Review of Chapter 2, Plus Matlab Examples

2.2

Power in single-phase circuits

Let v ( t ) and i ( t ) be defined as:

v ( t ) = Vm cos ( t + v ) then the instantaneous power is give by:

and i ( t ) = I m cos ( t + i )

p ( t ) = v ( t ) i ( t ) = Vm I m cos ( t + v ) cos ( t + i ) = Vm I m cos ( 2 t + v + i ) + cos ( v i ) 2

= Vrms I rms cos 2 ( t + v ) ( v i ) + cos ( v i )

= V I {cos 2 ( t + v ) cos ( v i ) + sin 2 ( t + v ) sin ( v i ) + cos ( v i )}

p ( t ) = V I cos 1 + cos 2 ( t + v ) + V I sin sin 2 ( t + v )

where = v i . The angle is called the power factor angle and is the angle between the voltage and current at a particular 2-port. Note: the power factor is given by cos . Note that the cosine is an even function thus the sign of is lost! For an inductive circuit (memory helper: ELI) voltage leads the current, the carrent lags the voltage and we call this a "lagging" power factor because the current lags the voltage. For a capacitive circuit (memory helper: ICE) the current leads the voltage, and we call this a "leading" power factor. Thus, we always say clearly if the power factor is lagging (inductive) or leading (capacitive). The lag or lead is the angle by which the current lags or leads the voltage. V V It is also noted that is the impedance angle, thus: Z = = ( v i ) . The I I instantaneous power can be expressed in two parts:
p ( t ) = pR ( t ) + p X ( t )

thus pR ( t ) = V I cos 1 + cos 2 ( t + v ) and p X ( t ) = V I sin sin 2 ( t + v ) . It is common to define P and Q as follows:

P = avg ( p ( t ) ) = avg ( pR ( t ) ) = V I cos

Q = V I sin

Thus in terms of P and Q , the instantaneous power can be expressed as:

p ( t ) = P 1 + cos 2 ( t + v ) + Q sin 2 ( t + v )

Thus P is the "average" value of the cosine terms (counting DC as a zero frequency cosine term) while Q is the "magnitude" of the sine term. It is noted that besides the DC term, power has twice line frequency components. Example 2.1 A supply voltage v ( t ) = 100 cos t is applied across a load whose impedance is given by and p X ( t ) over an interval from 0 to 2 . The Matlab program is shown below:
Vm = 100; thetav = 0; % Voltage amplitude and phase angle Z = 1.25; gama = 60; % Impedance magnitude and phase angle thetai = thetav - gama; % Current phase angle in degree theta = (thetav - thetai)*pi/180; % Degree to radian Im = Vm/Z; % Current amplitude wt=0:.05:2*pi; % wt from 0 to 2*pi v=Vm*cos(wt); % Instantaneous voltage i=Im*cos(wt + thetai*pi/180); % Instantaneous current p=v.*i; % Instantaneous power V=Vm/sqrt(2); I=Im/sqrt(2); % rms voltage and current P = V*I*cos(theta); % Average power Q = V*I*sin(theta); % Reactive power S = P + j*Q % Complex power pr = P*(1 + cos(2*(wt + thetav))); % Eq. (2.6) px = Q*sin(2*(wt + thetav)); % Eq. (2.8) PP=P*ones(1, length(wt)); % Average power with length w for plot xline = zeros(1, length(wt)); % generates a zero vector wt=180/pi*wt; % converting radian to degree subplot(2,2,1), plot(wt, v, wt, i,wt, xline), grid title(['v(t)=Vm coswt, i(t)=Im cos(wt +', num2str(thetai), ')']) xlabel('wt, degree') subplot(2,2,2), plot(wt, p, wt, xline), grid title('p(t)=v(t) i(t)'), xlabel('wt, degree') subplot(2,2,3), plot(wt, pr, wt, PP, wt,xline), grid title('pr(t) Eq. 2.6'), xlabel('wt, degree') subplot(2,2,4), plot(wt, px, wt, xline), grid title('px(t) Eq. 2.8'), xlabel('wt, degree') subplot(111)

Z = 1.2560! . Determine i ( t ) and p ( t ) . Use Matlab to plot i ( t ) , v ( t ) , p ( t ) , pR ( t )

S = 2.0000e+003 +3.4641e+003i
v(t)=Vm coswt, i(t)=Im cos(wt +-60) 100 50 0 -50 -100 p(t)=v(t) i(t) 6000 4000 2000 0 -2000

100

200 300 wt, degree pr(t) Eq. 2.6

400

100

200 300 wt, degree px(t) Eq. 2.8

400

4000 3000 2000 1000 0

4000 2000 0 -2000 -4000

100

200 300 wt, degree

400

100

200 300 wt, degree

400

2.3

Complex power

It is observed that the term VI * gives the result: (N.B. = v i )

VI * = V I cos + j V I sin

which is identical to S = VI * = P + jQ where S is the complex power.

V 2 OTHER FORMS for S : S = R I + jX I = * = Z I . Z
2 2 2

For example, for an inductive load, the current lags the voltage and the phasor diagrams would be as shown below:

I S

P Phasor diagrams (V, I) and the power triangle for an inductive load

And for a capacitive load, the current would lead the voltage , and the phasor diagrams would be as shown below:

Q S Phasor diagrams (V, I) and the power triangle for a capacitive load, leading power factor angle

2.4 Complex power balance

The total value of S for a circuit is the SUM of S for the components of S . Example 2.2: Three impedances in parallel are suppleid by a source V = 12000! V where the impedances are given by: Z1 = 60 + j 0 , Z 2 = 6 + j12 and Z 3 = 30 j 30 . Find the power absorbed by each load and the total complex power. As a check, compute the power supplied by the source.

Matlab program follows:

V = 1200; Z1= 60; Z2 = 6 + j*12; Z3 = 30 - j*30; I1 = V/Z1; I2 = V/Z2; I3 = V/Z3; S1= V*conj(I1), S2= V*conj(I2), S3= V*conj(I3) S = S1 + S2 + S3 Sv = V*conj(I1+I2+I3) S1 = 24000 S2 = 4.8000e+004 S3 = 2.4000e+004 S = 9.6000e+004 Sv = 9.6000e+004

+9.6000e+004i -2.4000e+004i +7.2000e+004i +7.2000e+004i

It is observed that the complex power is conserved.

2.5 Power factor correction

Adding a capacitor (usually in parallel) with an inductive load can improve the power factor. Example 2.3 Two loads Z1 = 100 + j 0 and Z 2 = 10 + j 20 are connected across a 200-V 60 Hz source. (a) Find the total real and reactive power, the power factor at the source, and the total current. (b) Find the capacitance of the capacitor connected across the loads to improve the overall power factor to 0.8 lagging.

QC

d
P

Example 2.3

The Matlab program follows:

V = 200; Z1= 100; Z2 = 10 + j*20; I1 = V/Z1; I2 = V/Z2; S1= V*conj(I1), S2= V*conj(I2) I = I1 + I2 S = S1 + S2, P = real(S); Q = imag(S); PF = cos(angle(S)) thd = acos(0.8), Qd = P*tan(thd) Sc = -j*(Q - Qd) Zc = V^2/conj(Sc), C = 1/(2*pi*60*abs(Zc)) Sd = P + j*Qd; Id=conj(Sd)/conj(V) S1 = 400 S2 = 8.0000e+002 +1.6000e+003i I = 6.0000 - 8.0000i S = 1.2000e+003 +1.6000e+003i PF =

0.6000 thd = 0.6435 Qd = 900 Sc = 0 -7.0000e+002i Zc = 0 -57.1429i C = 4.6420e-005 Id = 6.0000 - 4.5000i

Example 2.4 Three loads are connected in parallel across a 1400-V, 60 Hz single-phase supply. Given that load 1 is inductive, 125 kVA at 0.28 power factor, load 2 is capacitive, 10 kW and 40 kvar, and load 3 is resistive at 15 kW. (a) Find the total kW, kVA and the supply power factor. (b) A capacitor is connected in parallel with the loads to improve the power factor to 0.8 lagging. Find the kvar rating of the capacitor and its capacitance in F. The Matlab program follows:
V = 1400; S1= 35000 + j*120000; S2 = 10000 - j*40000; S3 = 15000; S = S1 + S2 + S3, P = real(S); Q = imag(S); PF = cos(angle(S)) I = conj(S)/conj(V) thd = acos(0.8), Qd = P*tan(thd) Sc = -j*(Q - Qd) Zc = V^2/conj(Sc), C = 1E6/(2*pi*60*abs(Zc)) Sd = P + j*Qd; Id=conj(Sd)/conj(V) S = 6.0000e+004 +8.0000e+004i PF = 0.6000 I = 42.8571 -57.1429i thd = 0.6435 Qd = 45000 Sc = 0 -3.5000e+004i Zc = 0 -56.0000i

C = 47.3675 Id = 42.8571 -32.1429i

2.6 Complex Power Flow

This is a very important part of chapter 2. Note the diagram below. It shows four power flows. They are:

1. S12 is the complex power at node number 1 flowing in (i.e. from node 1 in the direction of node 2). 2. S12 is the complex power at node number 1 flowing out (i.e. from node 1 in the direction away from node 2). 3. S21 is the complex power at node number 2 flowing in (i.e. from node 2 in the direction of node 1). 4. S21 is the complex power at node number 2 flowing out (i.e. from node 2 in the direction away from node 1).

-S 12

S 12 Z

S 21

-S 21

+ V1 -

I12 V2

Thus the power consumed by the impedance Z can be expressed as S Z = S12 + S21 .

Important Results from section 2.6: (will be shown in detail later in the lecture)
S12 = V1 Z
2

V1 V2 Z

( + 1 2 )

P = 12

V1 Z V1

cos
2

V1 V2 Z V1 V2 Z

cos ( + 1 2 )

Q12 =

sin

sin ( + 1 2 )

where V1 = V1 1 and V2 = V2 2 and the impedance is Z = Z . The angle defined as = 1 2 is often called the "power angle". N.B. This is very different from the "power factor angle" discussed earlier. If we assume that the circuit above represents two generators connected by a transmission line, then the equations above still apply. In particular the impedance of a transmission line may be assumed purely inductive, i.e. Z = 0 + jX . In this case the angle = 90! and the equations above simplify to: V V P = 1 2 sin ( 1 2 ) 12 X

Q12 =

V1

V1 V2 cos ( 1 2 ) X

Since the line is "lossless" then power consumed by the line is zero, i.e. P + P21 = 0 . In 12 terms of the power angle, these equations become:
P = 12 V1 V1 V2 X
sin

Q12 =

V1 V2 cos X

Observations (assuming R 0 ):
1. Usually is very small (less than 10 degrees), thus P sin , i.e. small changes in 12 power angle greatly change the real power flow and not the reactive power. If 1 > 2 then power flows from node one to node two. If 1 < 2 , then power flows in the opposite direction (from node 2 to node 1). V V 2. Maximum power transfer occurs when = 90! and is given by: Pmax = 1 2 . X

3. Since 0 , Q V1 V2 . Thus small changes in V1 V2 greatly affect Q but not P. Thus, to control real power, we need to change the power angle . This is done be increasing prime mover power (mechanical power driving the generator). To control reactive power, we need to change the difference in voltage magnitude. This is done by changing the DC excitation of one generator. Example 2.5 Assume V1 = 120 5 and V2 = 1000 . Let Z = 1 + j 7 . Determine the real and reactive power supplied or received by each source and the power loss in the line. The Matlab code follows:
R = 1; X = 7; Z = R +j*X; V1 = 120*(cos(-5*pi/180) + j*sin(-5*pi/180)); V2 = 100+j*0; I12 = (V1 - V2)/Z, I21 = -I12; S12 = V1*conj(I12), S21 = V2*conj(I21) SL = S12 + S21 PL = R*abs(I12)^2, QL = X*abs(I12)^2 I12 = -1.0733 - 2.9452i S12 = -9.7508e+001 +3.6331e+002i S21 = 1.0733e+002 -2.9452e+002i SL = 9.8265 +68.7858i PL = 9.8265 QL = 68.7858

Example 2.6: Repeat example 2.5 using a Matlab program such that the angle of source 1 is changed from -30 to 30 degrees in steps of 5 degrees each. We cannot execute "chp2ex6" from within the notebook because input values are to be entered by the user. Hence we go to a Matlab window and execute this command. GO TO A MATLAB WINDOW AND EXECUTE "chp2ex6".

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