and maintenance cost, air transport is more
developed in highly industrialised countries. Supersonic aircrafts cover the distance in very short time.
Inter- Continental Air Routes

USA accounts for 60% of airways of the world. Important cities are nodal points where air routes
converge or radiate to all continents. Africa, Asiatic part of Russia and South America lack air
services, sparser population or limited landmass or low economic development.
Pipelines
These are used to transport water, petroleum, natural gas, liquidified coal for an uninterrupted flow.
Milk is supplied through pipelines in New Zealand. USA has dense network of pipelines. Big Inch is
famous pipeline of USA that transports petroleum from the oil wells of the Gulf of Mexico to the North-
Eastern states. In Europe, Russia,
West Asia and India, oil wells are linked to refineries through pipelines.
Communications
Long distance communication in the form of telegraph and telephone are important. In mid-19th
century, American Telegraph and Telephone company (AT&T) enjoyed monopoly. In developing
countries the use of cell phones has gained importance for rural connectivity.
Latest technology developments have resulted in Optical Fibre Cables (OFC). They allow large
quantities of data to be transmitted that are virtually error free. Now the telecommunication merged
with computers to form integrated networks termed as Internet.
Satellite Communication in India

Artificial satellites are deployed in Earth’s orbit to enhance communication and improve connectivity.
This is satellite communication which has reduced the per unit cost and time of communication also.
India developed its own satellite Aryabhatta and launched it on 19th April, 1979, Bhaskar -I in 1979
and Rohini in 1980. Bhaskar, Challenger and INSAT-IB satellites are used for long distance
communication and weather forecasting.
Cyber Space-Internet
This is the latest technology in which there is instant connectivity by accessing the electronic
computerised space. It is called cyber space or Internet and is encompassed by the World Wide Web
(www).
Majority of Internet users are in USA, UK, Germany, Japan, China and India. The social and
economic space has expanded through e-mail, e-commerce, e-leaming and e-governance.
Class 12 Notes Chapter 9 International Trade
History of International Trade
• In ancient times, trade was restricted to local markets. Slowly long distance trade developed; of which
Silk Route is an example. The route was 6000 km long connecting Rome to China and traders
transported Chinese silk, Roman wool, metals, etc through this route. Later, sea and ocean routes were
discovered and trade grew.
• The Slave Trade emerged in 15th century in which the Portuguese, Dutch, Spaniards and British
captured African natives and sold to plantation owners in America. After Industrial Revolution,
industrialised nations imported raw materials and exported finished products to non-industrial nations.
• International trade is the result of specialisation in production and division of labour. It is based on the
principle of comparative advantage that is mutually beneficial to trading partners.
Basis of International Trade

The factors on which international trade depends are as follows:
• Difference in National Resources The resources are unevenly distributed in the world. These
differences mainly refer to geology, mineral resources and climate.
• Geological Structure This means the relief features, type of land such as fertile, mountainous,
lowlands, that support agriculture, tourism and other activities.
• Mineral Resources The regions rich in minerals will support industrial development that leads to trade.
• Climate It influences the type of flora and fauna that is found in a region, such as wool production in cold
regions. Cocoa, rubber, Bananas can grow in tropical regions.
• Population Factors The size, distribution and diversity of population between countries affect the trade
in respect of type and volume of goods. Large volume of internal trade than external trade takes place in
densely populated areas due to consumption in local markets.
• Cultural Factors Distinctive forms of art and craft develop in certain cultures and give rise to trade e.g.
porcelain and brocades of China, carpets of Iran, Batik cloth of Indonesia, etc.
• Stage of Economic Development
Industrialised nations export machinery, finished products and import foodgrains and raw materials. The
situation is opposite in agriculturally important countries.
• Extent of Foreign Investment Developing countries lack capital so foreign investment can boost trade
in developing countries by developing plantation agriculture.
• Transport Lack of transport in older time restricted trade only to local areas. The expansion of rail,
ocean and air transport, better means of refrigeration and preservation, trade has experienced spatial
expansion:***’
Aspects of International Trade

There are three very important aspects of international trade:
• Volume of Trade It is measured simply as the total value of goods and services traded. However, actual
tonnage of traded goods makes up the volume but services traded cannot be measured in tonnage.
• Composition of Trade Earlier primary’ goods were more in total traded goods, then there was
dominance of manufactured goods and now there is dominance of service sector which includes
transportation and other commercial services.
• Direction of Trade Earlier valuable goods and artefacts were exported to European countries by the
developing countries. Later in the 19th century, manufactured goods from European countries were
exchanged with foodstuffs and with raw materials from their colonies.
Types of International Trade
There are two types of international trade:
• Bilateral trade It is between two countries when they enter into an agreement to trade certain goods in
which they are specialised.
• Multilateral trade It is conducted with many trading countries at the same time at goods which the
countries are specialised in. The country may also grant the status of Most Favoured Nation (MNF) on
some of trading partners.
Balance of Trade
• It refers to the volume of goods and services imported and exported by one country to other countries.
Favourable balance of trade means the value of exports is more than its imports.
• Unfavourable balance of trade means that imports are more than exports. Balance of payments affects a
country’s economy as negative balance means country’s expenses are more than its income.
Case for Free Trade
• Free trade or trade liberalisation is the act of opening up of economics so that more trade takes place.
This is done by bringing down trade barriers like tarrifs. But trade liberalisation causes competition and
can cause dumping.
• Dumping is the selling of a commodity in two countries at a price that differs for reasons not related to
costs. Countries need to be cautious about dumped goods.
World Trade Organisation [WTO]
• General Agreement for Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was formed in 1948 to make the world free from tariffs
as well as non-tariff barriers.
• On 1st January, 1995, the GATT was transformed into the World Trade Organisation to set-up an
institution for the promotion of free and fair trade amongst different countries of the world.
• The WTO sets the rules for the global trading system. The headquarters of WTO is located in Geneva,
Switzerland and 164 countries are its members.
• However, WTO has been criticised and opposed by those who are worried about the effects of free trade
and economic globalisation. They argued that free trade is not beneficial to the ordinary people as it is
widening the gap between rich and poor.
• They also argued that issues of health, workers’ rights, child labour and environment are ignored.
Regional Trade Blocs

These are developed as a response to the failure of global organisations. There are 120 regional
trade blocs that generate 52% of the world’s trade.
Some of the trade blocs are as follows:
Concerns Related to International Trade
This can be summarised as merits and demerits of international trade.
• Merits of International Trade International trade is beneficial if it promotes regional specialisation,

higher level of production, better standard of living, worldwide availability of goods and sendees,
equalisation of price and wages and diffusion of knowledge and culture.
• Demerits of International Trade The demerits are, it leads to dependence on other countries, uneven
levels of development, exploitation and commercial rivalry.
Gateways of International Trade

Harbours and ports are the chief gateways of international trade. These ports facilitate the passage of
cargos and travellers as well as provide facilities of docking, loading, unloading and storage.
Types of Ports
Ports are generally, classified according to the types of traffic which handle. Types of ports on the
basis of cargo handled are:
• Industrial Ports The ports that handle bulk cargo like grain, ores, oil, chemicals are called industrial
ports.
• Commercial Ports Ports handling packaged products, manufactured goods, passengers are
commercial ports.
• Comprehensive Ports Ports that handle bulk and general cargo in large volumes are called
comprehensive ports. Most of the world’s great ports are classified as comprehensive ports.
Types of Ports on the basis of Location
• Inland Ports Ports located away from the sea coasts and linked to the sea through a river or a canal are
inland ports, e.g. Mannheim on Rhine river.
• Out Ports Ports in deep waters built away from the actual ports and serving big ships are called out
ports, e.g. Athens and its out port Piraeus in Greece.
Types of Ports on the basis of Specialised Functions
• Oil Ports Ports that deal in the processing and shipping of oil are known as oil ports. These are tanker
ports like Tripoli in Lebanon and refinery’ ports like Abadon on the Gulf of Persia.
• Ports of Call Ports which originally developed as calling points on main sea routes where ships used to
anchor for refuelling, watering and taking food items are called ports of call, e.g., Honolulu and Aden.
• Packet Station Also known as ferry ports, these are exclusively concerned with the transportation of
passengers and mail across water bodies covering short distances, e.g., Dover in England and Calais in
France.
• Entrepot Ports These are collection centres where the goods are brought from different countries for
export, e.g., Singapore is an entrepot for Asia.
• Naval Ports These ports serve worships and have repair workshops for them, e.g., Kochi, Karwar in
India.
Class 12 Notes Chapter 10 Human Settlements
Rural-Urban Dichotomy (Difference)

The human settlements can be differentiated in terms of rural and urban, population size, nature of
activities, structure, functions, etc. There is no uniformity in the differentiation of the settlements. But,
the basic difference between towns and villages is that in towns the main occupation of the people is
related to secondary and tertiary sectors, on the other side, in villages people are engaged in primary
activities.
• Sub-Urbanisation It is a new trend of people moving away from congested urban areas to cleaner
areas outside the city in search of better quality of life.
• Census of India, 1991 It defines urban settlements as places which have municipal corporation,
cantonment board, notified town area committee and have a population of 5000 persons and above and
where 75% of male workers are engaged in non-agricultural activities and density of population is at
least 400 persons per sq km.
Types and Patterns of Settlements

Settlements can be classified into compact and dispersed by their shape, pattern and types. The
major types classified by shape are as follows:
• Compact or Nucleated Settlements In these settlements, large number of houses are built very close
to each other and they develop along the river valleys and in fertile plains. There are close knit
communities and people here share common occupations.
• Dispersed Settlements In these settlements, houses are spaced far apart and often interspersed with
fields such as a place of worship, a market that binds the settlement together.
Rural Settlements
These settlements are closely and directly related to land. They are dominated by primary activities
like agriculture, fishing, animal husbandry, etc. The factors affecting the location of settlements are as
follows:
• Water Supply Rural settlements are located near water bodies such as rivers, lakes and springs as
water is needed for irrigation, fishing, navigation and drinking.
• Land Fertile lands suitable for agriculture are places of human settlement like villages in rolling
countryside in Europe avoiding swampy areas, low lying river valleys and coastal plains suited for wet
rice cultivation in South-East Asia.
• Upland Dry points like uplands, terraces, leaves that are not prone to flooding are places of settlements.
In tropical countries, people build their houses on stilts near marshy lands to protect themselves from
flood, insects and animal pests.
• Building Material Settlements are made in those places where building materials are available like cave
dwellings in China, mud bricks houses in African Savanna and igloos with ice blocks in polar regions.
• Defence Places that form good defensive site are developed as settlements like defensive hills, islands,
etc. In India, forts were built on hills.
• Planned Settlements Planned settlements are constructed by government by providing shelter, water
and other infrastructure on acquired lands, e.g. canal colonies in Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area in
India.
Rural Settlement Patterns
This refers to the way the houses are sited in relation to each other. The surrounding topography
terrain influence the shape.
They are classified as below:
1. On the basis of setting, the main types are plain and size of village, plain villages, plateau villages,
coastal villages, forest villages, desert villages, etc.
2. On the basis of functions, there may be farming villages, fishermen villages, lumbeijack villages, pastoral
villages, etc.
3. On the basis of forms/shapes of the Settlement, the villages are developed in geometrical forms and
shapes such as:
Linear Pattern The houses are located along the road, railway line, river, canal edge of a valley,
along a levee.
Rectangular Pattern The settlements are located in plain areas or in wide inter montane valleys. The
roads are rectangular and cut each other at right angles.
Circular Pattern The settlements develop around lakes, tanks and the central part remains open for keeping
the animals to protect them from wild animals.
Star-like Pattern These settlements develop where several roads converge and the houses are built along the
roads.
T-shaped, Y-shaped, Cross-shaped or Cruciform Settlements The T-shape settlements develop at tri-
junctions, Y-shaped settlements emerge where two roads converge on the third and houses are built along
these roads, cruciform settlements develop on the cross-roads and houses extend in all the four directions.
Double Village These settlements extend on both sides of a river where there is a bridge or a ferry.
Problems of Rural Settlements
• Rural settlements in developing countries are large in number and have poor infrastructure. There is
inadequate supply of water in these settlements.
• Water borne diseases like cholera, jaundice, etc are a common problem. There is lack of irrigation
facilities, problem of drought and flood in rural settlements. Inadequate sanitation facility, toilet and
garbage disposal facilities cause health related problems.
• Proper housing and separate shed for animals are not there. Rural settlements mostly lack metalled
roads and modern communication network. Health centres and educational institutions are less in
number.
Urban Settlements
There had been a rapid growth of urban settlements around the world. The first city to reach a
population of one million was London in AD 1810. At present 48% of the world population live in
cities.
Classification of Urban Settlements

Common basis of classification are:
• Population Size It refers to the lower limit of the population for a settlement to be designated as urban.
It is not universal and varies from country to country. In Columbia, a settlement having population of
1500 is termed as urban, in Argentina and Portugal it is 2000, 2500 in USA and Thailand, 5000 in India,
30,000 in Japan, 250 in Denmark, Sweden and Finland, 300 in Iceland, and 1000 in Canada and
Venezuela.
• Occupational Structure In some countries, the major economic activities alongwith population size
designate a settlement as urban. In Italy, settlement called as urban if more than 50% of its economically
productive population is engaged in non-agricultural pursuits. India has set its criterion at 75%.
• Administration Administration set up also designates a settlement as urban in some countries. In India,
if an area has a municipality, notified area council, then it is considered urban.
• Location Location of urban centres is examined with reference to their function, e.g. strategic towns
offering natural defence, mining towns, industrial towns, tourist centres, places with historical relics and
other places that can provide proper living conditions have the potential to develop into urban centres.
Functions of Urban Centres
On the basis of the functions, the urban settlements are classified into the following:
• Administrative towns National capitals having administrative offices like New Delhi, Canberra,
London, Beijing, etc are called administrative towns. Provincial (sub-national) towns can also have
administrative functions, e.g. Victoria (British Columbia), Albany (New York), etc.
• Trading and Commercial Towns Agricultural market towns like Winnipeg, banking and financial
centres like Frankfurt, large inland centres like Manchester, transport nodes like Lahore, Baghdad,
Agra are important trading centres.
• Cultural Towns Pilgrimage places like Jerusalem, Varanasi, Jagannath Puri, etc are considered cultural
towns. Other centres like health and recereation (Miami), industrial (Pittsburgh and Jamshedpur), mining,
quarrying (Dhanbad) and transport (Singapore and Mughal Sarai) are also urban settlements.
Classification of Towns on the basis of Forms

Urban settlements can be linear, square, star or crescent shaped. Cities in developed countries are
planned while in developing countries have evolved historically with irregular shapes. Chandigarh and
Canberra are planned cities while smaller town in India have evolved historically from walled cities to
large urban sprawls.
• Addis Ababa Established in 1878, it is capital of Ethiopia and is located in hill valley topography. It is a
large nodal centre, has large markets and government headquarters. The city has witnessed rapid
growth and expansion in all directions.
• Canberra Established in 1912, it is the capital of Australia. It is a garden city with wide open spaces,
parks and gardens. Initially, it was built to accommodate 25,000 people but now it has expanded to
accommodate many satellite towns.
Types of Urban Settlements Problems of Urban Settlements

Depending upon the size and services available, urban centres are classified further as follows:
• Towns These can be well understood with reference to ‘village’. Specific functions such as
manufacturing, retail and wholesale trade, and professional services exist in towns.
• City They are larger than towns, have greater number of economic functions, tend to have transport
terminals, major financial institution and administrative offices. In the words of Lewis Mumford, ”The city
is in fact the physical form of the highest and most complex type of associative life”.
• Conurbation The term conurbation was coined by Patrick Geddes in 1915. This is applied to a large
area of urban development that resulted from the merging of originally separate towns or cities like
Greater London and Tokyo.
• Megalopolis Popularised by Jean Gottman (1957), this signifies super metropolitan region extending as
union of conurbations, e.g. urban landscape stretching from Boston to Washington.
• Million City It refers to a city whose population reaches more than one million, e.g. London reached
million mark in 1800 followed by Paris in 1850 and by 1950 there were around 80 such cities.
• Distribution of Mega Cities The number of mega cities or megalopolis has been rising rapidly. The
number of mega cities is 25 currently. At present, the number of million cities in Europe is 58, 206 in
Asia, 79 in North and Central America, 43 in South America, 46 in Africa and 6 in Australia. They are
also inadequate in infrastructure such as electricity sewage, disposal, health and education facilities.
Problems Of Urban Settelments

In developing countries, urban settlements suffer from unsustainable concentration of population,
congested housing, lack of drinking water, poor infrastructure, no proper sewage disposal, health and
education facilities, vertical expansion and growth of slums. Most of the cities in developing countries
suffer from such unplanned growth. They are:
• Economic Problems The decreasing employment opportunities in rural areas push the unskilled and
semi-skilled labour force to migrate to urban areas which is already saturated. ‘
• Socio-Cultaral Problems Cities in developing countries suffer from several social ills. Lack of financial
resources fail to create adequate social infrastructure. Lack of employment and education tends to
aggravate the crime rates. Male selective migration to the urban areas disorts the sex ratio in these
cities.
• Environmental Problems Urban settlements in developing countries suffer from improper sewage
system, massive use of fuel that causes air pollution, lack of clean drinking water, dumping of untreated
wastes and huge concrete structures that aggravate the environmental problems.
Healthy City
The World Health Organisation suggests that a healthy city should have clean and safe environment,
meet the basic needs of all his inhabitants, involve the community in local government and provide
easily accessible health service.
Urban Strategy
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) outlines the urban strategy that aims to
increase shelter for urban poor, provision of basic services like primary healthcare, drinking water,
education, sanitation, government facilities, upgrading energy use, alternative transport system and
reducing air pollution.
Class 12 Notes Chapter 11 Population:
Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition
Distribution of Population
Distribution of population means how population is distributed in any given area. In India, spatial
pattern of population distribution is very uneven. As some areas are sparsely populated whereas
others are denses. These states can be categorised into three categories:
• State with High Population Uttar Pradesh (highest population), Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal,
Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh. These states
together account for 76% of population.
• States with Moderate Population Assam, Haryana, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Kerala, Punjab, Goa.
• States with Low Population Hilly and tribal areas like Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Himachal
Pradesh, all North-Eastern state (except Assam) and Union Territories excluding Delhi.
Density of Population
Population density means number of person living in per unit area. According to 2011 census, in India
382 person live in per sq km of area. Over the last 50 years the population density has recorded an
increase of about 260 persons per sq km, as ranging from 117 persons/sq km in 1951 to 382
persons/sq km in 2011.
Spatial Pattern of Population Density in India
Spatial pattern of population density is also uneven in India. For example:
States/UTs having High Density of population

States Bihar (1106 highest), West Bengal (1028), Kerala (860), Uttar Pradesh (829),
UTs Delhi (11320 highest), Chandigrah (9258).
States/UTs having Moderate Density of Population Haryana (573), Tamil Nadu (555), Punjab
(551), Jharkhand (414), Assam (398), Goa (394), Maharashtra (365) Tripura (350).
UTs Dadra andNagar Haveli (700).
States/UTs having Low Density of Population
States Arunachal Pradesh (17 Lowest), Mizoram (52), Jammu and Kashmir (56), Sikkim (86),
Nagaland (119).
UTs Andaman and Nicobar islands (46 lowest).
Growth of Population
Growth of population refers to the changes occuring in the number of persons living in a particular
area between two points of time. Its rate is expressed in percentage. Two components in population
growth afe as follows:
Natural Growth It means the change occuring by the births and deaths in any area.
Induced Growth It means the changes occurred by the volume of inward and outward movement in
an area.
Phases of Population Growth

There are four different phases of population growth:
Phase-I (1901-1921) It is stagnant or stationary phase because of very low growth rate.
Phase-II (1921-1951) It is the period of steady population growth.
Phase-III (1951-1981) This period is known as the period of population explosion in India. Rapid fall
in death rate and high fertility rate were the main causes of this explosion.
Phase-IV (Post 1981 till present) Growth rate has started down gradually because of downward
trend in birth rate. But in developing countries like India, growth rate is still high. According to World
Development Report by 2025, Indian population will surpass the figure of 1350 million.
Regional Variation in Population Growth
The spatial pattern of population growth in India is very uneven. It ranges from -0.58% (Negative) in
Nagaland to 55.88% in Dadra and Nagar Haveli.
States/UTs having High Growth Rate of Population

States Meghalaya (27.95%), Arunachal Pradesh (26.03%), Bihar (25.42%), Manipur (24.50%),
Jammu and Kashmir (23.64%).
UTs Dadra and Nagar Haveli (55.88%), Daman and Diu (53.76%), Puducherry (28.08%).
States/UTs having Moderate Growth Rate of Population Chhattisgarh (22.61%), Jharkhand

(22.42%), Rajasthan (21.31%), Madhya Pradesh (20.35%), Uttar Pradesh (20.23%).
States/UTs having Low Growth Rate of Population

States Nagaland (-0.58% lowest), Kerala (4.91%), Goa (8.23%), Andhra Pradesh (10.98%).
UTs Lakshadweep (6.30%), Andaman and Nicobar islands (6.86%).
Growth of Adolescent Population

The United Nation considers person aged 10-19 year as adolescents population. Since 1971, the
proportion of adolescent population has remained around 21%. The decadal growth rate of
adolescent population of India is 12.5% as per census 2011. India is on 4th place in adolescent
population (10-19 years) after Pakistan, Nigeria and Bangladesh. Adolescent population has
increased from 85 million in 1961 to 253.2 million in 2011. Sex-ratio of adolescent population of India
is 898 females per 1000 males.
The Government of India has taken many steps by some policies like, National Youth Policy 2003, for
channelisation and proper utilisation of adolescents by giving them proper education.
Population Composition
It is a detailed analysis of age and sex, place of residence, ethnic characteristics, tribes, language,
religion, marital status, literacy and education, occupational characteristics, etc in population
geography.
Rural-Urban Composition
In India, its 68.84% of total population lives in rural villages by 2011. According to census 2011, India
has 6,40,867 villages.
Percentage of rural population is high in Himachal Pradesh (89.97% highest) and Bihar (88.71%) and
low in Goa (37.83%) and Mizoram (47.89%). Delhi has the least rural population (2.50%).
Rural Population in Indian States

States having High Proportion of Rural Population Himachal Pradesh (89.97%) and Bihar (88.71%),
Assam (85.90%), Odisha (83.31%).
States having Moderate Proportion of Rural population

Meghalaya (79.93%), Uttar Pradesh (77.73%), Arunachal Pradesh (77.06%), Chattisgarh (76.76%),
Jharkhand (75.95%).
States having Low Proportion of Rural Population

States Goa (37.83%), Mizoram (47.89%), Tamil Nadu (51.60%), Kerala (52.30%).
UTs Delhi (2.50%), Chandigarh (2.75%).
Urban Population in Indian States
Regions having High Degree of Urbanisation

States Goa (62.17%), Mizoram (52.11%), Tamil Nadu (48.40%) Kerala (47.70%).
UTs Delhi (97.50%), Chandigarh (97.25%), Lakshadweep (78.07%).
Regions having Low Degree of Urbanisation Himachal Pradesh (10.03%), Bihar (11.29%), Assam
(14.10%), Odisha (16.69%), Meghalaya (20.07%).
Linguistic Composition
India is a land of linguistic diversity. According to Grierson (Linguistic Survey of India, 1903-1928)
there were 179 languages and as many as 544 dialects in India. But now, there are 22 scheduled
languages and number of non-scheduled languages.
Linguistic Classification
The speakers of major Indian languages belong to
four language families, which have their sub-families and branches or groups.
Family
1. Austric (Nishada-1.38%)
2. Dravidian (Dravida-20%)
3. Sino-Tibetan (Kirata-0.85%)
4. Indo-European (Aryan-73%)
Religious Compositions
All India Religion Census Data 2011
Composition of Working Population

The proportion of working population to total population is called work participation rate.
The population of India according to their economic status is divided into three groups like:
Main workers A person who works atleast 183 days in a year.
Marginal workers A person who works for less than 183 days in a year.
Non-workers A person who does not work and depends upon working class.
According to 2011 census, it is observed that the proportion of workers (both main and marginal) is
only 39.8% leaving a vast majority of about 60% as non-workers.
Occupational categories
The 2011 census has divided the working population of India into four major categories:
1. Cultivators
2. Agricultural labourers – 54.6%
3. Household labourers – 3.8%
4. Other workers – 41.6% (2011)
Class 12 Notes Chapter 12 Migration: Types,
Causes and Consequences
Migration
Census of India records population and migration related data of the country.
Many modifications in data related to migration has been done from the first census in 1881 to 1981
as:
A person who moves from one place to another in order to find work or better living conditions is
known as ‘Migrant’
There are two types of migrants on the basis of enumeration of census:
• Life-Time Migrant If a person’s place of birth is different from the place of census enumeration, then he
is known as lifetime migrants. As per census 2001, this group reported 307 million persons (30%) and as
per 2011, this group reported 36.7%.
• Migrant by place of last residence If a person’s place of last residence is different from the place of
enumeration, then he is known as migrant by place of last residence. As per census 2001, this group
reported 315 million migrants (31 percent). According to 2011 census, £5.36 crore migrants (37%) and
settled in a place different from
• their last residence.
Streams or Types of Migration
In general, there are two types of migration: Internal Migration It refers to the movement of people
within a country or nation. This can be intra-state and inter-state migration.
There are four streams of migration identified under the internal migration:
1. Rural to Rural (R-R)

2. Rural to Urban (R-U)
3. Urban to Urban (U-U)
4. Urban to Rural (U-R)
Women migrants are highest in both intra-state and inter-state migration, short distance rural to rural
migration stream because of their marriage. Whereas male migrants are highest in rural to urban
streams of inter-state migration due to the economic reasons.
International Migration It refers to the movement of people out of the country or out of the
geopolitical border. India experiences large number of international migration mostly from neighboring
countries.
As per census 2001, there were more than 5 million persons reported from other countries in India.
Out of these 96% came from the neighbouring countries as:
Bangladesh – 3.0 million
Pakistan – 0.9 million
Nepal – 0.5 million
Spatial Variation in Migration

In India, there is an uneven spatial variation in migration in terms of in-migration and out-migration.
States Receiving High Number of In-Migrants
Maharashtra is the largest migrants receiving state (2.3 million). Besides this, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana
and other urbanised areas attract high number of migrants.
States with High Out-Migrants
Uttar Pradesh (-2.6 million), Bihar (-1.7 million) and some other backward states have largest number
of net out. Urban agglomerations are largely expanding because of high Intra-state immigration. For
e.g.
Greater Mumbai received the highest number of in-migrants.
Causes of Migration
The reasons/causes of migration can be put under two categories:
Push Factors These are factors which urges people to leave their place of residence or origin. Some
of them are as follows:
1. Natural disaster like flood, drought, cyclonic storms, earthquake, tsunami, etc.
2. Political/Local conflicts like-war, riots.
3. Poverty, lack of employment opportunities.
4. High population pressure on land.
5. Lack of basic infrastructural facilities like health care, education, etc.
Pull Factors These refers to factors which attract the people from different places. Some of them are
as follows:
1. Better opportunities for education.

2. Better health facilities.
3. Source of entertainment.
4. According to an estimation, about 38% males migrate for work and employment whereas only 3% female
migrate for the same reason. (But according to census 2011 there is a downfall of 4.2% as compared to
2001 census).
5. About 65% (69.7% according to 2011 census) of women migrate because of marriage, whereas only 2%
males migrate ! for the same reason.
This migration of males (marriage) is higher in Meghalaya.
Consequences of Migration
Migration is a consequence of the uneven – distribution of opportunities over space. People : tends to
move from place of low opportunity and low safety to the place of higher opportunity and ; better
safety. Results can be observed in i economic, social, cultural, political and, demographic terms.
Economic Consequences
These consequences are positive as well as negative:
Positive Remittances are important for economy of a country. As migrants sent remittances to their
family members for food, repayment of loans/debts, treatment, marriages, children’s education,
agricultural inputs, construction of houses, etc.
Green Revolution in the rural areas of Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh was a success
because of the migrants from rural areas of ‘ Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and
Odisha.
Negative Over crowding due to unregulated migration. Development of unhygienic slums in
industrially developed states like Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Delhi.
Demographic consequences
These consequences can be both positive or negative:
Positive Redistributing of population within a country. The process of urbanisation is dependent on
rural-urban migration.
Negative Imbalance in demographic structure. Age and skill selective out migration created an
imbalance in demographic structure of rural areas. Age and sex-composition is seriously affected in
states of Uttarakhand, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Eastern Maharashtra due to migration. The
same situation happens in the recipient states.
Social consequences
These consequences are both positive as well as negative:
Positive Migrants work as an agent of social change. They diffuse new ideas of science and
technology, family planning, girls education, etc from one place to another place. People also bring
different cultures with them which help to break the narrow considerations and broaden up the mental
horizon of the people.
Negative Anonymity increases and creates social vacuum and feeling of ejection. This feeling
ultimately results in anti-social activities such as crime, drug abuse, theft, etc.
Environmental consequences
Negative Large scale rural-urban migration leads to overcrowding in the cities and puts tremendous
pressure on the infrastructure. It also results in unplanned and haphazard growth of cities in which
slums and shanty colonies are very common. Overcrowding is also related to over-exploitation of
natural resources and cities are facing serious problems of water shortage, air and water pollution,
problem of sewage disposal and management of solid wastes.
Other consequences
• When male migrants leave their wives in rural areas, this puts extra physical and mental pressure on
women.
• Migration of women for education and employment gives them more freedom, on the other hand it also
adds to their vulnerability
Class 12 Notes Chapter 13 Human Development
Development in India
India has mixed experience of development. The distribution of available opportunities is uneven. A
small section of population enjoys all the available modern facilities. On the other hand, the
marginalised sections include scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, landless agricultural labourers,
poor farmers, slum dwellers and others, which do not have basic amenities even potable water,
education, and health facilities.
Among all sections, women are the most marginalised. With the increasing developmental activities,
these marginalised sections are becoming even more marginalised and hence are forced to live
under abject poverty and sub-human conditions. There is another inter-related aspect of development
that has direct role in making human life uncomfortable and cause environmental pollution, e.g. air,
water, soil and noise pollutions. These are leading to the tragedy of commons and threatening the
existence of human society. Consequently, the poor are being subjected to three inter-related
processes of declining capabilities, they are:
• Social Capabilities due to displacement and weakening social ties

• Environmental Capabilities due to increasing in pollution.
• Personal Capabilities due to increasing incidence of diseases and accidents.
Thus, in turn, this has adverse effects on their quality of life and human development.
Human Development
After seeing the inability of the western or euro-centric view of development to handle the existing
issues, the concept of human development is brought against this concept. It is considered as a
solution to all the existing problems. Thus, human development is a process of widening and
providing more choices to people, providing them more opportunities for education, health care,
empowerment, income and covering all the choices from a healthy physical environment to economic,
social and political freedom.
The first systematic effort in enhancing the human development was made by United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) by publishing the first Human Development Report in 1990. Now, it
is regularity published. UNDP is responsible for making and amending the indicators to decide the
human development of a country. It gives ranks to all member countries, on the basis of calculated
scores by using indicators and publish them in the report.
Human Development in India
According to Human Development Report (HDR) of 2011, India ranks 134th with the composite HDI
value of 0.547 (medium human development) among 172 member countries of the world.
There are many socio-cultural and historical factors which are responsible for the low score condition
of human development in India. These are:
• Historical factors These include colonisation, imperialism and neo-imperialism.

• Socio-Cultural factors These include violation of human rights, social discriminations like race, religion,
gender and caste based discriminations, social problems of crimes, terrorism and war.
• Political factors These include political stability and nature of state, forms of government, level of
empowerment, etc.
Planning Commission of India also prepares the Human Development Report (HDR) for India and
takes the states and Union Territories as units for analysis. Further, the states take districts as their
units of analysis. Planning Commission in its Human Development Report takes the given indicators
selected by UNDP along with other indicators like economic attainment, social empowerment, social
distributive justice, accessibility of opportunities, hygiene and welfare policies made by the states.
Indicators of Economic Attainment

Economic productivity forms an integral part of human development, thus. Gross National Product
(GNP) and per capita availability are taken as measures to assess the resources base/endowment of
any country.
On one side India’s GDP at current prices (₹ 3200 thousand crores ) and its per capita income (₹
20813) are showing an impressive development in India in terms of resource base. But on the other
side, the existence of poverty deprivation, malnutrition, illiteracy and different prejudices like caste,
religion and gender discrimination are showing a different face of economic achievements.
Variation in Per Capita Income

The spatial pattern of per capita income is uneven.
• States having high per capita income (More than ₹ 4000 per year at 1980-81 prices) Maharashtra,
Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat and Delhi.
• States having low per capita income ( Less than ₹ 2000 per year) Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha,
Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Jammu and Kashmir, etc.
Variation in Per Capita consumption
• There are large regional disparities in terms of per capita consumption.

• Developed states having high per capita consumption (more than ₹ 690 per month) are Kerala, Punjab,
Haryana, Maharashtra, Gujarat, etc.
• Poor states having low per capita consumption (less than ₹ 520 per month) are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Odisha and Madhya Pradesh, etc.
• These variations in both per capita income and consumption are showing some serious problems like
poverty, unemployment and under-employment.
Poverty
• Poverty is a state of deprivation. In absolute terms, it reflects the inability of an individual to satisfy
certain basic needs for a sustained healthy and reasonably productive living.
• In India, poverty varies among different states. Bihar and Odisha (population living below poverty line)
recorded more than 40% poverty, while Madhya Pradesh, Sikkim, Assam, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh,
Meghalaya and Nagaland recorded more than 30% of poverty. Union Territories record poverty less than
30% are Chandigarh, Daman and Diu and Delhi.
• Employment rate for educated youth is only 25%. Jobless growth and rampant unemployment are some
of the major causes responsible for poverty in India.
Indicators of Healthy Life
Healthy and long life is important for everyone and it is measured by availability of adequate health
facilities to decrease infant deaths, post delivery deaths of mothers, old age health care, proper
nutrition and safety of people.
The Health indicators are:
• Mortality rate India has been successful in declining mortality rate from 25.1 per thousand in 1951 to 8.1
per thousand in 1999. Infant mortality rate is also declined from 148 per thousand in 1951 to 70 per
thousand in 1999.
• Average life expectancy rate It is increased from 37.1 years to 62.3 years for males, 36.2 to 65.3 for
females during 1951-1999.
• Birth rate India has also brought down its birth rate from 40.8 in 1951 to 26.1 in 1999. But it is still higher
as compared to developed countries.
• Sex-ratio Sex-ratio in India is declining after every decade. According to 2001 census, the findings are
very disturbing particularly in case of child sex ratio between 0-6 age group. Except Kerala (highest sex-
ratio), all the states have the declining trend in child-sex ratio. For example, Haryana and Punjab have
the child sex ratio below 800 female children on per thousand male children (according to 2011 census,
child sex ratio decline against 2001 from 927 to 919).
Indicators of social Empowerment
• Freedom from hunger, poverty servitude, bondage, ignorance, illiteracy and other forms of domination is
the key to human development.
• Empowerment and participation of the people by using their capabilities and choices in the society, leads
to actual freedom.
• People can use their capabilities and choices by understanding the society and environment. This can
happen through literacy as it opens the door of a world of knowledge and freedom.
literacy in India
• According to 2001 census, India’s literacy is about 65.4%, while its female literacy is 54.16% (according
to 2011, 74.04% is total literacy rate, of these 82.14% and 65.46% are males and females respectively).
• Percentage of total literacy and female literacy are higher than the national average in most of the
southern states.
• Literacy rate is low in Bihar (47.53%) and high in Kerala (90.92%). It shows a large regional disparities in
context of literacy in India.
• Literacy rate is low in rural areas, in some marginalised sections of our society like females, schedule
castes, schedule tribes, agricultural labourers, etc. Inspite of having some improved condition in literacy
rate in these section, there is still a wide gap between the rich and the marginalised sections.
Human Development Index in India

Human Development Report in India is prepared annually by the Institute of Applied Manpower
Research in the supervision of Planning Commission by taking states and Union Territories as the
unit of study. States with high HDI value are Kerala (highest HDI among Indian states i.e. 0.92), Delhi,
Himachal Pradesh, Goa and Punjab, whereas Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Bihar (Lowest HDI among
Indian States with 0.41) recorded as lowest HDI value.
Reasons for High and Low HDI Value

There are several reasons for having high and low HDI value include socio-political, economic or
historical reasons. They are:
1. Higher number of literates is the main reason for Kerala having high HDI value. On the other hand,
Bihar, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Assam and Uttar Pradesh have low composite value of HDI
because of their lowest literacy rate.
2. Economic development also has very important role in HDI. Economically developed states like
Maharastatra, Tamil Nadu, and Punjab have higher value of HDI as compared to states like
Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh.
3. Historical reasons are also responsible for having high or low human development, e.g. regional
imbalances and social disparities which emerged under the British period are still crucial in
determining the level of development because they are still affecting the political, economical and
social system in India. Despite of having planned development by the government, the most
important goals are still far away from the ideal level.
Population, Environment and Development

Development is important because it improves quality of life, but simultaneously brought many
problems like regional disparities, social inequalities, discriminations, deprivations, displacement of
people, violation of human rights and declining human values and environmental degradation. UNDP
in its Human Development Report of 1993 tried to amend these issues and found an important role of
civil societies in bringing about peace and human development. These civil societies can help by
building up opinion for reduction in military expenditure, demobilisation of armed forces, transition
from defense to production of basic goods and services and reduction in the nuclear weapons in
developed countries.
The view of these approaches are presented by Neomalthusians, environmentalists and Radical
ecologists. These thinkers argued to maintain a balance between population and resources before
starting any developmental activity. Sir Robert Malthus was the first scholar who drew the attention
towards the imbalance between population and resources. Along with the problem of the scarcity of
resources and growing population, there was another problem of unevenly distributed resources over
the space and their accessibility only by few rich countries and people. So there were conflicts
between rich and poor countries for these unevenly distributed resources.
Along with Malthus, Mahatama Gandhi was also a supporter of balance and harmony between
population and resources. According to him, industrialisation has institutionalised the loss of morality,
spirituality, self-reliance, non-violence and mutual co-operation and environment. Further, Gandhiji
says that, higher goals in the life of a person or by a nation can be achieved through the austerity for
individual, trusteeship of social wealth and non-violence.
Class 12 Notes Chapter 14 Human Settlements
Rural Settlements
They are mainly smaller in size and poorly spaced. The people of these settlements are mainly
engaged in primary activities like, agriculture, fishing, mining, etc, e.g. people surviving in hamlets
and villages.
Factors Determining the Rural Settlements
There are various factors and conditions responsible for having different types of rural settlements in
India. These are:
• Physical Features These include nature of terrain, altitude, climate and availability of water.
• Cultural and Ethnic Factors These include social structure, caste and religion.
• Security Factors These include defence against thefts and robberies.
Types of Rural Settlements
Types of the rural settlements are determined by the above determinants as well as by the extent of
the built up area and inter-house distance. In India, Rural settlements can broadly divided into four
types:
• Clustered, agglomerated or nucleated

• Semi-dustered or fragmented
• Hamleted, and
• Dispersed or isolated
Clustered Settlements
• The houses in this settlement are closely spaced or have no space between houses.
• The living place is distinct and separated from the surrounding farms, bams and pastures.
• The settlement sometimes present distinct patterns or geometrical shapes like rectangular, radial, linear,
etc which are recognisable in fertile alluvial plains and North-Eastern states.
• This type of settlement is built due to various reasons, e.g. in Bundelkhand and Nagaland, people live in
these settlements for defence and security purposes, in Rajasthan these settlements are built around/
near water resources due to water scarcity.
Semi-Clustered Settlements
• This type of settlement develops by the concentration of houses in a restricted area of a dispersed
settlement or develop due to segregation or fragmentation of a large compact village.
• Here, a dominant community captures the most important part in main village and force other
communities to live away. For e.g. plains of Gujarat and Rajasthan.
Hamleted Settlement
• This type of settlement is formed due to social or ethnic factors and thus known for different identity and
name, like, panna, para, nagla, dhani etc.
• Each hamlet is a unit and has a number of houses.
• Several units of hamlets collectively form a village. For e.g. middle and lower Ganga plain, Chhattisgarh
and lower valleys of Himalayas.
Dispersed Settlements
• Isolated huts or hamlets of few huts in remote jungles or on small hills with farms or pastures are
characteristics of dispersed type of settlement.
• These houses may be of temporary use. It is found in Meghalaya, Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh,
Kerala, etc.
Urban Settlements
• Unlike rural settlement, urban settlement are

usually more dense, compact and larger in size.
• Here, people are mostly engaged in non-agricultural activities i.e. industries, services, administrative
functions, etc.
• Cities and towns both are connected directly or indirectly with villages and also with each other and
exchange goods, services and also commute.
Evolution of Towns in India

The evolution of towns started in India from prehistoric times, e.g. Harappa, Mohenjodaro towns,
European colonies of modern period, etc.
Indian towns may be classified into three groups on the basis of their evolution in different periods:
Ancient Towns
These towns were developed over 2000 years ago by the various kings as religious and cultural
centres, e.g. Varanasi, Prayag (Allahabad), Pataliputra (Patna), Madurai, etc.
Medieval Towns
• These towns were developed as headquarters of principalities and kingdoms by medieval kings and
Sultans of India.
• These towns are about 100 in numbers and were generally fort towns which came up on the ruins of
ancient towns.
• For example, Delhi, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Lucknow, Agra and Nagpur.
Modern Towns
These towns were developed by the Britishers and other Europeans in India. These are further
divided into the following groups:
• Port Towns These are located on the coastal areas of India i.e. Surat, Daman, Goa, Puducherry, etc.
• Administrative Towns These were developed for the administrative purposes, e.g. Mumbai (Bombay),
Chennai (Madras) and Kolkata (Calcutta).
• Industrial Towns After 1850, these towns were developed like Jamshedpur.
• Some other Towns of European Styles These towns include hill stations for summer resorts, military
towns and small towns for administrative purposes.
Towns after Independence

After Independence, some towns were also developed like:
• Administrative Headquarters or Capital of States These towns include Chandigarh, Bhubaneshwar,

Gandhinagar and Dispur etc.
• Industrial Towns/Centres These towns include Durgapur Bhilai, Sindri, Barani, etc.
• Satellite Towns These were old towns which developed around metropolitan cities such as Ghaziabad,
Rohtak, Gurgaon (Gurugram), etc.
• Medium and Small towns These are developed due to increasing investment in rural areas.
Urbanisation in India
• Urbanisation is the transition of rural population into urban population.

• It is measured by the percentage of urban population into total population. In India, the level of
urbanisation is very low, as it was just 28% in 2001.
• Developed countries have a higher level of urbanisation than India.
• Although, urbanisation in India is increasing with high rate, as it increased 11 times dining twentieth
century, but this process is comparatively slow during recent two decades.
Classification of Towns on the Basis of Population Size

Census of India is responsible for defining and classifying urban areas in India. Cities and urban
areas are classified into six classes by census of India.
Urban areas use their population size as base. Thus, an urban Area that have population of more
than one lakh is considered as city or class I town.
Cities that have population more than one million but less than 5 million are considered as
metropolitan or metro city. Cities that have population more than 5 million are considered as
‘megacities’ or ‘megalopolis’.
The six classes of towns are given below
Apart from these cities, there is also a concept of urban agglomeration in India. According to census
of India, an urban agglomeration may have to fulfil anyone of the following conditions:
1. A town and its adjoining urban out growths.

2. Two or more contiguous towns with or without their outgrowths.
3. A city and one or more adjoining towns with their outgrowths together forming a contiguous spread.
Examples of these outgrowth may be in the form of railway colonies, university campus, part area,
military cantonment, etc.
According to the given table, class IV cities are highest in number but larger proportion of urban
population lives in class I cities (61.48%).
Besides these towns, India has 423 cities. Among them, 35 cities or urban agglomeration are
metropolitan cities. Six of them are mega cities with population over 5 million each.
For e.g.. Greater Mumbai being the largest urban agglomeration with 16.4 million population, followed
by Kolkata, Delhi, Chennai, Bengaluru, and Hyderabad.
Functional Classification of Towns
Apart from population size, Indian towns and cities can be classified into the following heads on the
basis of their functions (dominant economic activity):
• Administrative towns and cities These towns work as headquarter for surrounding region.
Government offices and departments, etc are mainly concentrated in these cities. For e.g. Chandigarh,
New Delhi, Bhopal, Shilong, Guwahati, Imphal, Srinagar, Gandhinagar, Jaipur and Chennai, etc.
• Industrial Towns These towns/ cities mainly dominated by industries. For e.g. Jamshedpur, Bhilai,
Durgapur, Madurai, Mumbai, etc.
• Transport Cities Transportation is the main function of these cities. Port towns are examples of these
towns that are always busy in transporting commodities to other cities. For e.g. Kandla, Kochchi,
Kozhikode, Visakhapatnam, etc. There are some cities which are hubs of inland transport such as Agra,
Dhulia, Mughal Sarai, Itarsi, Katni, etc.
• Commercial Towns The important functions of these towns are trade and commerce. For e.g. Kolkata,
Saharanpur, Satna, etc.
• Mining Towns These towns have developed in mineral rich areas. For e.g. Raniganj, Jharia, Digboi,
Ankaleshwar, Singrauli, etc.
• Garrison Cantonment Towns These towns are meant for the army or defence purpose. For e.g.
Ambala, Jalandhar, Mhow, Babina, Udhampur, etc.
• Educational Towns Initially these towns were important education centres, but later they emerged as
major campus towns. For e.g. Roorkee, Varanasi, Aligarh, Pilani, Allahabad, etc.
• Religious and Cultural Towns These towns are famous for pilgrimage, religious worship or old
cultures. For e.g. Varanasi, Mathura, Amritsar, Madurai, Pune, Ajmer, Tirupati, Kurukshetra, Haridwar,
Ujjain, etc.
• Tourists Towns These towns are famous for attracting wide range of tourists from India and all over the
world. For e.g.
Nainital, Mussoorie, Shimla, Pachmarhi, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Udagamandalam (Ooty), Mount Abu, etc.
The functions of these cities are not fix and change with the time as cities are dynamic in nature. With
increase in population, cities become metropolis and multi-functional i.e. industry, business,
administration, transport, etc. Thus, classification of these cities on the basis of specialised function is
impossible as all the functions are interlinked.
Class 12 Notes Chapter 15 Land Resources and
Agriculture
Land use Categories
Land revenue department is responsible for categorising land and maintaining its records. These
records contains reporting area.
Under the land revenue records land use categories are as follows:
1. Forest
2. Land put to non-agricultural uses.
3. Barren and Wastelands.
4. Area under permanent pastures and grazing lands.
5. Area under miscellaneous tree crops and groves.
6. Culturable wastelands
7. Current fallow
8. Net sown area
Land use Changes in India
Unlike other natural resources, land is fixed, it does not change by size or area. Economic activities
are the major causes that affect land use. The three main economic changes that changes the land
use are:
1. The size of the economy.

2. The composition of an economy (proportion of different sectors).
3. Increasing pressure on agricultural lands.
During the period of 1960-61 to 2008-09 some land use changes are worth mentioning which show
an increase and decrease in these categories:
Area Records Increase in Land use
• Area under forest.

• Current fallow lands.
• Area under non-agricultural use.
• Net sown area.
Area Records Decrease in Land use
• Barren and wasteland.

• Culturable wasteland
• Area under permanent pastures and tree crops.
• Fallow other than current fallow.
On the basis of ownership land can be classified into two categories:

Private land Owned by individual or group of individuals.
Common Property Resources (CPRs) Available for all and can be used by any person. It provides
fodder for the livestock and fuel for the households. In rural areas, such land is of particular relevance
for livelihood of the landless and marginal farmers.
Agricultural Land Use in India

Most of the Indians are dependent on agriculture, directly or indirectly for their subsistence.
Agriculture is mainly Land-based activity unlike secondary and tertiary sectors. The role of quality of
land is important in agriculture. The more the land is fertile the more it gives output/production.
Ownership of land resource is considered as a social status in rural areas. It is also seen as security
for credit, natural hazards or life contingencies. Availability of total resources for agricultural uses is
calculated by adding up net sown area, all fallow lands and culturable wastelands.
Cropping Intensity (Cl)’is calculated as follows:

Cropping Intensity in percentage = GCA (Gross Cropped Area)/NSA (Net Sown Area) x 100
Cropping seasons in India
Types of Farming
In India farming is classified on the basis of moisture available for crops:
• Irrigated Farming The main source of moisture for this farming is irrigation by various methods i.e.
wells, tubewells, etc. Two types are protective and
productive farming.
• Rainfed Farming (Barani) The main source of moisture for this farming is rainfall. Two types are dryland
farming and wetland farming.
Dryland farming is largely confined to the regions having rainfall less than 75 cm. These regions
grows hardy and drought resistant crops such as ragi, bajra, moong, gram and gaur. On the other
hand in wetland farming, the rainfall is in excess of soil moisture requirement of plants during rainy
season. Such regions may face flood and soil erosion hazards. These areas grow various water
intensive crops such as rice, jute and sugercane.
Cropping Pattern
Food grains
Foodgrains are important for agriculture economy which constitute about two-third of total cropped
area in the country. The foodgrains are classified on the basis of structure of grains:
Cereals
India ranks 3rd in the production of cereals after China and USA. India produces 11% of the world
and covers about 54% of the total cropped area in India. These cereals are:
• Rice It is the most important food crop of India which feeds more than half of our population. India
ranked second with the production nearly 22% after China in the world. States like West Bengal, Punjab
and Uttar Pradesh were major rice producing states in India. In North-Western and in. Himalyas regions,
it is grown as a Kharif crop, whereas in West Bengal, farmers grow three crops of rice called ‘aus’,
‘aman’ and ‘boro’.
• Wheat India share 12% of total wheat production of the world. It is cultivated on about 14% of the total
cropped area. About 85% of this area comes under the Indo-Gangetic Plain, Malwa Plateau and
Himalayas in North and central parts of the country. The major wheat producing states of India are Uttar
Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Jammu and Kashmir.
Coarse Grains
These crops are grown in almost 16.50% of total cropped area in the country. These coarse grains
are:
• Jowar/Sorghum It is grown in about 5.3% of total cropped area. Maharashtra is the largest producer of
Jowar in India. The major producer of Jowar are central and Southern states i.e. Karnataka, Madhya
Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh.
• Bajra It is grown in about 5.2% of the total cropped area in the country. The major producers of bajra are
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Haryana.
• Maize It is grown in about 3.6% of total cropped area in the country. There is no particular region under
maize. It is sown all over India except Eastern and North Eastern regions. The leading producers are
Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.
• Pulses Pulses are grown in India on about 11% of the total cropped area. India is one of the largest
producers of pulses, as it cultivates about 20% pulses of the world. Pulses are legume crops. These are
largely confined to the drylands of Deccan and Central plateaus and North-Western parts of the country.
• Gram It is grown in 2.8% of the total cropped area. The major producers are Madhya Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan.
• Tur (Arhar) This is grown in 2% of the total cropped area of India. It is the second important pulse crop in
the country. Maharashtra is the leading producer of tur which produces about 75% of tur in India. It is
also called as red gram or pigeon pea.
• Oil seeds Oil seeds are produced for extracting edible oils. Oil seeds include groundnut, (3.6%),
rapeseed and mustard (2.5%), soybean, sunflower, etc. These different oilseeds are grown in India
about 14% of total cropped area in the country.
Drylands of Malwa Plateau, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Telangana and Rayalseema of Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka plateau are leading producers of oilseeds. Soybean and sunflower are other
important oil seeds grown in India.
Fibre Crops
Fibre crops are one which provides fibre for preparing cloth. These includes:
• Cotton India grows both short staple (Indian) cotton as well as long staple (American) cotton. India
produces about 8.3% of the world’s cotton. This makes India the fourth largest producer of cotton after
China, USA and Pakistan. Largest producers of cotton in India are Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra
Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana.
• Jute India accounts for about 60% of the world’s jute production. West Bengal (75%) is the largest
producer of jute in the country. Other producers are Bihar and Assam.
Other Crops
• Sugarcane It is an important cash crop in India. India’s sugarcane production is about 23% of the
world’s total production, which makes India the 2nd largest producer after Brazil. Major producers are
Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat. Uttar Pradesh accounts 40 percent of sugarcane production
and secures a position of the largest producer of India.
• Tea Assam (53.2%) is the largest producer of tea in India. Other states are West Bengal and Tamil
Nadu.
• Coffee India is the 7th largest producer of coffee in the world which accounts about 3.2% share.
Karnataka is the largest producer of coffee that produces more than 66% of India’s total coffee.
Agricultural Development in India
• About 54.6% of population is engaged in agricultural activity. According to census (2011) and about 57%
of its land is used for cultivation of various crops in India whereas world average is only about 12%.
• The land-human ratio in India is only 0.31 hectare whereas, the world is almost double of this figure i.e.
0.59 hectare.
Strategy of Development
Before Independence, Indian agriculture was largely subsistence in nature, this period was
frequently witnessed severe droughts, famines and food shortage. About l/3rd of the irrigated area
went to Pakistan. Consequently, Government took several steps to increase the production of food
grains. Following three strategies were adopted to achieve this goal:
1. Switching over from cash crops to food crops.

2. Intensification of cropping over already cultivated land.
3. Increasing cultivated area by bringing cultivable and fallow land under plough.
However, Indian agriculture could not progress much, then Government introduced modem
technology into agriculture. These were:
• High Yielding Variety (HYV) of seeds

• Fertilisers
• Mechanisation
• Improved irrigation and credit marketing facilities.
• Intensive Area Development Programme
All the above inputs were the main components of what is known as Green Revolution. This strategy
of agricultural development in the country made the country self-reliant in foodgrain production. But,
green revolution was initially confined to irrigated areas only. This led to regional disparities in
agricultural development in the country till the seventies. Consequently, Planning Commission
prepared plans to solve the problems of agriculture in rainfed areas in 1980s. It initiated agro-climate
planning in 1988 to induce regional balance.
Growth of Agricultural Output and Technology
• Since independence, there has been improvement in technologies used for agricultural production. As a
result, increase in agricultural production has been recorded.
• India is now became 1st largest producer of pulses and jute and 2nd largest in rice, wheat, groundnut,
sugarcane and vegetables.
• New technologies also came up to increase the production of food grains, for e.g. HYV seeds, chemical
fertilisers raised 15 folds since mid 1960s.
Problems of Indian Agriculture

These problems are:
• Dependence on Erratic Monsoon There is only 33% cultivated area is under irrigation. The nature of
South-West monsoon is very fluctuating which causes flood and drought situation in India.
• Low Productivity India also lag behind in terms of per hectare production and per person production
and also behind at International level. This low productivity is a result of high population which creates a
heavy pressure on available land resources.
• Constraints of Financial Resources and Indebtedness Lack of money and financial resources are the
major constraints to the development of agriculture in India. As majority of farmers are small, marginal
and poor, they cannot afford highly expensive inputs to increase their production.
• Lack of Land Reforms Lack of land reforms and unequal distribution of land resources led to the worst
condition of poor and marginal farmers and also become constraint in the development of agriculture in
India.
• Small Farm Size and Fragmentation of Landholdings ‘Inheritance law’ is mainly responsible for small
and fragmented farm size.
• Lack of Commercialisation As most of the farmers are poor and marginal, farmers practice
subsistence agriculture for their living.
• Vast Under-employment There is seasonal unemployment in agricultural sector. There is no income
during ploughing field to harvesting crops.
• Degradation of Cultivable Land After green revolution degradation has started in India. Excessive use
of irrigation, chemical fertilizers, etc created problems of water lodging and solemnization. Fertility of land
is also decreasing day by day.
Class 12 Notes Chapter 16 Water Resources
Water Resources of India
• India contributes about 2.45% world’s geographical area, the 4% of the world’s water resources and
about 16% of world population.
• India receives water from annual precipitation i.e. 4000 cubic km, and surface and groundwater sources
i.e. 1869 cubic km. But only 60% (1122 cubic km) from these two sources of water are beneficial and
usable.
Surface Water Resources
• River, lakes, ponds and tanks are four main sources of surface water resources in India.
• About 10,360 number of river and tributaries existed here and each tributary is more than 1.6 km long.
• The mean annual flow in all the river basin in India is estimated to be 1,869 cubic km. But only about 690
cubic km or 32% of these water can be utilised due to topographical, hydrological and other constraints.
• Size of catchment area/river basin and rainfall in its catchment area control the flow of water in a river.
Water availability in rivers is more during monsoon than other seasons in India.
• In India, Ganga, Brahmaputra and Indus have large catchment area. Catchment areas of Ganga and
Brahmaputra and Barak rivers fall into the high rainfall receiving area thus, have 60% of total water
resources and have only 33% of the surface areas in India, but most of the water is not utilised.
• On the other hand, in the Peninsular rivers like Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, etc mean annual flow of water
is less, but much of their water resources has been utilised.
Groundwater Resources
• There is about 432 cubic km of total replenishable ground water resources available in India. Ganga and
Brahmaputra basins have about 46% of the total replenishable groundwater resources.
• The level of groundwater utilisation is relatively high in the river basins of North¬Western parts and
Southern parts of India.
• States having very high utilisation of groundwater are Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu.
• States having moderate utilisation ground water are Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Tripura and
Maharashtsa.
• States having low Utilisation of groundwater are Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Kerala, etc.
• It is assumed that if the utilisation of water continue with the present rate, there are chances that it will
limit the development and create a situation of social upheaval disruptions.
Lagoons and Backwaters
• Some states of India have indented coastline and thus a number of lagoons and lakes have formed.
Examples of such states are Kerala, Odisha, and West Bengal.
• Due to brackish water-bodies, these water resources are used for fishing and irrigating certain varieties
of paddy crops, coconut, etc.
Water Demand and Utilisation
• Agriculture, being an important part of Indian economy, alone uses about 89% of surface water and 92%
of groundwater.
• Most of the developmental projects, river valley projects like the Bhakra-Nangal, Hirakund, Damodar
Valley, Nagaijuna Sagar, Indira Gandhi Canal project, etc as well as five year plans were started to
provide water to agricultural sector and increase agricultural production.
• Besides this, utilisation of surface and groundwater for domestic purposes are 90% and 3% and for
industrial sector are 2% and 5%, respectively.
Demand of Water for Irrigation
• Need for irrigation is very high in India due to the spatial and temporal variation of rainfall.
• As winter and summer season are more or less dry in most parts of India. So, without irrigation
agriculture cannot be practised in these parts.
• Some crops like rice, sugarcane, jute and other are water intensive and require more water to grow.
• Irrigation helps to grow multiple crops, gives more agricultural productivity, and along with HYV seeds
gives more yield at fast rate. For e.g. Punjab Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh which have more than
85% of net source area under irrigation.
• Total net irrigated area in Punjab under wells and tube wells is 76.1% where as it is 51.3% in Haryana.
These states utilise a large share of their groundwater resources and thus, it is the major cause behind
the depletion of these resources.
• Besides these in Rajasthan and Bihar, the concentration of flouride in groundwater is also increasing due
to over withdrawal of this resource. Whereas in West Bengal and Bihar, the concentration of arsenic has
been increased because of the same reason.
Emerging Water Problems
• Rapid growth in population and pollution from various sources like industries, agriculture, and domestic
sources are the major problems which are responsible for declining the availability of potable water.
• The per capita availability of water in India is also decreasing day by day.
Deterioration of Water Quality
• Water quality means water free from unwanted foreign substances that make water polluted i.e. micro-
organisms, chemicals, industrial and other wastes.
• These toxic substances are responsible for water pollution by dissolving or he suspended in lakes,
streams, rivers and oceans.
• Sometimes, such pollutants seep down and pollute groundwater. The most polluted rivers in India are
Ganga and Yamuna.
Water Conservation and Management
• The conservation and management of water become necessary after decreasing the availability of fresh
water and increasing its demand by increasing population.
• For Sustainable development and maintaining the quality of life the government should encourage
people to adopt watershed development, rainwater harvesting, recycling and reuse of water, conjunctive
use of water for availability of quality water for long time.
Prevention of Water Pollution
• Availability of water resources are shrinking with a faster rate. It is seen that hilly areas have less dense
population and thus, have high quality of water in their rivers. Whereas plains have dense population and
thus have low quality of water in their rivers, and here water is widely used for irrigation, domestic works
and industrial works.
• Plains also contribute more in polluting water sources by draining agricultural wastes (chemical fertilisers
and insecticides) solid and domestic wastes and industrial wastes.
• During summer, concentration of pollutants in rivers remains high because of low amount of water which
unable to flow these pollutants.
• Water quality of national aquatic resources at 507 stations have been monitored by the Central Pollution
Control Board (CPCB), with the collaboration of State Pollution Control Boards.
• The analysis of data recorded from these stations shows that the major rivers of India are most polluted
by the organic and bacterial pollution.
• Yamuna river is most polluted river in the country between Delhi and Etawah. Other severely polluted
rivers are the Sabarmati at Allahabad, the Gomti at Lucknow, the Kali, the Adyar, the Cooum (at entire
stretches), the Vaigai at Madurai, Musi at Hyderabad and the Ganga at Kanpur and Varanasi.
• Ground water is also polluted because of high concentration of heavy toxic metals, flouride nitrates at
different parts of the country.
Legislative Provisions and Laws to Prevent River Pollution
• Government has taken various steps to minimise river and water pollution but due to some obstacles,
these were proved to be less effective, for e.g. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974,
and Environment Protection Act of 1986 were unsuccessful as in 1997, 251 polluting factories were
established along the rivers and lakes.
• The Water Cess Act of 1977 which was made to prevent pollution, was also less effective. So there is an
urgent need to create awareness in public about the importance of water in life. It will result in reducing
the pollutants from agricultural activities and industrial discharge.
Recycle and Reuse of Water
• Recycle and reuse is a simple and best way to conserve fresh water and make it available for all.
• Industries can use water of low quality and their waste water for cooling and fire fighting, which can
decrease the cost of water for them and conserve fresh water.
• Water could be collected after bathing and washing utensils, washing clothes and cars can be a better
option for gardening.
• Today, reusing and recycling of water is limited to few people but there is enormous scope for
replenishing water through recycling.
Watershed Management
Watershed management basically refers to efficient management and conservation of surface water.
Watershed management includes:
1. ground water resources.

2. prevention of surface runoff.
3. storage and recharge of ground-water by different methods such as percolation tanks, recharge wells,
etc.
4. the conservation, regeneration and judicious use of all natural resources (land, water, plants and
animals) and human resources.
5. create a balance among natural elements as well as in society.
6. community participation is a key to success of a Watershed Development programme.
There are various Watershed Development and management programmes started by both Central
and State Government at national and state level in India like:
• Haryali It is sponsered by the central government while gram panchayats of different villages execute it
with the public participation. This programme enabled people to conserve water for various uses such as
drinking,, irrigation, fisheries and afforestation.
• Neeru-Meeru (Water and You) Programme in Andhra Pradesh and Arvary Pani Sansad (in Alwar,
Rajasthan)are examples of state initiated watershed development programmes.
Under these two programmes numerous percolation tanks, dug out ponds (johad), check dams, etc
were constructed for harvesting water with the help of public participation. Tamil Nadu is only state
which has made the construction of water harvesting structures compulsory in the houses.
The construction of a building without the structure of water harvesting is not allowed. Despite having
such programmes, still most of the people in India are not aware with the benefits of watershed
development and managment of water. Thus, there is a need to encourage more people to participate
in this programme.
Rain Water Harvesting

Rain water harvesting is a cheap and environmental friendly technique that guides us to store
rainwater into bore wells, pits and also recharge groundwater aquifers for different uses. There are
various benefits of rainwater harvesting which are as follows:
1. It increases.water availability.
2. Checks the declining groundwater level.
3. It improves the quality of groundwater by dilution of pollutions like fluoride and nitrates.
4. It prevents soil erosion and flooding.
5. It can be used to arrest salt water intrusion in coastal areas, if used to recharge aquifers.
There are numerous methods to harvest rain water in India. In traditional rain water harvesting
techniques, water is usually collected in any surface water body i.e. lakes, ponds, irrigation tanks, etc
of rural areas. Another technique is kund or tanka which is a covered storage under ground tank. This
technique is widely used in Rajasthan. Rain water harvesting structure can be made on the open
spaces and even on the roof tops of the houses and the collected water can be used for domestic use
by large number of people and reduce their dependence on ground water.
Other Methods
• To solve the problem of water scarcity, we can use brackish water of arid, semi-arid and coastal areas
after the desalinised processes.
• By interlinking of rivers, water can be transferred from the water surplus areas to water deficit areas.
Highlights of India’s National Water Policy, 2002
• The National water Policy, 2002 stipulates water allocations priorities broadly in the following order i.e.
drinking water, irrigation, hydro-power, navigation, industrial and other uses.
• The main objectives of this policy are to provide water to all human beings and animals, regular
monitoring of surface and ground water quality, create awareness of water as a scarce resource, create
conservation consciousness among people through education, regulation, incentives and disincentives,
etc.
12 Notes Chapter 17 Mineral and Energy
Resources
Types of Mineral Resources
Mineral are classified on the basis of their physical and chemical properties which are as follows:
Metallic Minerals
These minerals are rich in metals e.g. copper, bauxite, iron, manganese, etc. These are of two types:
• Ferrous Minerals These are rich in iron contents and an important source of iron.
• Non-Ferrous Minerals These do not have iron content and have highest proportion of other metals. For
e.g. copper, bauxite, etc.
Non-Metallic Minerals
These minerals do not have contents of metals. They are classified into two groups:
• Organic Minerals These are made up of organic matter of buried animal and plants. For e.g, coal,
petroleum.
• Inorganic Minerals These are inorganic in nature of origin. For e.g. Mica, limestone, graphite, etc.
Characteristics of Minerals Resources

The main characteristics of minerals are as follows:
1. Their distribution over the earth surface are uneven.

2. There is inverse relationship in quantity and quality of minerals i.e. good quality minerals are less in
quantity as compared to low quality minerals.
3. Minerals are exhaustible. Once they used can not replenished immediately at the time of need. So,
minerals have to be conserved and used judiciously.
Distribution of Minerals in India
• Most of metallic minerals in India occur in the Peninsular Plateau region in the old crystalline rocks.
• River valleys of Damodar, Sone, Mahanadi and Godavari have over 97% of coal reserves in India.
• Sedimentary basins of Assam and offshore region in the Arabian Sea (Gujarat and Mumbai High) are
famous for their crude petroleum reserves.
• New reserves of petroleum also have been found in the basins of Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri.
• Most of the’major mineral resources occur to the east of a line linking Mangalore and Kanpur.
• Minerals are generally concentrated in three broad belts in India.
There may be some sporadic occurrences here and there in isolated pockets. These belts are:
The North-Eastern Plateau Region
• This belt includes the regions of Chotanagpur (Jharkhand), Odisha Plateau, West Bengal and parts of
Chhhattisgarh.
• Important minerals are iron ore, coal, manganese, bauxite and mica.
• Due to availability of these minerals, most of the iron and steel industries are located here.
The South-Western Plateau Region
• This belt extends to lower Karnataka, Goa and contiguous uplands of Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
• Ferrous metals and bauxite are concentrated here along with high grade iron ore, manganese and
limestone. This belt is rich in coal packs except neyveli lignite.
• Neyveli has lignite coal deposit. Deposits of monazite sand and thorium are found in Kerala.
• Mines of iron-ore are located in Goa.
The North-Western Regions
• Minerals of this belt are associated with Dharwar system of rocks which are found in the Rajasthan and
parts of Gujarat.
• Major minerals are copper and zinc. Rajasthan is rich in building stones i.e. sandstone, granite, marble,
fuller’s earth and gypsum.
• Some cement industries are also concentrated here due to availability of dolomite and limestone which
are the raw materials of these industries.
• Gujarat is rich in petroleum deposits. Salt is also produced in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
Other Areas/Regions
• Both Eastern and Western parts of the Himalayan belt have minerals like copper, lead, zinc, cobalt and
tungsten.
• Assam Valley has mineral oil deposits. Besides, oil resources are also found in off-shore areas near
Mumbai Coast (Mumbai High).
Spatial Pattern of Metallic Minerals

Spatial pattern of some of the important minerals are as follow:
Ferrous Minerals
• India is well placed in respect of ferrous minerals like iron-ore, manganese, chromite, etc.
• These minerals provide a strong base for the development of metallurgical industries.
Iron ore
India has largest iron ore reserves in Asia. Its superior quality of hematite and magnetic iron-ore have
a great demand in International market. Iron ore mines of India are found near the coal fields of
North-Eastern Plateau region which is an advantage for iron-ore industries of India. During 2004-05,
India has about 20 billion tonnes of iron-ore reserves. Few Indian states have about 95% of total iron-
ore reserves in India.
These states are:
• Odisha The important mines are located at Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj and Jhar. Gurumahisani, Sulaipet,
Badampahar in Mayurbhanj and Kiruburce and Bonai (Sundergarh) have important mines. Jharkhand It
has oldest mines in India. Important mines are Noamundi and Gua in Poorbi and Paschimi Singhbhum
districts.
• Chhattisgarh The mine belt further extended to Durg, Dantewada, Bailadiala, Dalli and Rajhara.
• Karnataka Important mines are Sundar-Hospet area of Bellary distict, Baba Budan hills and
Kundremukh in Chikmogalur Tumkur districts,
• Maharashtra Important iron-ore deposits are located in Chandrapur, Bhandara and Ratnagiri districts.
• Andhra Pradesh Important areas of iron ore are Karimnagar Warangal, Kumool, Cuddapah and
Anantpur districts.
• Others These include Salem and Nilgiris Districts of Tamil Nadu state and Goa state.
Manganese
It is an important raw material which is used in iron and steel industry for smelting of iron-ore and in
the manufacturing of ferro alloys.
It is mainly associated with Dharwar system but found almost in all geological formations. Important
states are:
• Odisha It is the largest manganese producer of India. The central part of the iron-ore belt of India has
most of the manganese mines of Odisha. Important mines are located in the districts of Bonai,
Kendujhar, Sundargarh, Gangpur, Koraput, Kalahandi and Bolangir.
• Karnataka Dharwar, Bellary, Belgaum, North Canara, Chikmagalur, Shimoga, Chiradurg and Tumkur.
• Maharashtra The main disadvantage of its mines are that these are located away from iron and steel
plants. Nagpur, Bhandara and Ratnagiri have manganese mines.
• Madhya Pradesh Balaghat, Chhindwara, Nimar, Mandla and Jhabua districts have manganese mines.
• Others Other producer states of manganese are Andhra Pradesh, Goa and Jharkhand.
Non-Ferrous Minerals
India has large deposits of bauxite but is lacking behind in other non-ferrous minerals.
Bauxite
It is the ore that used to manufacture aluminum and aluminium products.
It is found in laterite rocks mostly in the plateau or hilly regions of peninsular India and also in the
coastal areas. Important states are:
• Odisha It is the largest producer of bauxite and important producing areas are Kalahandi, Sambalpur,
Bolangir and Koraput.
• Jharkhand Pelands of Jharhand in Lohardage home rich deposits.
• Gujarat Bhavanagar and Jamnagar are important sites of bauxite.
• Chattisgarh Amarkanatak plateau region has large deposits of bauxite.
• Madhya Pradesh Katni-Jabalpur and Balaghat have important deposits of bauxite.
• Others Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Goa are other producers of bauxite.
Copper
It is alloyable, malleable and ductile and an indispensable metal in electrical industry used for making
wires, electric motors, transformers and generators.
It is also used to give strength in gold jewelleries. Important copper producing states are:
• Jharkhand Singbhum district

• Madhya Pradesh Balaghat
• Rajasthan Jhunjhunu and Alwar
• Andhra Pradesh Agnigundala in Guntur district
• Karnataka Chitradurg and Hasan
• Tamil Nadu South Arcot district
Non-Metallic Minerals
Limestone, dolomite, phosphate and mica are some non-metallic minerals produced in India. Mica is
the important among them while others are produced for domestic consumption.
Mica
Mica is mainly used in the electrical/electronic industries which can be split into very thin, strong and
flexible sheets.
Due to its resistance quality it is used in electricals and electronic industry. Important producer states
are:
• Jharkhand Hazaribagh plateau produces a high quality of mica.’

• Andhra Pradesh Nellore district is important producer of mica, it produces best quality mica.
• Rajasthan A 320 km long belt from Jaipur to Bhilwara near Udaipur produces mica.
• Karnataka Mysore and Hasan are important producers of mica.
• Others Coimbatore, Tiruchirapalli, Madurai and KanyaKumari (Tamil Nadu), Ratnagiri(Maharashtra),
Alleppey, (Kerala), Purulia and Bankura (West Bengal) are also known for mica deposits.
Energy Resources
All sectors of economy i.e. agriculture, industry, transport are run by power which comes from mineral
fuels whether conventional or non-conventional energy resources.
Conventional Sources of Energy

These are exhaustible in nature e.g. fossil fuels like coal, petroleum and natural gas.
Coal
• It is required in the generation of thermal power and smelting of iron-ore.

• India has about 80% of bituminous coal which is of non-cooking grade.
• It is found in two rock sequences i.e. Gondwana coal fields and tertiary coal fields.
Gondwana Coal Fields

Damodar Valley is the important coal field of India. Jharkhand and West Bengal coal have the entire
area of this coal field. Jharia (largest coal field), Raniganj (second fields largest), Bokaro, Giridih,
Karanpura are important coal fields of this valley. Other river valleys are Godavari, Mahanadi and
Sone.
Tertiary Coal Fields

Important states are:
Meghlaya Darangiri, Cherrapunji, Mewlong and Langrin (Meghalaya).
Assam Makum, Jaipur and Nazira in Upper Assam.
Arunachal Pradesh Namchik-Namphurk Jammu and Kashmir Kalakot Others Nagaland state
Other Coal Fields

Besides, the brown coal or lignite coal occurs in the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Gujarat
and Jammu and Kashmir.
Petroleum
Crude petroleum consists of hydrocarbons of liquid and gaseous states varying in chemical
composition, colour and specific gravity. It is used as a source of energy in all internal combustion
engines of automobiles, railways and aircrafts. It is also used as a raw material in petrochemical
industries to produce fertilizer, synthetic rubber, synthetic fibre, medicines, vaseline, lubricants, wax
soap and cosmetics, etc.
It is also called liquid gold due to the scarcity and different uses. Crude oil is found in sedimentary
rocks of tertiary age. Before independence, Digboi was the only crude oil producing region in India
but after independence in 1956, Oil and Natural Gas Commission was set up.
Important oil producing regions are:
• Assam Digboi, Naharkatiya and Moran.

• Gujarat and Mumbai High Ankaleshwar, Kalol, Mehasana, Nawagam, Kosamba and Lunej. Krishna,
Godavari and Kaveri basin also have Oil and Natural Gas reserves on the East coast of India.
There are two types of oil refineries in India:
• Field Based Refineries Digboi is an example of field based refinery.

• Market Based Refineries Barauni is an example of market based refinery. There are total 21 refineries
as on June 2011.
Natural Gas
• It occurs alongwith oil as well as separately in gas reserves in India.

• These gas reserves are located alongwith Eastern cost of Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tripura,
Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
• Gujarat and Maharashtra have off-shore wells of natural gas.
• According to a survey report, there are indications of huge gas reserves in Ramathanpuram in
Tamil/Nadu state.
Non-Conventional Energy Sources
• Unlike conventional sources of energy, non-conventional energy sources are renewable i.e. solar, wind,
hydro-geothermal and biomass and are not threat to natural system.
• Their use ensure sustainable development as these are environment friendly and cheaper energy
sources.
Nuclear Energy Sources
• Nuclear energy has emerged as a feasible source in recent times.

• Uranium and thorium are main minerals that are used to generate nuclear energy.
Uranium Deposits in India

It is found in Dharwar rock system. Important regions are:
• Jharkhand Singbhum (alongwith the copper belt)

• Rajasthan Udaipur, Alwar, Jhunjhunu districts.
• Chhattisgarh Durg district Maharastra Bhandara district.
• Himachal Pradesh Kullu district.
Thorium Deposits in India

It is found in very few places in India:
• Kerala (in monazite and ilmenitte beach sands) Plakkad and Kollam districts.
• Andhra Pradesh Vishakhapatnam.
• Odisha Mahanadi river delta
These three states have world’s richest monazite deposits. The development of nuclear energy was
started after establishment of Atomic Energy Institute at Trombay in 1954 which was renamed as the
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in 1967. Tarapur (Maharashtra), Rawatbhata near Kota
(Rajasthan), Kalapakkam (Tamil Nadu), Narora (Uttar Pradesh), Kaiga (Karnataka) and Kakarapara
(Gujarat) are other nuclear power sites in India.
Solar Energy
• Sun’s energy trapped by two methods i.e. photovoltaic cells and solar thermal technology and convert
into electricity is called solar energy.
• Its construction is easy, eco-friendly and cost competitive.
• It is 7% and 10% more effective than coal and oil based plants and nuclear energy, respectively.
• Heaters, dryers, cookers and other heating appliances use solar energy more than others.
• Gujarat, Rajasthan and the Western part of India have higher potential for the development of solar
energy.
Wind Energy
• Wind energy is non-polluting and renewable source. Through turbine mechanism, kinetic energy of wind
can be directly converted into electrical energy.
• Electricity can be produced by permanent wind systems like trade wind, westerlies or seasonal winds
like monsoon winds. Besides, production of electricity can also be done by local winds, land and sea
breezes.
• India already has started generating wind energy to lessen the burden of oil import bill. It is
estimated that India has 50000 megawatts potential of wind generation, of which one-fourth may be
easily employed.
• Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka have higher potential for the development of wind
energy.
Tidal and Wave Energy
• Ocean currents are the store house of infinite energy. Large tidal waves are known to occur along the
west coast of India.
• Many efforts for the efficient use of oceanic tides and waves were made since 17th and 18th century.
• But these waves have not yet been utilised properly because of lack of technology’.
Geothermal Energy
• Magma that comes over the earth’ surface releases vast amount of heat. This heat energy can be
converted into electrical energy by tapping it. It is called
geothermal energy
• Main sources of this energy are magma, hot spring (hot water), hot geysers, etc.
• Geothermal energy is gaining importance and can be used as an alternative to conventional energy
sources.
• In India at Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh, a geothermal energy plant has been commissioned.
Bio-Energy
• Bio-energy refers to energy derived from biological products which includes agricultural residues,
municipal, industrial and other wastes.
• It can be converted into electricity or electrical energy, heat energy or gas for cooking food.
• This can also solve the problem of garbage and waste in urban areas because energy can also be
derived from these.
• It can contribute in improving economic life of rural peoples in developing countries, increasing
environmental problems like pollution, solid waste management, enhancing self-reliance and reducing
pressure on fuel wood.
• A project in OKHLA (Delhi) is an example that generates energy from municipal waste.
Conservation of Mineral Resources

There are some methods through which we can conserve mineral resources:
1. Adoption of renewable resources in place of exhaustible resources like solar power, wind, geothermal
energy can save our non-renewable resources.
2. Use of recycle scrap metals should be encouraged.
3. Use of substitutes for scarce metals may also reduce their consumption.
4. Export of strategic and scarce minerals must be reduced, so that the existing reserve may be used for a
longer period.
Class 12 Notes Chapter 18 Manufacturing
Industries
Types of Industries
There are various ways to classify industries:
On the basis of size capital investment and labour force employed:
1. Large scale industries

2. Medium scale industries
3. mall scale and cottage industries
On the basis of ownership:
1. Public sector industries

2. Private sector industries
3. Joint and cooperative sector
On the basis of use of finished goods:
1. Basic goods industries

2. Capital goods industries
3. Intermediate goods industries
4. Consumers goods industries
On the basis of raw materials used by them:
1. Agriculture based industries
2. Forest based industries
3. Mineral based industries
4. Industrially processed raw material based industries
On the basis of nature of the manufactured products:
1. Metallurgical industries
2. Mechanical engineering industries
3. Chemical and allied industries
4. Textiles industries
5. Food processing industries
6. Electricity generation
7. Electronics
8. Communication industries
Location of Industries
• Location of industries is determined by important factors i.e. raw materials, power resources, water,
labour, markets and the transport facilities.
• Raw materials and industries are inter-related to each other. Most of the manufacturing industries are
located at a place where cost of production and cost of delivery of finished goods are least.
• Nature of raw materials and finished goods decide the cost of transportation.
Factors of Industrial Location
The following factors influence the location of industries:
Raw materials
• Industries using raw materials which are perishable or lose weight in the process of manufacture are
usually located near the source of the raw materials.
• For example, sugar mills, pulp industries, copper smelting, pig iron industries, etc.
• Iron and steel industries are mostly located near coalfields (e.g. Bokaro, Durgapur ) or near source of
iron-ore (Bhadravati, Bhilai, Rourkela) as both iron-ore and coal lose their weight during the process of
manufacturing of steel.
Power
• Power is must for every industry so supply of power should be ensured before locating any industry. For
e.g. aluminum and synthetic nitrogen manufacturing industries.
Market
• Market is an important factor for market oriented industries as market provide outlets for manufactured
products like heavy machines, machine tools, heavy chemicals, to sell finished goods.
• For example, Petroleum refineries like Koyali, Mathura and Barauni are located near markets so that the
products derived from them can be used as raw material in other industries.
Transport
• It is important for the location of industries to move goods and labour from industrial area to markets and
others.
• For example, around Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata, the concentration of industries is maximum.
Labour
• It is another important factor of the location of industries.

• Due to our large population, labour is quite mobile and is available in large numbers.
Historical Factors
Colonial influence like competition from the British goods and the British discriminatory policies, are
also important reasons for the emergence of some of our industrial nodes (like, Mumbai, Kolkata and
Chennai) and manufacture centres (like Murshidabad, Dhaka, Bhadohi, Surat, Vadodara, Kozhikode,
Coimbatore, Mysore, etc).
Industrial Policy
1. To bring balanced regional development and to eradicate regional disparities in the economy, are the
main objectives of our democratic country.
2. India attempts to promote backward areas like tribal areas into economic development process by
providing lots of incentives. For example, establishment of iron and steel industry in Bhilai and Rourkela
were based on decision to develop backward tribal areas of the country.
Major Industries
Some of the major industries of our country are discussed below:
The Iron and Steel Industry
The iron and steel industry provides basic infrastructure to almost all sectors of the Indian industry.
The raw materials used in this industry, iron-ore, cooking coal, limestone, dolomite, manganese and
fire clay are found in parts of Chhattisgarh, Northern Odisha, Jharkhand and Western West Bengal.
This industry comprises of large integrated steel plants as well as mini steel mills and also includes
secondary producers, rolling mills and ancillary industries.
Some integrated steel plants are:
TISCO
The Tata Iron and Steel Plant lies near to Mumbai-Kolkata railway line and about 240 km away from
Kolkata which is nearest port for the export of steel. This industry gets its raw materials from different
source regions like:
1. Water supply from Subamarekha and Kharkai rivers.

2. Iron-ore from Noamundi and Badam Pahar.
3. Coal from Joda mines in Odisha.
4. Coking coal from coal fields of Jharia and West Bokaro.
IISCO
The first factory of the Indian Iron and Steel Company (IISCO) was set-up at Hirapur and another at
Kulti. In 1937, the steel corporation of Bengal was established in association with IISCO by setting up
another unit at Bunpur (West Bengal).
IISCO gets its raw materials from different source regions like:
1. Coal from Damodar valley coal fields (Raniganj, Jharia and Ramgarh).
2. Iron-ore from Singhbhum in Jharkhand.
3. Water supply from river Barakar (a tributary of Damodar river).
The Kolkata- Asansol railway line runs along the plants. Later in 1972-73, the government took over
the IISCO plant because of the fall of steel production.
Visvesvaraiya Iron and Steel Works Ltd. (VISL)

Initially named Mysore Iron and Steel Works, the VISL is located at the banks of Badravati in
Shimoga district of Karnataka. This plant produces specialised steels and alloys.
VISL gets raw materials from:
1. It gets iron ore from Kemangundi in the Bababudan hills, limestone and manganese from the local area.
2. water supply from the Bhadravati river.
3. Due to unavailability of coal in this region, at the beginning charcoal was used as fuel by burning wood
till 1951. Later, electric furnaces were installed which use hydroelectricity from the Jog falls hydel power
project.
During the second five years plan (1956-61), three new public sector integrated steel plants were set
up with foreign collaboration i.e. Rourkela in Odisha, Bhilai in Chhattisgarh and Durgapur in West
Bengal.
These were under Hindustan steel Limited (HSL). In 1973, the Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL)
was created to manage these plants.
Rourkela Steel Plant

This plant was established in 1959 in the Sundargarh district of Odisha in collaboration with Germany.
This plant gets its raw materials from different sources region like:
1. Coal from Jharia.

2. Iron-ore from Sundargarh and Kendujhar districts.
3. Hydro-electric power from Hirakud Power Project.
4. Water from Koel and Sankh rivers.
Bhilai Steel Plant

It was set up with Russian collaboration in Durg district of Chhattisgarh and started production in
1959.
It gets its raw material from different places like:
1. Coal from Korba and Kargali.

2. Water from Tanduladam.
3. Power from Korba thermal power station.
This plant is connected with Kolkata-Mumbai railway line. This plant supplies the bulk of steel to the
Hindustan Shipyard at Vishakhapatnam.
Durgapur Steel Plant
It was set up in .collaboration with the Government of United Kingdom in West Bengal and started
production in 1962.
It gets its raw material from the following places:
1. Coal from Jharia and Raniganj.

2. Iron-ore from Noamundi.
3. Water and hydel power from Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC).
It lies on the main Kolkata-Delhi railway route.
Bokaro Steel Plant

Bokaro steel plant was set up in 1964 with Russian collaboration at Bokaro. It aims at transport cost
minimisation by creating Bokaro-Roukela combine. The raw materials and their source regions are:
1. Iron-ore from Rourkela.

2. Water and Hydel power from Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC).
3. Other raw materials come from within a radius of about 350 km.
Other Steel Plants

In the Fourth Five Year Plan, three new steel plants were set up away from the main raw materials
sources, namely:
1. The Vizag Steel Plant in Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh is the first port based plant which started
operating in 1992.
2. The Vijayanagar Steel Plant at Hospet in Karnataka.
3. The Salem Steel Plant in Tamil Nadu was commissioned in 1982.
There are also more than 206 units in India which use scrap iron as main raw material and process it
in electric furnaces.
The Cotton Textile Industry

This industry is one of the traditional industries of India. The first successful modem cotton textile mill
was established in Mumbai in 1854. Beause, it is very close to the cotton producing areas of Gujarat
and Maharashtra and being a large town, provide employment opportunities to many people. After the
first mill, two more mills, the Shahpur mill and the Calico mill were established in Ahmedabad
(Gujarat). But, after partition, India was left with 409 mills out of 423 mills and only 29% of the cotton
progrowing area.
The cotton textile industry can be classified as organised and decentralised sectors. The
decentralised sector includes cloth produced in handlooms (including khadi) and powerlooms. On the
other hand, production of the organised sector has drastically fallen from 81% in the mid twentieth
century to only about 6% in 2000. Now powerlooms on the decentralised sector produce more than
the handloom sector. As cotton does not lose weight in the manufacturing process, hence the location
of cotton textile industry is determined by other factors like power supply, labour, capital or market.
At present, market is the most preferred factor to locate industry as market decides what is the
current trend of clothes. After first cotton textile mills were set up in Mumbai and Ahmedabad, the
cotton textile industry expanded very rapidly. Development of the railway network also contributed to
the expansion of mills. In southern India, mills were set up at Coimbatore, Madurai and Bangaluru.
In central India, mills were set up at Nagpur, Indore, Solapur and Vadodra. Mills were also set up at
Kanpur and Kolkata. Availability of hydel power favoured the setting up of cotton mills in Tamil Nadu.
Availability of cheap labour favoured the setting up of cotton mills at Ujjain, Bharuch, Agra, Hathras,
Coimbatore and Tirunelveli.
Distribution of Cotton Textile Industries
• In present time, important centres of cotton textile industries are Ahmedabad, Bhiwandi, Solapur,
Kolhapur, Nagpur, Indore and Ujjain. Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu are the leading cotton
producing states. West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, and Punjab are the other important cotton
textile producers.
• Tamil Nadu has largest number of mills and most of them produce yam rather than cloth. Coimbatore
accounts for 50% of total mills. Other important centres are Chennai, Madura, Tirunelveli, Tuticorin,
Thanjavur, Ramanathapuram and Salem.
• In Karnataka, Bengaluru, Hubli Devangera, Bellary, Mysore are some important centres.
• The cotton textile industry has developed in cotton producing Telangana region. The important centres
are Hyderabad, Secunderabad and Warangal in Telangana and Guntur in Andhra Pradesh.
• Most of the cotton textile industry has developed in the Western part of Uttar Pradesh. Kanpur is the
largest centre and known as Manchester of Uttar Pradesh. Other important centres are Agra, Modinagar,
Sahranpur, Lucknow and Hathras.
• In West Bengal, important centres are Kolkata, Serampur, Howrah and Shyamnagar.
• Cotton textile industry has been facing tough competition from synthetic cloth.
Sugar Industry
The sugar industry being the second largest agro-based industry in India, is the largest producer of
both sugar and sugarcane. It contributes about 8% of the total sugar production in the world.
The first sugar mill was established in 1903 in Bihar and then many mills were established in many
parts of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
This industry provides employment to more than 4 lakh persons and large number of farmers. It is a
seasonal Industry.
Location of the Sugar Industry

As sugarcane is a heavy, low value, weight losing and perishable raw material, thus sugar factories
are located mostly in sugarcane growing regions.
Maharashtra has emerged as a leading sugar producer in the country and produces more than one-
third of the total production of the sugar in the country. Uttar Pradesh is now the second largest
producer of sugar.
There are two belts where sugar factories are located:
• The Ganga-Yamuna Doab Saharanpur, Muzaffamagar, Meerut, Ghaziabad, Baghpat and Bulandshar
districts.
• Tarai region Lakhimpur Kheri, Basti, Gonda, Gorakhpur, Bahraich distiricts.
Sugar producing States

Tamil Nadu has sugar factories in Coimbatore, Vellore, Tiruvanamalai, Villupuram and
Tiruchchirappalli districts.
In Karnataka, the important sugar producers are Belgaum, Bellary, Mandya, Shimoga, Bijapur, and
Chitradurg.
The industry is distributed in the coastal regions i.e. East Godavari, West Godavari, Vishakhapatnam
districts and Nizamabad, and Medak districts of Telangana alongwith Chittoor district or Rayalseema.
Other sugar producing states are:
• Bihar Saran, Champaran, Muzaffarpur, Si wan, Dharbanga, Gaya.

• Punjab Gurdaspur, Jalandhar, Sangarur, Patiala, Amritsar.
• Haryana Yamuna Nagar, Rohtak, Hissar, Faridabad.
• Gujarat Sugar industry is comparatively new here. Important sugar producing mills are located in Surat,
Junagarh, Rajkot, Amreli, Valsad and Bhavnagar districts.
Petrochemical Industries
This group of industries has been growing very fast in India. The demand of its products is very high
since 1960s. Many items are derived from crude petroleum, which provide raw materials for many
new industries, these are collectively known as petrochemical industries.
Petrochemical industries are divided into four sub-groups:
1. Polymers
2. Synthetic fibres
3. Elastomers
4. Surfactant intermediate
Distribution of Petrochemical Industries Mumbai is the hub of the petrochemical industries. Other
cracker units are at Auraiya (Uttar Pradesh), Jamnagar, Gandhinagar and Hajira (Gujarat),
Nogothane, Ratnagiri (Maharashtra), Haldia (West Bengal) and Vishakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh).
There are three organisations which are working in the petrochemical sector under the administrative
control of the department of chemicals and petrochemicals:
• Indian Petrochemical Corporation Limited It is a public sector undertaking and responsible for the
manufacturing and distribution of the polymers, chemicals, fibres and fibre intermediates.
• Petrofies Cooperative Limited (PCL) It is a joint venture of the government of India and weaver’s
cooperative societies. It has two plants at Vadodara and Maldhari where polyester filament yam and
nylon chips are produced.
• Central Institutes of Plastic Engineering and Technology (CIPET) It is involved in imparting training
in petrochemical industry.
Sub-Groups of Petrochemical Industries

Polymers are made from ethylene and propylene which are obtained after refining crude oil. It
provides the basic raw material for plastic industry which are preferred because of their strength,
flexibility, water and chemical resistance and low prices.
The National Organic Chemical Industries Limited (NOCIL) established in 1961 and started first
naphtha based chemical industry in Mumbai. The major producers of plastic materials are Mumbai,
Barauni, Mettur, Pimpri and Rishra.
About 75% of these units are in small scale sector. The industry also uses recycled plastics which
constitutes about 30% of the total production. Synthetic fibres are widely used in the manufacturing of
fabrics because of their durability, washability and resistance to shrinkage.
The important fibres and their producing centres are Nylon and Polyester industries at Kota, Pimpri,
Mimbai, Modinagar, Pune, Ujjain, Nagpur and Udhna and Acrylic Staple Fibre Industries at Kota and
Vadodara.
Now, plastic has emerged as greatest threat to our environment because of its non-biodegradable
quality.
Knowledge Based Industries
• The IT and IT enabled business process outsourcing (ITES-BPO) services continue to grow with an
outstanding rate.
• A number of software park have been created by the government and the production of the software
industries has surpassed electronic hardware production.
• The contribution of the IT software and services industry in India’s GDP is about 2%.
• Most of the multinational companies in IT field has re-established software or research development
centres in India.
• In hardware development sector, India has yet not achieved so much but in IT sector, it creates double
employment rate every year.
Liberalisation, Privatisation, Globalisation (LPG) and Industrial Development in India

The new industrial policy was annouced in 1991 with the following objectives:
1. To build on the gains already made.

2. Correct the distortions or weaknesses that have crept in.
3. Maintain a sustained growth in productivity, and gainful employment.
4. Attain international competitiveness.
Following were the policy measures taken under LPG:
1. Abolition of industrial licensing.

2. Free entry to foreign technology.
3. Foreign Investment Policy
4. Access to capital market.
5. Open trade
6. Abolition of phased manufacturing programme.
7. Liberalised industrial location programme.
The policy has three main dimensions Liberalisation, Privatisation, and globalisation. Except six
industries based on security, strategic or environmental concerns, for all industries the licensing
system has been abolished. The number of industries reserved for public sector since 1956 have
been reduced from 17 to 4. Department of atomic energy as well as railways have remained under
the public sector. For investment in delicensed sector no prior approval is required. Foreign Direct
Investment (FDI) became supplement to domestic investment in achieving a higher level of economic
development in this policy. The industrial policy has been liberalised to attract private investor both
domestic and multi-nationals.
Globalisation refers to the integration of the country’s economy with the world economy. There is free
flow of goods and services, labours, capitals from one nation to another. Globalisation aimed at
increasing domestic and external competition through market mechanism and facilitating dynamic
relationship with the foreign investors and suppliers of technology.
In Indian context, globalisation has following objectives:
• Opening of the economy to foreign direct investment by providing facilities to foreign companies to invest
in different fields of economic activities in India.
• Removing restrictions and obstacles to the entry of multi-national companies in India.
• Allowing Indian companies to enter into foreign collaboration in India and also encouraging them to set
up joint ventures abroad.
• Carrying out massive import liberalisation programmes by switching over from quantitative restrictions to
tariffs in the first place and then bringing down the level of import duties considerably.
• Instead of a set of export incentives, opting for exchange rate adjustments for promoting export.
Adverse Effect of LPG
• Infra structural sector was remained untouched while major share went to core sectors.
• The gap between developed and developing states has became wider and inter-regional disparity has
been increased, e.g. out of total investment from 1991-2000, one fourth (23%) was for Maharashtra,
17% for Gujarat, 7% for Andhra Pradesh about 6% for Tamil Nadu, and only 8 % for Uttar Pradesh.
Thus, the share of both domestic and foreign investment went to already developed states. Share of
both domestic and foreign investment went to already developed states.
• Economically weaker states could not compete with developed states in open market in attracting
industrial investment.
Industrial Regions In India

Due to favourable factors, most of the industries are located in a few pockets. The pockets having
high concentration of industries are known as industrial clusters.
Several indices are used to identify the clustering of industries, important among them are:
1. the number of industrial units

2. number of industrial workers
3. quantum of power used for industrial purposes
4. total industrial output
5. value added by manufacturing
Industrial Regions and Districts
Major industrial Regions
1. Mumbai-Puna region
2. Hugli region
3. Bengaluru, Tamil Nadu region
4. Gujarat region
5. Chotanagpur region
6. Vishakhapatnam-Guntur region
7. Gurugram-Delhi-Meerut region
8. Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram region
Minor Industrial Regions
1. Ambala-Amritsar
2. Saharanpur-Muzaffarnagar-Bijnor
3. Indore-Dewas Ujjain
4. Jaipur-Ajmer
5. Kolhapur-South Kannada
6. Northern Malabar
7. Middle Malabar
8. Adilabad-Nizamabad
9. Allahabad-Varanasi-Mirzapur
10. Bhojpur-Munger
11. Durg-Raipur
12. Bilaspur-Korba
13. Brahmaputra valley
Industrial Districts
1. Kanpur
2. Hyderabad
3. Agra
4. Nagpur
5. Gwalior
6. Bhopal
7. Lucknow
8. Jalpaiguri
9. Cuttack
10. Gorakhpur
11. Aligarh
12. Kota
13. Purnia
14. Jabalpur
15. Bareilly
Major industrial regions of India are as follows:
Mumbai-Pune Industrial Region
It extends from Mumbai-Thane to Pune and in adjoining districts of Nashik and Solapur. Besides,
Kolaba, Ahmednagar, Satara, Sangli and Jalagaon districts also have industries.
Factors which favoured the location of this region are:
1. Development of cotton textile industry in Mumbai.

2. Opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 gave impetus to Mumbai port.
3. Machineries were possible to import through this port.
4. Development of hydro-electricity in Western Ghat region.
Later, a number of industries were developed like chemical industry, Mumbai High petroleum field,
nuclear energy plants, engineering goods, petrochemicals, leather, drugs, fertilizers, shipbuilding
software, transport equipments and food industries, etc. Important industrial centres are Mumbai,
Kolaba, Kalyan, Thane, Trombay, Pune, Pimpri, Nashik, Manmad, Solapur, Kolhapur, Ahmednagar,
Satara and Sangli.
Hugli Industrial Region

Located along the Hugli river, this region extends from Bansberia in the north to Birlanagar in the t
south and in Mednipur in the west.
Factors which are responsible for the location of industries here are:
1. Opening of river port on Hugli river.

2. Kolkata emerged as a leading centre and connected with interior parts by railway lines and road routes.
3. Development of tea plantations in Assam and northern hills of West Bengal.
4. Opening of coalfields of the Damodar valley and iron-ore .deposits of the Chotanagpur plateau.
5. The processing of indigo earlier and jute later.
6. Availability of labour from Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradesh and Odisha.
7. Kolkata attracted British capital as it was the capital city of the Britishers.
8. The establishment of first jute mill at Rishra in 1855 ushered in the era of modem industrial clustering in
this region.
9. Location of petroleum refinery at Haldia has ’ facilitated the development of a variety of industries here.
The major concentration of jute industry is at Haora and Bhatapara. Important industries are cotton
textile, jute, paper, engineering, textile machinery, electrical, chemical, pharmaceuticals, fertiliser and
petrochemical industries.
Factory of the Hindustan motors limited at Konnagar and diesel engine factory at Chittaranjan are
landmarks of this region. The major industrial centres are Kolkata, Haora, Haldia, Serampur, Rishra,
Shippur, Naihati, Kakinara, Shamnagar, Titagarh, Sodepur, Budge Budge, Birlanagar, Bansberia,
Belgurriah, Triveni, Hugli, Belur, etc.
Bengaluru (Bangalore} Chennai Industrial Region
• It is spread over all the districts of Tamil Nadu except Viluppuram.

• Its development is dependent on the Pykara hydro-electric plant, which was built in 1932.
• Cotton textile industry was the first to take roots due to the presence of cotton growing areas.
• Heavy engineering industries are located at Bengaluru.
• Aircraft (HAL), machine tools, telephone (HTL) and Bharat Electronics are industrial landmarks of this
region.
• Important industries are textiles, rail wagons, diesel engines, radio, light engineering goods, rubber
goods, medicines, aluminium, sugar, cement, glass, paper, chemicals, film, cigarette, matchbox, leather
goods, etc.
• Petroleum refinery at Chennai, iron and steel plant at Salem and fertilizer plants are recent
developments.
Gujarat Industrial Region

The place for the basis for its activity growth lies between Ahmedabad & Vadodara but this region
Extends up to valsad & Surat in the South & to Jamnagar in the west.
Location factors of industries in this region are:
1. Decline of the cotton textile industry at Mumbai.

2. This region is located in cotton growing area, hence raw material and market are easily available.
3. The discovery of oil fields led to the establishment of petrochemical industries around Ankushwar,
Vadodara, Jamnagar .
4. Development of Kandla port.
5. Petroleum refinery at Koyali.
Important industries are textiles (cotton, silk, synthetic, fabrics), petrochemical industries, heavy and
basic chemicals, motor, tractor, diesel engines, textile, machinery, engineering, pharmaceuticals,
dyes, pesticides, sugar, dairy products and food processing. Recently, largest petroleum refinery has
been set up at Jamnagar. Important industrial centres are Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Bharuch, Koyali,
Anand, Khera, Surendranagar, Rajkot, Surat, Valsed, Jamnagar.
Chotanagpur Region
This extends over Jharkhand, Northern Odisha and West Bengal. The region is well known for its
heavy metallurgical industries.
Factors which are favourable for the location of industries here are:
1. Discovery of coal in the Damodar valley.

2. Metallic and non-metallic minerals in Jharkhand and northern Odisha.
3. Thermal and hydro-electric plants in the Damodar valley.
4. Cheap labour from surrounding regions,
5. Hugli provides vast market for its industries.
Important industries are heavy engineering, machine tools, fertilizers, cement, paper, locomotives,
and heavy electricals. Important centres are Ranchi, Dhanbad, Chaibasa, Sindri, Hazaribag,
Jamshedpur, Bokaro, Rourkela, Durgapur, Asansol and Dalmianagar.
Vishakhapatnam-Guritur Region
This region extends from Vishakhapatnam to Kumool and Prakasam districts in the South.
Important locational factors are:
1. Presently Vishakhapatnam and Machilipatnam ports, developed agriculture and rich reserves of minerals
in their hinterlands.
2. Coal fields of Godavari basin.
3. Presence of petroleum refineries.
Guntur district has one lead-zine smelter. Important industries are sugar, textile, jute, paper, fertiliser,
cement, aluminium and light engineering. Important centres are Vishakhapatnam,Vijayawada,
Vijayanagar, Rajahmundry, Guntur, Eluru and Kumool.
Gurugram-Delhi-Meerut Region
• The industries of this region are light and market oriented as this region is far located from mineral and
power resources.
• Important’industries are electronics, light engineering, electrical goods, cotton, woollen and synthetic
fabrics, hosiery sugar, cement, machine tools, tractor, cycle, vanaspati, etc.
• Software industry is recently developed.
• Important industrial centres are Guru gram (Gurgaon), Delhi, Shahdara, Faridabad, Meerut, Modinagar,
Ghaziabad, Ambala, Agra and Mathura.
Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram Region
• Important industrial centres are Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alwaye, Emakulam, Punalur, and
Alappuzha districts.
• It is away from mineral belt of India, so agricultural products processing and market oriented light
industries predominate the region.
• Important industries are cotton textile, sugar, rubber, matchbox, glass, chemical fertilizers, fish-based
industries, food processing, paper, coconut coir products, aluminium and cement.
Class 12 Notes Chapter 19 Planning and
Sustainable Development in Indian Context
Approaches of Planning
There are two approaches of planning which are as follows:
• Sectoral Planning Approach In this approach, the development of various sectors of economy, e.g.
agriculture, irrigation, manufacturing, power, construction, transport, communication, social infrastructure
and services, etc, are are taken into consideration to which various sets of schemes or programmes are
to be formulised and implemented.
• Regional Planning Approach In this approach, the main emphasis is on to draw such plans which may
help to reduce regional disparities and bring uniform economic development.
Target Area Planning

The core focus of planning process is in promoting economically backward areas. It is important that
for proper economic development of a region, there is a need of resource base as well as technology
and investment simultaneously, because sometimes resources rich regions also remain backward.
After having about one and half decade planning experience, it is realised that our economic
development is still facing the regional imbalances. In order to encounter both regional and social
disparities, the Planning Commission introduced the ‘Target area’ and ‘target group approaches’ to
planning.
Some of the programmes which are directed towards the development of these two approaches are
as follows:
Target Area Programmes

Target area has the following programmes such as:
1. Command Area Development programme

2. Drought Prone Area Development Programme
3. Desert Development Programme
4. Hill Area Development Programme
Target Group Programmes

Target groups has the following programmes such as:
1. The Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA)

2. Marginal Farmers Development Agency (MFDA)
In the Eighth Five Year Plan, hill areas, North-Eastern states, tribal areas and backward areas were
taken into consideration in order to develop special area programmes.
Planning Related to Area Development Programme

Hill Area Development Programme
• It covers 15 districts comprising all the hilly districts of Uttar Pradesh (present Uttarakhand), Mikir hill and
North Cachar hills of Assam, Darjiling district of West Bengal and Nilgiri district of Tamil Nadu. It was
stated in Fifth five year plan.
• It was recommended in 1981, by the National committee on the Development of Backward Area, that the
hill areas having a height above 600 m and not covered under tribal sub-plan be treated as backward hill
areas.
The aims of Hill Area Development Programmes are as follows:
1. Development of horticulture, plantation agriculture, animal husbandry, poultry, forestry and small scale
and village industry were the main objectives of the programme through which exploitation of local
resources may become possible.
2. The detailed plans were based on topographical, ecological, economic and social conditions of the hill
areas.
Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP)

This programme was started during the Fourth Five Year Plan. The main objectives of Drought Prone
Area Programme are as follows:
1. This plan mainly emphasised on generating employment opportunities to the people of drought prone
areas along with creating productive assets.
2. Besides, irrigation projects, land development programmes, afforestation, grassland development and
creation of basic rural infrastructure such as rural electrification, roads, market, credit and services were
also its main priorities.
3. The National Committee on Development of Backward Areas found that this programme was mostly
confined to the development of agriculture and allied sectors along with restoration of ecological balance.
4. The society due to burden of population was bound to utilise the marginal lands for agriculture and as a
result led ecological degradation.
Thus, it was observed that there is an urgent need to generate alternative employment opportunities
in these regions.
Drought Prone Regions
• There are 67 districts (entire or partly) in India identified by planning commission (1967) as drought
prone regions.
• Irrigation commission (1972), demarcated the drought affected areas and also introduced the criterion of
30% irrigated land.
• These areas are semi-arid and arid tract of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Western Madhya Pradesh, Marathwada,
region of Maharashtra, Rayalseema and Telangana plateaus of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka plateau and
Higlands and interior parts of Tamil Nadu.
Due to the advancement in irrigation facilities, Haryana, Punjab and Northern Rajasthan have
become protected regions.
Integrated Tribal Development Project in Bharmaur Region
• The region lies between 32° 111 N and 32° 41′ N latitudes and 76° 22′ E and 76° 53′ E longitudes.
Spread over an area of about 1818 sq km, the region mostly lies between 1500 m to 3700 m above the
mean sea level.
• This region popularly known as the homeland of Gaddis and is surrounded by lofty mountains on all
sides. It has Pir Panjal in the North and Dhaula Dhar in the South. In the east, the extension of Dhaula
Dhar converges with Pir Panjal near Rohtang pass.
• The river Ravi and its tributaries, the Budhil and the Tundahen, drain this territory and carve out deep
gorges.
• These rivers divide the region into four physiographic divisions called Holi, Khani, Kugti and Tundah
areas. Bharmaurs experiences freezing weather conditions and snowfall in winter. It means monthly
temperature in January remains 4°C and in July 26°C.
Area and Life of People in Bharmaur
The area and life of people of Bharmaur region are as follows:
1. The tribal area covers Bharmaur and Holi tehsils of Chamba district of Himachal Pradesh.
2. It is one of the most backward area economically as well as socially in Himachal Pradesh and also a
notified tribal region since 21st November,
1975.
3. The area is occupied by a tribal group of community named ‘Gaddi’, who practised transhumance and
speak ‘Gaddiali’ dialect.
4. According to 2001 census, the total population of the area was 39113 i.e. 21 persons per sq km.
5. People of the area face major problems as the economy is mostly affected by its harsh climate, low
resource base and fragile environment.
Economy in the Area of Bharmaur

Traditionally, subsistence agriculture-cum-pastoral activities such as growing food grains and animal
husbandry like sheep and goat are the main activities of these people.
Integrated Tribal Development Project (ITDP)
• In 1970s, Gaddis were included in the list of scheduled tribes and in the same period the development
process of tribal area of this region started.
• Later in 1974 under the Fifth Five Year Plan, the tribal sub-plan was introduced and Bharmaur was
designed as one of the five Integrated Tribal Development Project (ITDP) in Himachal Pradesh.
Aims and priorities of the Intergrated Tribal Development Project are as follows:
1. Improving the quality of life of the Gaddis.

2. Narrowing the gap in the level of development between Bharmaur and other districts of Himachal
Pradesh.
3. The highest priority was on development of transport and communications, agriculture and allied
activities as well as social and community services.
The main achievements of the tribal sub-plan are as follows:
Infrastructural Facilities
Infrastructural facilities of tribal sub-plan are as follows:
1. Development of infrastructure i.e schools, health care facilities, potable water, roads, communications
and electricity supply.
2. Villages located along the river Ravi in Holi and Khani areas are main beneficiaries infrastructural
development.
Social Benefits
Social benefits of tribal sub-plan are as follows:
1. There are tremendous increase in literacy rate, e.g, the female literacy rate in the region increased from
1.88% in 1971 to 65% in 2011.
2. Decline in gender inequality i.e. between male and female literacy rate.
3. Improvement in sex-ratio.
4. Decline in child marriage.
Economic Benefits
As the Gaddis had practiced traditionally, subsistence agriculture cum-pastroral economy, later on
during the last three decades of twentieth century, pulses and other cash crops became one of the
main crops of the region.
Some Shortcomings to ITDP
1. In terms of infrastructural facilities, the remote villages in Tundah and Kugti areas are still remained
unaffected.
2. The technology is still traditional in nature.
3. The importance of pastoralism has been decreasing day-by-day as only about one tenth of the total
households practice transhumance.
4. But, still a sizeable portion of the Gaddis migrate to Kangra and its Fringing Zone in order to earn living
from wage labour during cold season.
Overview of Planning Perspective in India
India has centralised planning and the Planning Commission has been assigned to administer the
functions of planning in India.
Being a statutory body, Planning Commission is headed by the Prime Minister and has a Deputy
Chairman and members. Five year plans are responsible to carry out the planning in India which are
as follows:
• The First Five Year Plan launched in 1951 and covered the period, 1951-52 to 1955-56.
• Second and Third Five Year Plans covered the period from 1956-57 to 1960-61 and 1961-62 to 1965-
1966, respectively.
• Two successive droughts during mid sixties (1965-66 and 1966-67) and war with Pakistan in 1965 forced
plan Holiday in 1966-67 and 1968-69. This period was covered by annual plans which are also termed
as rolling plans.
• The Fourth Five Year Plan began in 1969-70 and ended in 1973-74.
• Following this the Fifth Five Year Plan began in 1974-75, but it was terminated by the government one
year earlier i.e. in 1977-78.
• The Sixth Five Year Plan took off in 1980.
• The Seventh Five Year Plan covered the period between 1985 and 1990.
• Once again, due to the political instability and initiation of liberalisation policy, the Eighth Five Year Plan
got delayed. It covered the period from 1997 to 2002.
• The Tenth Five Year Plan began in 2002 and ended in 2007.
• The Eleventh Five Year Plan started in 2007 and ended in 2012. It was entitled ” Towards faster and
more inclusive growth”.
• The Twelfth Five Year Plan in 2012 and it is still in progress. It will come to an end in 2017.
Sustainable Development
• In the 1960, this was the period when people throughout the world were much concerned about the
environmental issues because of undesirable effects of industrial development and thus, the concept of
sustainable development emerged in western world.
• This level of fear among environmentalists and common people reached at its peak with the publication
of The population Bomb’ by Ehrlich in 1968 and ‘The Limits to Growth’ by Meadows
Aims of Sustainable
Development
• The main aim of sustainable development is to take care of economic, social and ecological spheres of
development during the present times as well as conserve all the resources in such a manner that these
can be retain for future generations.
• So, there is a need of changing our attitude towards nature as well as economic development.
Concept of Development
• Development is a dynamic concept and has evolved in the second half of twentieth century, used to
describe the state of particular societies and the process of changes experienced by them.
• In early human history, the main criteria of determination of a society’s state was the interaction process
between human societies and their bio-physical environment.
• Societies helped in the development of various levels of technology and institutions upon which human-
environment process depend.
• These have helped in increasing the pace of human environment interaction, therefore, the momentum
generated and festinated technological progress and transformation and creation of institutions.
• After the period of World War II, the two important terms i.e. development and economic growth
considered as one concept. But due to unequal distribution, a faster rate of growth in poverty is
experienced by even the developed nations having high economic growth.
• Then, redistribution with growth and ‘growth and equity’ broaden the term development in 1970s. Now,
the concept of development not only restricted to economic sphere alone, but also incorporates balance
and equality among people in term of welfare and quality of life of people, health education and other
facilities, equal opportunity to all and ensuring political and civil rights.
• Hence, the concept of development has become multi-dimensional and stands for postive, irreversible
transformation of the economy, society and environment.
World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED)
• The United Nations established a World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), after
concerning the opinion of world community on the environmental issues.
• The WCED was headed by the Norwegian Prime Minister, Gro Harlem Brundtland. The commission
gave its report entitled ‘Our Common Future’ in 1987, also known as Brundtland Report.
• In this report, ‘sustainable development’ took into consideration and defined as ‘A development that
meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs’.
Measures for Promotion of Sustainable Development

As we have seen that this project has affected the ecological sustainablity and physical environment
of the region badly. So, attaining the goal of sustainable development in command area requires such
measures that can achieve ecological, social and economic sustainabality, simultaneously.
Hence, five of the seven measures have been proposed in this respect such as:
1. Rigorous implementation of water management policy is the first and foremost requirement of this
project. Stage I and Stage II comprising of protective irrigation and extensive irrigation for crops and
pasture development, respectively according to the canal project.
2. By and large water intensive crops shall be avoided and plantation crops such as fruits shall be
encouraged by folks.
3. In order to reduce the conveyance loss of water, few important programmes shall be taken into account
such as the CAD (Command Area Development) programmes i.e.
o Lining of water courses.
o Land development and levelling.
o Warabandi system (means equal distribution of canal water in the command area of outlet).
4. The areas should be reclaimed that got affected by water logging and soil salinity.
5. The eco-development is a must, especially in the fragile environment of Stage II, through afforestation,
shelterbelt, plantation and pasture development activities.
6. By providing a decent financial and institutional support for cultivation of the land, allottees who have
poor economic background, can be prove a positive step towards achieving the social sustainability in
the region.
7. The economic sustainability can be attained through expanding the economic sector which must include
agriculture and allied activities along with other economic sectors, as a whole. Hence, we will then find
diversification of economic base and establishment of functional linkages between basic villages, agro-
service centres and market centres.
Promotion of Sustainable Development in Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area
• It is one of the largest canal systems in India, conceived by Kanwar Sain in 1948. This project was
launched on 31st March 1958 that transformed a desert into green land.
• The origin place of the canal is at Harike barrage in Punjab state and goes parallel to Pakistan Border at
an average distance of 40 km in Thar Desert of Rajasthan (Marusthali).
• 9060, km is the total planned length of the system catering to the irrigation needs of a total culturable
command area of 19.63 lakh hectares.
• The canal has two irrigation system such as ‘flow system’ and ‘lift system’. Around 70% land of the
command area is irrigated by flow system and rest 30% land by lift system.
There are tw’O stages through which the construction work of the canal system has been done such as:
Stage I of Indra Gandhi Canal Command Area
• This command area covers Ganganagar, Hanumangarh and Northern part of Bikaner districts.
• Its culturable command area is 5.53 lakh hectares along with gentle undulating topography.
• In this stage, the irrigation system was introduced in early 1960s.
Stage II of Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area

This stage covers 14.10 lakh hectares cultarable area of Bikaner, Jaisalmer, Barmer, Jodhpur,
Nagpur and Churu districts.
The main characteristics of the area are:
1. Hot desert with shifting sands dunes.

2. Summer temperature upto 50°C.
Irrigation system was introduced in this stage in mid- 1980s. In the lift canal, water is lifted up to make
it to flow against the slope of the land. All the lift canals of this system originate at the left bank of
main canal while all the canals on the right bank of main canal are flow channels.
Effects of Indira Gandhi Canal Irrigation

There are various effects of Indira Gandhi Canal irrigation on environment and on agricultural
economy:
Effects on Environment
The environment of the areas is influenced by this project both positively and negatively:
• Positive Effect Now, there is sufficient soil moisture availability for a longer duration. Various
afforestation and pasture development programme came into being.
A considerable reduction in wind erosion and siltation of canal systems have also been recorded.
• Negative Effect Due to intensive irrigation and excessive use of water, an alarming rate of water logging
and soil salinity have been recorded.
Effects on Agriculture
There are some positive and negative effect on agriculture:
• Positive Effect This canal irrigation led to increase in cultivated land and intensity of cropping. Main
commercial crops i.e. wheat, rice, cotton, groundnut replaced the drought resistant crops like gram,
bajra, and Jowar.
• Negative Effect Intensive irrigation has also became a cause of water logging and soil salinity. So, in
the near future it may hampers the sustainability of agriculture.
Class 12 Notes Chapter 20 Transport And
Communication
Means of Transport
There are various ways means of transportation by which human beings move goods, commodities,
ideas etc from one place to another place. Major means of transportation are as follows:
Land Transport
Transportation of people and goods by road transport is not new in India. Since ancient times,
pathways and unmetalled roads have been in use for this purpose. With the technological
advancement, there are now metalled roads, railways, cableways and pipelines for movement of
large volume of goods and passengers.
Road Transport
India has its count in countries which is having largest road networks worldwide. India has a total road
length of 42.3 lakhs km that places it among the countries which has largest road network.
Road transport carries about 85% of passenger and 70% of freight traffic every year. Road transport
is preferable for short distance travel. The first attempt to improve and modernise road network was
made in 1943 with ‘Nagpur Plan.’ But due to lack of coordination among princely states and British
India, it remained unimplemented.
The second attempt was made after independence with twenty year road plan (1961) to improve the
conditions of roads in India but still roads continue to concentrate in and around urban centres and
rural and remote areas remained less connected by road.
For the purpose of construction and maintenance, roads are classified as National Highways (NH),
State Highways (SH), Major District Roads and Rural Roads:
National Highways
• NH referred to roads which are constructed and maintained by central government.
• National Highways are meant for inter-state transport and movement of defence men and material in
strategic areas.
• In 2008-09, total length of National Highways was 70934 km which was 19700 km in 1951.
• These highways connect the state capitals, major cities, important ports, railways junctions, etc and
carry’ about 40% of the road traffic despite they constitute only 1.67% of total road length.
• The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI – 1^95) is an autonomous body, under the Ministry of
Surface Transport which is entrusted with the responsibility of development, maintenance, operation and
for the improvement of the quality of national Highways.
National Highways Development Projects
• Golden Quadrilateral It is 5846 km long 4/6 lane, high density corridor. It was meant to connect India’s
four big metro cities of Delhi-Mumbai- Chennai-Kolkata. It will deduct the time-distance and cost of
movement among the mega cities of India. Its construction help ip reducing the time distance and cost of
movement among mega cities considerably.
• North-South and East-West corridors The North-South corridor is a 4076 km long highway which is
meant to connect Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir with Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu including Kochchi-
Salem Spur. The East-West corridor is 3640 km long road which aims to connect Silchar in Assam with
the port town of Porbandar in Gujarat.
State Highways
These roads are connected to the National Highways and join the state capitals with district
headquarters and other important towns. Their share in the total road length is about 4%. State
governments are responsible to construct and maintain these highways.
District Roads
These roads connect district headquarters and other important nodes in the district. They account for
60.83% of the total road length of the country.
Rural Roads
These roads provide links in the rural areas. About 33.86% of the total road length in India are
categorised as rural roads.
Other Roads
These include Border Roads and International highways:
Border Roads These are strategically important roads along the Northern and North-Eastern
boundary of the country. Border Road Organisation (BRO) is responsible for construction and
maintenance of these roads. It was established in May 1960 with the aim to accelerate economic
development and strengthening defence preparedness through rapid and coordinated improvement
of strategically important border roads.
BRO’s major achievement is construction of roads in high altitude mountainous terrain joining
Chandigarh with Manali (Himachal Pradesh) and Leh (Ladakh). This road is located at the average
height of 4270 meters above mean sea level.
The total length of border roads was 40450 km in 2005 which was constructed by BRO. Besides the
construction and maintenance of roads in strategically sensitive areas. The BRO also undertakes
snow clearance in high altitude area.
International Highways They are constructed with the aim to promote harmonious relationship with
neighbouring countries and provide an effective connection with India.
Density of Roads
• The distribution of roads is not uniform in the country. Density of roads (length of roads per 100 sq km of
area) is the method to compare the network of roads of one area to another area. The national average
road density is 125.02 km (2008).
• The density of roads is influenced by nature of terrains, and level of economic development. As most of
the Northern states and major Southern states have high density of roads (e.g. Uttar Pradesh has
highest road density of 532.27 km), whereas Himalayan region, North-Eastern region, Madhya Pradesh
and Rajasthan have low density of roads (e.g. Jammu and Kashmir has lowest road density of 10.04
km).
• Quality of roads, besides density, is also better in plains as compared to high altitude areas, rainy and
forested regions.
Rail Transport
• India has one of the longest railway network in the world. On one hand, it facilitates the movement of
freight and passengers and on the other hand, it contributes to the growth of economy. Mahatama
Gandhi said, the Indian railways, “brought people of diverse cultures together to contribute to India’s
freedom struggle”
• In 1853, the first Indian railway was started from Bombay to Thane covering a distance of 34 km.
• Being the largest Government undertaking in India, Indian Railways network is 64460 km long (31th
March, 2011).
• To reduce the pressure of this large size railway from a centralised railway management system, Indian
Railway system has been divided into seventeen zones.
These are as follows:
Railway Zone Headquarters
1. Central Mumbai CST
2. Eastern Kolkata
3. East Central Hojipur
4. East Coast Bhubaneswar
5. Northern New Delhi
6. North-Central Allahabad
7. North-Eastern Gorakhpur
8. North East Frontier Maligaon (Guwahati)
9. North-Western Jaipur
10. Southern Chennai
11. South Central Secunderabad
12. South-Eastern Kolkata
13. South East Central Bilaspur
14. South-Western Hubli
15. Western Mumbai (Church Gate)
16. West Central Jabalpur
17. Metro Kolkata
Gauges in Indian Railways
Indian Railways has been divided into three
categories. On the basis of the width of the track of Indian railways as follows:
• Broad Gauge In broad gauge, the distance between rails is 1.676 metre. The total length of broad
gauge lines is 55188 km in 2011.
• Metre Gauge In metre gauge, the distance between the rails is 1 metre. The total length of metre gauge
is 6809 km in 2011.
• Narrow Gauge In narrow gauge, the distance between the rails is 0.762 metres or 0.610 metres. The
total length of narrow gauge line is 2463 km in 2011. This category of railway lines is mostly found in the
hilly areas.
Indian Railways has taken major steps to improve the performance of this means of transport like:
1. To convert the metre and narrow gauges to broad gauge.

2. Replacement of steam engine by diesel and electric engines which may help in keeping the environment
clean.
3. Introduction of metro rail in Kolkata and Delhi, etc.
Development of railways in India was started by the Britishers and after the independence, scenario
has been changed by extending railway routes to other areas. Konkan railways along the western
coast which provide a direct line between Mumbai and Mangalore was a significant development in
this regard.
Konkan Railway is one of the important achievements of Indian Railways which was constructed in
1998. It is a 760 km long rail route which connects Roha in Maharashtra to Mangalore in Karnataka. It
is considered an engineering marvel. Railway is still the most important means of transport for the
masses. In the hill states, North-Eastern states, central part of India and Rajasthan, railway network is
relatively less dense.
Water Transport
Water transport is the cheapest means of transport for carrying heavy and bulky material as well as
passenger services. It is a fuel efficient and eco-friendly mode of transport. The water transport is of
two types:
1. Inland Waterways
2. Oceanic Waterways
Inland Waterways
Before the introduction of railways, inland waterways was the chief mode of transport. But, now it is
losing its significance due to:
1. Tough competition from road and railway transport.

2. Diversion of river water for irrigation purposes made them non-navigable in large parts of their courses.
India has 14500 km of navigable waterways which accounts for about 1% of country’s transportation.
It includes rivers, canals backwater, creeks etc. At present 3700 km of major rivers are navigable by
mechanised flat bottom vessels, but out of it only 2000 are actually used. Similiarly, out of 4800 km of
the network of navigable canal, only 900 km is navigable by mechanised vessels.
The Inland Waterways Authority which was setup in 1986 is responsible for the development,
maintenance and regulation of national waterways in the country. Currently, there are three inland
waterways which are considered as national waterways by the authority. Description of these
waterways are as follows:
National Waterways of India
Oceanic RoutesTen other inland waterways have been identified by inland waterways authority. The
backwaters (Kadal) of Kerala has special significance which not only provides transport but also
attract tourists here. The famous Nehru Trophy Boat Race (Vallamkali) is also held in the backwaters.
• These play an important role in the transport sector of India’s economy.

• India’s vast coastline of about 7,517 km (including islands) easily facilitates this type of transport. There
are twelve major and 185 minor ports which provide infrastructural support to these routes.
• About 95% of India’s foreign trade by volume and 70% by value moves through ocean routes.
• These routes give international trade service as well as provide transportation between the islands and
the rest of the country.
Air Transportation
Air transport facilitates the fastest movement of goods and passengers from one place to another
place. It is good for long distances and areas which have uneven terrain and climatic conditions. Air
transport in India was started in 1911 with a short distance, (10 km) airmail operation from Allahabad
to Nairn.
The Airport Authority of India is responsible for providing safe, efficient air traffic and aeronautical
communication services in the Indian Air space. Now it manages 126 airports including 11
international, 86 domestic and 29 civil enclaves at defence air fields. There are two corporations, Air
India and Indian Airlines which manage air transport in India. Both corporations were nationalised in
1953. Now many private companies have also started passenger services.
Air India
It is a corporation of India which provides International Air Service for both passengers and cargo
traffic. It connects all the continents of the world through its services.
Indian Airlines
Indian Airlines, the largest state owned domestic carrier changed its names to ‘Indian by dropping’
word ‘Airlines’ in 8th December, 2005. The new brand name ‘Indian’ now appears on both sides of
the fuselage. The logo depicting IA which was used to be display on orange tail is now replaced by a
new logo. New logo is apartly visible blue wheel and is inspired by the Sun Temple at Konark
(Odisha), symbolising timeless motion, convergence and divergence. It also represents strength as
well as trust that has stood the test of time.
History of Indian Airlines
• 1911-Air transport in India was launched between Allahabad and Naini.

• 947-Air transport was provided by four major companies namely Indian National Airways, Tata Sons
Limited, Air Services of India and Deccan Airways.
• 1951-Four more companies joined the services i.e. Bharat Airways, Himalayan Aviation Limited, Airways
India and Kalinga Airlines.
• 1953-Air transport was nationalised and two corporations, Air India international and Indian Airlines were
formed. Now, Indian Airlines is known as Indian.
• Pawan Hans is the major organisation in India which provides helicopter services in hilly areas, for
tourism in North-Eastern sector and mainly to petroleum sector and tourism.
Oil And Gas Pipelines
Pipelines are convenient and best means of transporting liquids and gases over long distances.
These can also transport solids after converting them into slurry. Oil India Limited (OIL) is responsible
for exploration, production and transportation of crude oil and natural gas.
Its one of the major achievement is the construction of Asia’s first cross country pipeline. This pipeline
covers a distance of 1157 km from Naharkatiya oil field in Assam to Barauni refinery in Bihar. In 1966,
this pipeline was further extended to Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh.
In Western region of India, OIL also constructed extensive network of pipelines – Ankleshwar-Koyali,
Mumbai High-Koyal and Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur (HVJ) pipelines. Recently, a pipeline is also
constructed from Salaya (Gujarat) to Mathura (Uttar Pradesh). It is 1256 km long pipeline which
transport crude oil from Gujarat to Punjab (Jalandhar) via Mathura. Construction of a 660 km long
pipeline from Numaligarh to Siliguri is also in progress.
Communication Networks
A number of communication cum-transportation means have been used since human history, for e.g.
messages ware delivered by beating drum or hollow tree trunks, giving indication through smoke or
fire or with the help of fast runners. Development in the field of science and technology brought many
revolutionary inventions in means of communication like post office, telegraph, printing press,
telephone, satellite, etc.
On the basis of scale and quality, the mode of communication can be divided into following
categories:
Personal Communication System
• The most advanced and best means among all personal communication system is internet which is
widely used in urban cities.
• E-mail is the main source through which a user can directly connect with others and can also get access
to the world of knowledge and information.
• Use of internet is increasing for e-commerce and carrying out money transactions.
• The internet is like a huge control warehouse of data, with detailed information on various items.
• It is a cheaper mode of communication which provides an efficient access to information at a
comparatively low cost.
• Letters, telephone, fax are also used for personal communication.
Mass Communication System Radio
• Radio broadcasting was started in 1923 by Radio Club of Bombay. Within short time, it gained immense
popularity and became a part of every househod in India.
• After seeing its popularity, the government of India, in 1930 took the control of this mode of
communication under Indian Broadcasting System.
• It was changed to All India Radio in 1936 and to Akashwani in 1957.
• It broadcasts various programmes related to information, education, entertainment and special news
bulletins on special session of parliament and state legislature
Television (TV)
• Television (TV) broadcasting has emerged as the most effective audio-visual medium for disseminating
information and educating masses.
• First television broadcasting was started in National Capital in 1959. Till 1972, it was the only urban
place where TV services were available.
• After 1972, several other centres became operational. In 1976, TV broadcasting services were
separated by All India Radio and got a separate identity as Doordarshan (DD).
• Its revolutionary development began after the launch of INSAT-IA (National Television -D1) when
Common National Programmes (CNP) were started for the entire network and its services were
extended to the backward and remote rural areas.
Satellite Communication
Satellite is an advanced mode of communication. They also regulate the use of other means of
communication. From economic and strategic point of view, use of satellite is very vital for the country
as these give continuous and synoptic view larger area. Various operations can be done through
satellite images, e.g. weather forcast, monitoring of natural calamities, surveillance of border areas,
etc.
There are two satellite system in India on the basis of configuration and purposes:
Indian National Satellite System (INSAT)

This was established in 1983. It is a multi-purpose satellite system for telecommunication,
meteorological observatioon and for various other data and programmes.
Indian Remote Sensing Satellite System (IRS)
• The IRS satellite system started in India with the launch of IRS-IA in March 1988 from Vaikanour in
Russia.
• India has also developed her indigenous launching vehicle PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle).
• These remote sensing satellites collect data in several spectral band and transmit them to ground
stations which is very useful in the management of natural resources and other various purposes.
• The National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) at Hyderabad is responsible for facilitating for acquisition
of data and its processing.
Class 12 Notes Chapter 21 International Trade
Changing Patterns of the Composition of India’s Exports
• During recent years, a change has been recorded in the composition of commodities in India’s
international trade. There is a decline in the share of agriculture and allied products whereas shares of
petroleum and crude products and other commodities have increased. The share of petroleum products
has increased mainly because of the rise in petroleum prices and increase in the petroleum refining
capacity of India.
• A huge decline is registered in the export of traditional items like, coffee, spices, tea, pulses, etc due to
the tough international competition. Though an increase has been registered in floricultural products,
fresh fruits, marine products and sugar, etc. But manufacturing sector alone accounted for 68% of India’s
total value of export in 2010-11.
• The major competitors of India are China and other East Asian countries. Apart from this, the gems and
jewellery are other commodities that have larger share in India’s international trade.
Changing Patterns of the Composition of India’s Import
• During 1950s and 1960s, India faced serious food shortage, thus the country had to import food grain,
capital goods, machinery and equipments at large scale.
• The balance of payment was adverse as imports were more than export inspite of all the efforts of
imports substitution.
• After 1970s, the success of green revolution discontinued the food grain import. But the energy crises of
1973 replaced the import of food grains by fertilizers and petroleum as the prices of petroleum had been
raised.
• Besides, other imported goods were machine and equipment, special steel, edible oil and chemicals.
• According to economic Survey 2011-12, petroleum products have registered a rapid increase in import
goods.
• It is a raw material for petrochemical industries and also used as fuel. The increase signifies the tempo
of rising industrialisation and improvement in standard of living.
• Periodic price rise of petroleum in the international market may be another reason for this increase.
• Import of capital goods like non-electrical machinery, transport equipment, manufactures of metals and
machine tools registered a steady increase. This increase could be because of increasing demand in the
export oriented industrial and domestic sectors.
• Import of food and allied products registered a decrease because of a sudden decline in imports of
edible oils.
• Pearls and semi-precious stones, gold and silver, metalliferrous ores and metal scrap, non-ferrous
metals, electronic goods, etc are other important items of India’s import.
Direction of Trade
• India is a trading partner with most of the countries and major trading blocks of the world.
• India has goal to double its share in international trade within the next 5 years. To achieve this objective,
India has started to adopt suitable measures which includes import liberalisation, reduction in import
duties, de-licensing and change from process to product patents.
• India has created an example in terms of percentage of Asia and ASEAN (Association of South-east
Asian Nations) in total trade of world has increased. It was 33.3% in 2000-01 and it increased to 57.3%
in the 2011-12 . In contrast to this, the share of Europe and America decreased from 42.5% to 30.8%.
This has helped India to survive during the global crisis in Europe and America.
• With the development of India’s trade direction, India’s trading share with different countries also
changed. During 2003 -04, USA was India’s largest trading partner. Now UAE has displaced USA as it
was India’s largest trading partner during 2010-11.
• After UAE, China is the second largest trading partner with India continuing this position from 2008-09 to
2010-11. USA has sliped to third position.
• India’s foreign trade is mainly carried through oceanic and air routes. Foreign trade via land route is only
limited to the neighbouring countries such as Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Pakistan.
Sea ports as Gateways of International Trade
• India has a long history of international trade via sea ports as it has long coastline and is opened to sea
from three sides. Water provides smooth surface and cheap transport without any hinderance.
• India has developed many ports on its coast. These ports are named with suffix ‘pattan’ meaning port. It
is interesting to know that India has more sea ports on West coast than its East coast.
• After coming of the European traders and colonisation of the country by the British, the Indian ports have
emerged as gateways of international trade.
• There are some parts which have very vast area of influence and some have limited area of influence.
Major and Minor ports
• At present, India has 12 major and 185 minor or intermediate ports. For major ports, central Government
is responsible for deciding the policies and regulate their functions and for minor ports, State
Government is responsible for the same functions stated above.
• A larger port of total traffic is handled by major ports, e.g. about 71% of the India’s oceanic traffic was
handled by the the 12 major ports during 2008-09.
• The Britishers used these ports to export natural resources of India; particularly from their hinterland but
this trend was discontinued after 1947.
• The India lost its two very important ports i.e. Karachi port to Pakistan and Chittagong port to
Bangladesh (erstwhile East-Pakistan). But India recovered successfully from this loss by opening many
new ports, for instance, Kandla in the West and the Diamond harbour near Kolkata on river Hugli in the
East.
• Today, large volumes of domestic and international trade are handled by these Indian ports. Most of the
ports are equipped with modem infrastructure.
• Previously, it was expected that government agencies are responsible for the development and
modernisation of Indian ports. But it was considered that there is a need to increase the functions and
bring these ports at par with the international ports. Thus, private entrepreneurs have been invited for the
modernisation of ports in the country.
• The cargo handling capacity of Indian ports increased from 20 million tonnes in 1951 to more than
600tnillion tonnes at present.
Important Ports
Some of the Indian ports along with their hinterlands are as follows:
Kandla Port
• This port is situated at the head of Gulf of Kuchchh. The main objectives of this major port are to serve
the needs of Western and North-Western ports of the country and also to reduce the pressure at Mumbai
port.
• This port is mainly designed to receive large quantities of petroleum and petroleum products and
fertilizers.
• To reduce the pressure at Kandla port, an offshore terminal named Vadinar has also been developed.
• Due to confusion in demarcation of the boundary, hinterland of one port may overlap with that of the
other.
Mumbai Port
• This is a natural harbour and the biggest port of India.

• The location of this port is closer to the general routes from the countries of Middle East, Mediterranean
Countries, North Africa, North America and Europe, where the major share of country’s overseas trade is
carried out.
• This port is extended over a large area with the length of 20 km and width of 6-10 km with 54 berths and
has the country’s largest oil terminal.
• The main hinterlands of this port are Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh and some
parts of Rajasthan.
Jawaharlal Nehru Port
• This satellite port is located at Nhava Sheva. It was developed to relieve the pressure at the Mumbai
port.
• It is the largest container port in India.
Marmagao Port
• It is located at the entrance of the Zuari estuary which is a natural harbour in Goa. It gained significance
after its remodelling in 1961 to handle iron-ore exports to Japan.
• Construction of Konkan railway extended its hinterland, e.g. Karnataka, Goa, Southern Maharashtra
constitute its hinterland.
New Mongalore Port
• It is mainly used to export iron-ore and iron concentrates, and other commodities like fertilizers,
petroleum products, edible oils, coffee, tea, wood pulp, yam, granite stone, molasses, etc.
• It is located in Karnataka which is its major hinterland.
Kochchi Port
• This port is popularly known as ‘Queen of the Arabian sea’.

• It is a natural harbour and situated at the head of Vembanad Koyal.
• Kochchi port is located close to the Suez-Colombo route.
• It serves the needs of Kerala, Southem-Kamataka, and South-Western Tamil Nadu.
Kolkata Port
• It is located on the Hugli river 128 km inland from the Bay of Bengal. This port was developed by the
British as it was once the capital of British India.
• The port has lost its significance considerably on account of the diversion of exports to the other ports
such as Vishakhapatnam, Paradwip and satellite port, Haldia.
• It is also facing the problem of silt accumulation in the Hugli river, which hinders the link to the sea.
• Its hinterland covers Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Jharkhand, West Bengal, Sikkim and the North-Eastern states.
• It also provides port facilities to our neighbouring land-locked countries such as Nepal and Bhutan.
Haldia Port
• It is located 105 km downstream from Kolkata.

• It has been constructed to reduce the congestion at Kolkata port.
• It handles bulk cargo like iron-ore, coal, petroleum, petroleum products and fertilizers, jute, jute products,
cotton, and cotton yarn, etc.
Paradwip Port
• The port is located in the Mahanadi delta and it is about 100 km far from Cuttack.
• It has advantage of having the deepest harbour, thus it is best suited to handle very large vessels.
• It mainly handles large scale export of iron-ore.
• Odisha, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand constitute its hinterland.
Vishakhapatnam Port
• It is a land locked harbour situated in Andhra Pradesh.

• It is connected to the sea by a channel which is cut through solid rock and sand.
• To handle various commodities like iron-ore, petroleum and general cargo an outer harbour has been
developed.
• Andhra Pradesh is the main hinterland for this port.
Chennai Port
• The artificial harbour of Chennai is one of the oldest ports on the eastern coast.
It was built in 1859.
• Because of the shallow water near the coast, it is not suitable for large ships.
• Tamil Nadu and Puducherry constitute its hinterland.
Ennore Port
• This newly developed port, is situated 25 km north of Chennai.

• It was developed to minimise the pressure at Chennai port.
Tuticorin Port
• It is another port which was developed to relieve the pressure of Chennai port.
• This port handles a number of commodities like coal, salt, food grains, edible oils, sugar, chemicals and
petroleum products.
Airports
Air transport plays a significant role in the international trade of a nation.
The advantages are follows:
1. Air transport is very useful for handling high value or perishable goods over long distance.
2. It takes less time to transport cargo.
The disadvantages are as follows:
1. Air transportation is very costly.

2. It is not suitable for the transportation of heavy and bulky commodities.
Thus, having these disadvantages air transport is not/less preferred for international trade as
compared to oceanic routes. At present, there are 12 international airports. They are; Ahmedabad,
Amritsar, Bengalura, Chennai, Delhi, Goa, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Kochchi, Kolkata, Mumbai and
Thiruvananthapuram. Apart from these, there are 112 domestic airports in India.
Class 12 Notes Chapter 22 Geographical
Perspective on Selected Issues and Problems
Environmental Pollution
Environmental pollution is the release of substances and energy from waste products of human
activities. It is of various types. Thus, they are classified on the basis of medium through which
pollutants are transported and diffused.
The classification of pollution are as follows:
1. Water pollution
2. Air pollution
3. Noise pollution
4. Land pollution
Water Pollution
Quality of water is majorly degraded by a number of factors i.e. indiscriminate use of water by fast
growing population and expansion of industries. No surface water is found in pure form in rivers,
canals, lakes, etc as all the water sources contain small quantities of suspended particles, organic
and inorganic substances. Water becomes polluted, when quantity of these substances increases in
it. It becomes unsuitable for human uses and its self purifying capacity declines.
There are two sources of water pollution:
• Natural Erosion, landslides, decay and decomposition of plants and animals, etc are natural sources
that make water polluted.
• Human Industrial, agricultural and cultural activities of human beings make water polluted.
Water pollution created from human beings are major problem in modern times. Industrial activities of
pollution.
Sources of Pollution in the Ganga and the Yamuna Rivers
Most of the industrial wastes, e.g. polluted waste water, poisonous gases, chemical residuals
numerous heavy metals, dust, smoke, etc are disposed off in running water, lakes, reservoirs, rivers
and other water bodies and thus, destroy the bio-system of these waters. Major culprits are leather,
pulp and paper, textiles and chemicals industries.
Today use of various types of chemicals like inorganic fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides are
common in agriculture. These chemicals pollute surface water such as rivers, lakes, tanks as well as
groundwater by infiltrating into the soil. These fertilizers increase the amount of nitrate content of
surface waters. Besides this, cultural activities such as pilgrimage, religious fairs, tourism, etc also
cause water pollution. In India, almost all surface water sources are contaminated and unfit for human
consumption.
Use of polluted water can harm human health and can cause various water borne diseases, e.g.
diarrhoea, intestinal worms, hepatitis, etc. World Health Organisation (WHO) shows that about one-
fourth of the communicable diseases in India are water borne.
Air Pollution
A larger proportion of contaminants like dust, fumes, gas, fog, odour, smoke or vapour in air for a long
duration is known as air pollution may be harmful to flora and fauna and to property. There is an
increase in emission of poisonous gases into the atmosphere because of increasing use of various
fuels for energy in various sectors, thus resulting in the pollution of air.
The main sources of air pollution are combustion of fossil fuels, mining and industries which release
oxides of sulphur, and nitrogen, hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, lead and asbestos.
Effects of Air Pollution

The effects of air pollution are as follows:
1. Air pollution is responsible for many diseases related to our respiratory, nervous and circulatory systems.
2. Air pollution is responsible for creating smoky fog over cities which is known as urban smog. It has
negative effects on human health.
3. Air pollution is also responsible for acid rain. First rain after summer in urban areas always shows high
acidic nature of rain water i.e. it shows lower pH level than the subsequent rain.
Noise Pollution
Noise pollution refers to a noise that causes a condition which is unbearable and uncomfortable to
human beings. This noise can be from various sources. It is a recent phenomenon which became a
serious concern only after a variety of technological innovations. The level of steady noise is
measured by sound level expressed in terms of decibels (dB).
Factories, mechanised construction and demolition works, automobiles and aircrafts are major
sources of noise that cause noise pollution. Apart from these, there are also some periodic sources of
noise pollution such as sirens, loudspeakers in different festivals and programmes and other activities
of different communities. Noise produced by traffic is a major source of noise pollution. It creates a
huge inconvenience to the people. Intensity and nature of noise made by traffic is dependent on
various factors such as type of vehicle (aircraft, train vehicle, etc)/ condition of road and condition of
vehicle (in case of automobiles).
In sea traffic, the noise; pollution is limited to the harbour because of loading and unloading activities
of containers. Noise pollution from industries is also a serious problem but its intensity varies because
of some factors such as type of industry, types of machines and tools, etc.
The intensity of noise pollution decreases as distance from source of pollution (Industrial areas,
arteries of transportation, airport, etc) increases. Thus, noise pollution is location specific.
Effects of Noise Pollution
Noise pollution is a major cause of anxiety, tension and some other mental problems and disorders
among people in many metropolitan and big cities in India.
Urban Waste Disposal
Overcrowding, congestion, increasing population, improper infrastructure and facilities to support this
population, lack of sanitation, foul air, etc are some features of urban areas. Mismanagement of solid
wastes and environmental pollution caused by them has now become a major problem.Solid wastes
are a variety of old and used articles,for e.g. stained small pieces of metals, broken glass wares,
plastic containers, polythene bags,ashes, floppies, CDs, etc dumped at different places.
These discarded materials are also known as refuses, garbage and rubbish,etc and are disposed off
from two sources i.e. household or domestic establishments and industrial or commercial
establishments. Public lands or private contractor’s sites are used to disposed off household or
domestic wastes. Low lying public grounds (landfill areas) are used to disposed off industrial solid
wastes by public (municipal) facilities. Industries, thermal power houses and building constructions
and demolitions are contributing with more turn out of ashes and debris in solid wastes.
Disposal of industrial wastes has increased because of the concentration of industrial units in and
around urban centres. Urban waste is a bigger problem in small towns and cities than metropolitan
cities in the country. About 90% of solid waste is collected and disposed off successfully in Mumbai,
Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore and other metropolitan cities. About 30-50% solid wastes in other towns
and cities in country is not collected and disposed off properly. It is a major problem because it
accumulates on streets, in open spaces between houses and in wastelands and can cause various
health problems.
Impacts of Improper Management of Solid wastes

Improper management of solid wastes has following impacts:
1. Solid wastes are threat to human health and can cause various diseases. It creates foul smell and it
harbours flies and rodents that can cause typhoid, diphtheria, diarrhoea, malaria, cholera and other
diseases.
2. Solid waste can create inconvenience rapidly if they are not properly handled. Wind and rain water can
splitted it and cause a discomfort to people.
3. Industrial solid waste can cause water pollution by dumping it into water bodies. Drains carrying
untreated sewage also result into various health problems.
4. Untreated waste release various poisonous biogases such as methane in air by slow fermentation
process. These wastes are resources as energy can be generated from them! By compositing these
wastes, problem of energy could be solved as well as its management in urban areas.
Rural-Urban Migration
Movement of people from rural area to urban area are caused by various factors such as high
demand for labour in urban areas, low job opportunities in rural areas and disparities in terms of
development in rural and urban areas. Smaller and medium cities provide low opportunities which
force people to bypass these small cities and directly come to the mega cities for their livelihood.
Mostly daily wage workers like, welders; carpenter, etc move to another cities for work, periodically
and provide remittances to their families for daily consumption, health care, schooling of children, etc.
This has improved their early abject situation into a better one. Simultaneously, due to temporary and
transferable job situation, these labourers and their families hear the pain of separation of their near
and dear ones.
Sometimes these workers also face difficulty in assimilation to the new culture and environment. Due
to these menial jobs at low wages in informal sector in urban areas, the spouses are left behind in
rural areas to look after children and elderly people. Thus, the rural-urban migration stream is
dominated by the males.
Trend of Urbanisation in the World

Currently, about 54% of the world’s 7 billion (2011) population lives in urban areas of world . This
proportion of urban population will increase in future. It is estimated that between 2025 to 2030, this
percentage would be grown with 1.44% per year. This high urban population will pressurise
governments to optimise infrastructure facilities in urban areas for giving a standard quality of life.
It is estimated that by 2050, about two-thirds of the world’s population will live in urban areas. It would
create a high pressure on existing infrastructure and sanitation, health, crime problems and urban
poverty.
There are various factors responsible for growth of urban population:
1. When high birth rate and low morality rate increase.

2. Net in-migration or movement of people from other areas.
3. Reclassification of urban areas to encompass formerly rural settlements.
In India there is a estimation that about 60% India’s urban population has increased after 1961. About
29% of this growth has been caused by rural-urban migration.
Problems of Slums
• Settlement geography differentiate the two concepts namely urban or urban centres and rural. They are
also defined differently in different countries.
• These two are differentiated by their functions but sometimes interdependent on each other. These two
concepts are also divided in terms of their separate cultural, economic and technological aspects.
• According to 2001 census, about 72% of India’s population is rural (according to 2011, rural population is
68.84%). Most of these rural areas are still in poor conditions and perform primary activities.
• According to Mahatama Gandhi, villages are ideal republics. These work as supplement to the core
urban centre forming its hinterland.
• Urban areas are more developed in terms of the socio-economic, politico-cultural, etc than other areas.
• Urban areas have farm house, high income of people and their localities, wide roads, street lights, water
and sanitation facilities, lawns, well developed green belts, parks, playgrounds and other facilities,
provisions for individual security and right of privacy.
• Apart from these attractions urban areas also have slums, jhuggi jhopari’ clusters and colonies of shanty-
structures.
• These are environmentally incompatible and degraded areas of the cities. These are occupied by the
migrants who were forced to migrate from rural areas to urban areas for employment and livelihood. But
because of high rent and high costs of land, they could not afford proper housing and start to live in
these areas.
Characteristics of Slums
Slums have following characteristics:
1. Slums are least choice residential areas that have broken down house, bad hygienic conditions, poor
ventilation and does not have basic facilities like drinking water, light and toilet facilities, etc.
2. Slums are overcrowded with people and have many narrow street patterns prone to serious hazards
from fire.
3. Most of the slum dwellers works for low wages, high risk-prone and unorganised sectors of the urban
economy.
4. They face various health related problems such as malnutrition, illness and prone to various diseases.
They are not able to send their children school to provide them education because of low level of
income.
5. Dwellers are vulnerable to drug abuse, alcoholism, crime, vandalism, escapism, apathy and social
exclusion because of poverty.
Land Degradation
The limited availability and deterioration of quality of land, both are responsible to exert pressure on
agricultural land.Soil erosion, water logging, salinisation and alkalinisation of land lead to land
degradation which declines productivity of land. In simple words, temporary or permanent decline in
productive capacity of the land is known as land degradation. All degraded land may not be
considered as wasteland. But if process of degradation is not checked, then a degraded land may be
converted into wasteland. Natural and man-made processes, both degrade the quality of land.
Classification of Wastelands
• National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) It is an organisation responsible for classification of

wastelands in India. It classifies wastelands by using remote sensing techniques on the basis of the
processes that have created them.
• Wasteland Caused by Natural Agents Gullied/ ravinous land, desertic or coastal sand, barren rocky
areas, steep sloping land, glacial areas, etc are types of wastelands caused by the natural agents.
These are considered as wastelands caused by natural agents.
• Wasteland Caused by Natural as well as Human Factors Water logged and marshy areas, land
affected by salinity and alkalinity and land with and without scrubs which are degraded by the natural as
well as human factors are included in this category.
• Wastelands Caused by Man-made Processes Shifting cultivation area, degraded land under
plantation crops, degraded forests, degraded pastures and mining and industrial wastelands are some
types of wastelands that are degraded because of human action.

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The Earth in the Solar System Class 6 Notes Chapter 1

• The sun is in the center of the solar system.

• There are nine planets in our solar system.

• It is the only satellite of the earth.

• Mercury (planet nearest to the Sun)

Globe is a true model of the Earth.

The four important parallels of latitude are :

• Tropic of Cancer (2312°N)

• Torrid zone receives the maximum heat.

Longitude and Time

The earth has two types of motions—rotation and revolution.

The axis of the earth is an imaginary line.

Rotation: The movement of the earth on its axis is known as rotation.

A globe can be useful when we want to study the Earth as a whole.

A map is a representation or a drawing of the Earth’s surface or a part of it drawn on a flat

When many maps are put together we, get an Atlas.

Physical maps show natural features of the Earth.

Political maps show different boundaries of different countries and states.

Thematic maps focus on specific information.

There are three components of maps—distance, direction and symbol.

• The conventional symbols give a lot of information in a limited space.

• A plan is a drawing of a small area on a large scale.

A map is a representation or a drawing of the earth’s surface or a part of it drawn on a flat

The three components of maps are distance, direction and symbol.

A sketch map is a rough drawing without scale.

Map: It is a representation or a drawing of the earth’s surface or a part of it drawn on a flat

Plan: A plan is a drawing of a small area on a large scale.

The gaseous layer that surrounds the Earth is the Atmosphere.

The area covered by water is called Hydrosphere.

The zone which contains all forms of life is called Biosphere.

The earth’s surface is divided into continents and ocean basins.

Asia is the largest continent while Australia is the smallest continent.

The atmosphere is composed of several gases—Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), other

Hydrosphere: The water bodies on the earth’s surface is known as hydrosphere.

Continents: The large landmasses are called continents.

Isthmus: It is a narrow strip of land joining two landmasses.

Plant Kingdom: The part of biosphere consisting of plants and trees.

Animal Kingdom: The part of biosphere consisting of an animal.

• A mountain is any natural elevation of the earth surface.

• A plateau is an elevated flat land.

• Plains are large stretches of flat land.

• Humans have been living in different kinds of landforms in different ways.

The surface of the earth is not the same everywhere.

Mountains, plateaus and plains are different landforms of the earth.

The Deccan plateau is one of the oldest plateaus.

The Tibet plateau is the highest plateau in the world.

Plains are generally thickly populated regions of the world.

Erosion: The wearing away of the earth’s surface is known as erosion.

Mountain: A mountain is a natural elevation of the earth surface.

Range: When mountains are in an arranged line, it is called a range.

Storehouse: A building where things are stored or kept.

Flora: The plants of a particular area.

Fauna: The animals living in an area.

India has an area of about 3.28 million sq. km.

Political and Administrative Divisions

• India is divided into 29 states and 7 union territories.

Sri Lanka is separated from India by the Palk Strait.

To the south of the Himalayas lie the Northern Indian plains.

Island: A piece of land that is surrounded by water on all sides.

Desert: A vast sandy stretch of land.

Corals: These are skeletons of tiny marine animals called polyps.

The major seasons in India are :

• Cold weather season

Cold Weather Season or Winter