\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ Active FTP: * Client initiates by opening a connection on port 21 of the FTP server.

The ser ver verifies credentials, opens up port 20 for the client and replies to the cli ent with acknowledgement. Data transfer starts. Client uses ports greater than 1 023 for data and control connections. Usually control connection port is 'n' and dataa connection port is 'n+1' Pasive FTP: * Client initiates the connection on port 21 of the FTP server. The server verif ies credentials and replies to client that it will be listening on the port no m entioned in the reply packet. The client initiates the connection on the specifi ed port and the server acknowledges and the data transfer begins SMTP: * Protocol used by mail servers to communicate with each other. Also between cli ent and server when mail has to be sent POP: * Protocol used between mail client and mail server to retrieve messages. Messag es popped out of the server leaving no record on the server IMAP: * Similar to POP except that the messages remain on the server. Managing can be done on server. Folders may be deleted, added, modified Proxy: - Features of most proxies * * * * * security filtering logging billing caching

- Types of proxies: * Forward proxy - proxy on client side. Processes client requests. Cachi ng is done. If needed the requests are forwarded to the server other wise the pr oxy entertains the requests itself * Reverse proxy - proxy on the server side. Answers on behalf of server. involves caching * Transparent proxy - operates without the knowledge of clients. for mai ntaining session logs, billing data \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ Concept of windowing in TCP: The server and client negotiate the amount of data they can receive at a time (r eceive buffer size) and then acknowledge. This amount of data is called TCP wind

ow. There is a 16-bits window field in TCP header which specifies the size of th e window. The whole concept is called windowing. Port numbers: * * * * * * * * * * SMTP = 25 POP = 110 IMAP 143 Telnet = 23 SSH = 22 HTTP = 80 HTTPs = 443 DNS = 53 FTP control connection = 21 FTP data connection = 20

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ Ping: * Command used to check reachability to a destination node ATM OAM ping: * Stands for ATM Operation, Maintenance and Administration ping * Send carrying the information about a specific PVC. The specified PVC replies to this message and hence the connectivity is checked ping atm interface ATM_INTERFACE VPI_NUM VCI_NUM end-loopback OR seg-loopback traceroute: * Command used to check the hops betweenthe source and the destination * The first packet has TTL set to 1. when it reaches the first hop the machine d iscards it and replies to this message. Three packets sent and min, max, avg is computed. The 2nd packet has the value of TTL set to 2 and so on xconnect: * This command is used to configure the next hop in the router for a specific vl an no * All MBL/NTL is now a single IS-IS domain so this command is also used to conne ct two ends when one of them is in MBL and other is in NTL * xconnect NEXT_HOP_IP_ADDRESS VLAN_NO \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ E10 (Soft switch): Routes calls between interconnects. Whenever an interconnect is involved the tra ffic is sent to E10 which consults its configuration tables to route these calls to destination. It does not support SIP so we have to install SIP servers separ ately. That is why, we have hostex servers. Our E10 runs Hostex/Virtual PABX, SI P POTS, SIP PRI, SIP trunking POTS: Phone sets > ONT > BPON Core > DHCP servers and also to the DC6509; DC 6509 >> E

10 When the ONT is powered on the ATA in it uses its MAC address and DHCP to acquir e an IP address and a TFTP address. Once this has been done the ATA sends this i nformation to E10 (whose address is provided to ATA in the DHCP process). The E1 0 switch stores all the information regarding the numbers running on different p orts in the ONT in the form of a MEGACO .conf file. Every POTS port in ONT has a termination ID. The megaco.conf file maps each of these IDs against the number running on them PRI: Phone sets > PABX > IP PBX > ONT > BPON Core > GMUX > E10 If an office is running an exchange which routes calls made between extensions a nd all it needs is a connection out of the office then it does not need to purch ase our hostex services and perform the configuration of whole the office again (as well as discarding the PABX). In such cases, we install an IP-MUX on client side. The traffic between phone sets and PABX is a pure TDM protocol (Q.931 etc) . The purpose of IP-MUX is to convert this TDM traffic into a VoIP protocol. The n this traffic goes over our IP network and reaches GMUX. The purpose of which i s to convert this traffic back to a TDM protocol (Q.931 in our case). Then this traffic reaches our E10 (soft switch) over E1 cables (1 E1 = 32 64kbps channels = 2.048Mbps). We are providing two types of IP MUX. If a customer wants a single PRI only we g ive him IP-MUX11 to which only one E1 can be connected. However, if he wants mul tiple PRIs we provide him with IP-MUX14 which can connect upto 4 E1s and hence 4 PRIs Hostex: Phone sets > ATA > ONT > BPON Core > Hostex Servers > E10 ATA converts DTMF signals from phone sets into IP packets A web interface i.e., hex01.nayatel.com with UN and PW information is told to th e enterprise and they use it to configure their extensions on our hostex servers SIP POTS: If a customer wants 1 - 4 telephones in his house we can give him ONTs for it bu t when he asks for 5 phone lines then there is no ONT built for that. In these c ases we provide him with hostex setup but we disable dialing between extensions. Also we provide him with no of channels and DIDs equal to the no of phone lines he wants. SIP trunking: Sometimes an enterprise wants to make calls outside its network. To do that the enterprise acquires a no of channels from its ISP and calls made outside the ent erprise use these channels. The enterprise in this case has its own, say, Asteri sk server where it performs all the call routing and extensions setup. However t he settings for the number of channels and DIDs are done in the Hostex servers. This enterprise is also given the physical link eg., e1, stm1, fiber etc. This i s called SIP trunking SIP PRI: This is a new technology introduced by us. The client in this case runs a PABX a t his side. However, inspite of giving him an IP-MUX and reserving a port for hi

m in GMUX which in itself is an expensive deal, we provide him with a device whi ch takes his TDM traffic from PABX and converts it to any protocol which we are using over IP (SIP). This solution costs from PKR 5000/- to PKR 10000/- which ap pears very cheap as compared to cost of availing MUX-based solution (about PKR 6 0000 - 70000). On this machine Asterisk software is running. The purpose of PABX is to only convert DTMF traffic to TDM. This TDM traffic reaches Asterisk machi ne over E1 cables. The output of this machine is Ethernet output (SIP) which goe s into ONT and reaches OLT over the core network using SIP protocol. \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ OSPF: - Requirements for becoming a neighbor * * * * * * States: * DOWN - OSPF has been enabled but no packets have been exchanged yet. W hen the router does not receive hello packets from its neighbor after dead inter val then the OSPF states changes from 2WAY to DOWN * ATTEMPT - ONLY in NBMA (NON BROADCAST MULTIPLE ACCESS) networks. The r outer in this state keeps on sending hello packets to the dest router periodica lly untill it receives hello packets from the other router * INIT - Once the router sends hello packet it comes to this state * 2WAY - Once hello packets have been exchanged the routers come into th is state and become neighbors. DR and BDR election is held at the end of this st ate * EXSTART - Summary DBD exchange starts in this stage. Before the exchan ge begins master and slave device is selected based on highest router ID. This m ay or may not be DR in case the two routers are DR and BDR. Once the master devi ce finishes sending its DBD then the slave sends its DBD * EXCHANGE - In this state, the DBD exchange process continues and the r outers exchange all the DBDs to know which information to request from the neigh boring router * LOADING - In this state, the routers send LSRs, LSUs and LSAcks to acq uire the routing updates they dont have yet * FULL - When all the databases have been made and routing table is comp leted then the routers come to this state DR election: When DR election is held then first of all router priority field is checked. If it is set (set by default) then the router is allowed is take part in election a nd not otherwise. After this the router IDs are checked and the router with high est ID is made DR and the router with 2nd highest ID becomes the BDR. This elect ion is held once everytime when DR goes down and not when a new router comes int o the segment - LSA types * type 1 - known as router LSA, generated by routers for DR to update th eir databases Area ID Area flag OSPF version type Authentication Hello timer Dead interval

* type 2 - generated by the DR in the segment to advertise the routers a ttached to the segment * type 3 - ABR summarizes the routes that it learned on any of its inter faces and relays them to other areas * type 4 - ASBR summarizes the internal routes into this LSA and relays it to all the external areas * type 5 - Routes from external networks are imported into AS using thes e LSAs * type 7 - type 5 LSA can not be flooded into the stub areas but in the NSSA the type 5 LSAs are translated to type 7 LSA and then they are flooded to a ll the ABRs, which convert them again to type 5 LSAs and flood them inside their respective areas - NSSA - LSA 1, LSA 2, LSA 3 and LSA 7 allowed, default route is injecte d - Stub area - LSA 1, LSA 2 and LSA 3 allowed, default route is injected - Totally stub area - LSA 1 and LSA 2 allowed, default route is injected - Packet types * * * * * Summary: Routing tables of IRs are made with the help of the DRs but once they are made t hen the IRs communicate with each other directly.ABRs use type 3 LSAs to export the routing information pertaining to their areas to other areas too. ASBRs use type 4 LSAs to distribute intra AS routes to other ASs. ASBRs flood type 5 LSAs to all the areas except stub areas. Not So Stubby Areas convert type 5 LSAs to t ype 7 LSAs and flood them to all the ABRs who convert these LSAs to type 5 and f lood them inside their respective areas. All this is done because stub areas do not allow type 5 LSAs inside them. Types of networks: 1. Broadcast - ethernet medium is broadcast, dr and bdr elected 2. P2P - connection between two machines, dr and bdr are not elected since by de finition only two machines 3. P2MP - NBMA networks IS-IS: Packet types: * IIH (IS-IS Hello) * LSP (Link State Packet) - L1 pseudonode - L1 non-pseudonode - L2 pseudonode - L2 non-pseudonode * CSNP (Complete Sequence Number PDU) * PSNP (Partial Sequence Number PDU) Router types: * Level 1 (Intra Area) Hello DBD LSR LSU LSAck

* Level 2 (Inter Area) * Level 1-2 (Both) Adjacencies types: * L1 adjacency - between L1 routers * L2 adjacency - between L2 routers * L1-2 adjacency - between L1-2 routers \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ Technology data rates: Technology ADSL (G.DMT) ADSL2 ADSL2+ Download 8 Mbit/s 12 Mbit/s 28 Mbit/s Upload 1.0 Mbit/s 3.5 Mbit/s 3.5 Mbit/s

Medium data rates: DS1 = 1.544Mbps DS3 = 44.736Mbps STM1 = 155Mbps STM4 = 622Mbps PON data rates: BPON: DL = 622Mbps, UL = 155Mbps GPON: A = 2.44Gbps, B = 1.24Gbps, C: DL = 2.44Gbps, UL = 1.24Gbps \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ DHCP relaying: A DHCP relaying agent is not a DHCP server in itself rather it is configured to forward all the DHCP discovery packets to a DHCP server. This is done using 'ip helper' command. Proxy ARP: Proxy ARP is aa feature in routers which enables them to answer on behalf of som e machine that they are that machine (they give the MAC address of interface on which ARP request comes as the MAC of the destination machine). In the meanwhile , they send an ARP request on the interface where the destination machine is con nected and acquire the MAC address of the machine that they they are supposed to forward the traffic from source machine to, when this traffic comes with the re spective interface's MAC address in the destination field. Duplex mismatch: A duplex mismatch is a condition where two connected devices operate in differen t duplex modes. The effect of a duplex mismatch is a network that works but is o ften much slower than its nominal speed. Duplex mismatch may be caused by manual ly configuring two connected network interfaces at different duplex modes or by connecting a device that performs autonegotiation to one that is manually set to a full duplex mode. When a device set to autonegotiation is connected to a device that is not using

autonegotiation, the autonegotiation process fails. The autonegotiating end of t he connection is still able to correctly detect the speed of the other end, but cannot correct its own duplex mode. The standard requires the use of half duplex in these conditions. Therefore, the autonegotiating end of the connection uses half duplex while its peer is locked at full duplex, and this is a duplex mismat ch. \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ Core architecture: * A Po or port-channel interface is a logical interface which combines multiple interfaces together to form a net bandwidth * MBL domain was converted to IS-IS MPLS and now MBL and NTL are in a single dom ain * At first there was a pseudowire between BRAS-5 and IBA 3650 switch. It has bee n removed now * We have also purchased more bandwidth from TWA. At first it was 200Mbps but no w it is 872Mbps * We have one Fastethernet interface between I10 2950 switch and Cantt 2960 swit ch * We have three links to ITI. These are of 622Mbps \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ What will be the rate of data transfer and how will it be negotiated in the fol lowing scenario? Scenario: Machine A - 1Mbps link - Machine B - 512kbps link - Machine C The rate of data transfer will be 512 kbps and it will be negotiated in transpor t layer using windowing concept of TCP. In this process the size of window is in creased from zero. When packet losses are observed then it is decreased using so me algorithm to match it with a rate where there is no loss. MBL access architecture: PC - CPE - DSLAM - MGX - BRAS In case of P2P customers the VP switching is done on the DSLAM. However, for PPP oE customers it is done on MGX NTL access architecture: PC - CPE - ONT (1310nm) - NAP - DC - ODF - WDM - POLT (1490nm):VOLT (1550nm); POLT - LANX - BRAS/POP Packet flow: PC generates ethernet frames which are converted to PPPoE packets by CPE which a re converted to ATM cells on ONT which are converted back to PPPoE packets on PO LT. ONT: When ONT is initially powered on it transmits data directed at OLT. The OLT then sends a packet directed at ONT and from the time it takes for this packet to co me back to OLT the OLT calculates the delay that needs to be added to ONT transm

ission in order for it to be syncronized with OLT time slots. It then asks the O NT to add the delay in its transmission and the ONT transmits the data after the required time delay. If the data comes within the time slot allocated to ONT by OLT the ranging process is completed. States of ONT: BPON: Red - No optical power on ONT Red blinking - Disabled from OLT (does not come now) Green blinking - ONT is either admin down or it has not been configured yet Green - ONT in NORMAL working state Orange - ONT is faulty GPON: MGMT led - OFF when not configured, ON if configuration has been done EQPT - if there are electrical power issues then it is OFF otherwise it is ON PON - Red if no optical power, green when optical power is fine IPTV - not used by us Data - blinking when there is transfer of data through ONT ONT is a multilayered device because it works on L2 (ATM), L3 (IP address of ATA ), L7 (Megaco). How VPI/VCI are configured on ONT? For For For VPI 1st ethernet, we can alot VCI values from 34 - 41 (8 individual IDs) 2nd ethernet, we can alot 42 as VCI POTS, we can alot 39 as VCI value is 64 + customer no for internet and 32 + customer no for POTS

Fibers: We are using single mode fibers for tranmission of data. These have a core of th e order of 8 - 10 microns and the wavelengths of light in these fibers range fro m 1200nm - 1600nm. Whenever we need to join two fibers together we use one of th e following ways. 1. connector and socket arrangement 2. mechanical splice 3. fusion splice OLT: BPON: 16 LT cards 2NT cards -> WAM 2PONs per LT card and 32 customers per PON Distance = 20kms GPON: 14 LT cards 2 NT cards -> AMS 4 PONs per LT card 32 or 64 customers per PON Distance = 60 kms

WDM: It is a device which muxes and demuxes waves of different wavelengths LANX: It is an aggregation device and the PPPoE packets it gets from BRAS have BRAS MA C as the source MAC. It does not change these packets. It only forwards them to POLT. So the packets directed at customer have BRAS MAC as the source MAC. It ha s 24 FE ports. 16 ports are meant for the 16 cards of an OLT, 4 ports are for da ta from LANX to BRAS/POP and 1 is for managerial purposes. The rest of the 3 por ts are free \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ What are the entries in MAC table and how they are build into it? The main entries of MAC table include: 1. 2. 3. 4. VLAN no (VLAN to which this port belongs) MAC address (Learned MAC address) Type (Either configured statically or learned dynamically) Ports

When the switch is first powered on then it has no entries in its MAC address ta ble. It does notattain any values till the data transfer begins from any of the machines connected to it. When a machine transfers data through switch, the swit ch takes the source MAC from the frame and enters it against the port from which it came. Then it floods this data on all the ports. The machine to which this d ata is directed finds its IP address in the packet. It receives this data and re plies. This reply also goes through the switch which does the same with it i.e., makes the entries in MAC table in the same way as it did before, and then forwa rds the packet to the destination machine (this time it is a unicast since the s witch knows the MAC now) What are the entries in routing table? The main entries in a routing table are. 1. Destination IP reachable through said route 2. Metric/Cost of the said route 3. Next hop in the said route What is the state of table when the router is initially powered on? When the router is initially powered on it has the configurations of its local n etwork in its table i.e., 192.168.1.0/24 is the destination IP which is reachabl e, Next hop which is 192.168.1.1/24, and metric may be any value like 1, 2 etc. When the router connects to our server then it attains WAN settings through DHCP too. What are the settings provided by DHCP on our servers to the customer CPE? These are 1. WAN IP 2. Subnet mask 3. Default gateway (server address)

4. Metric 5. DNS settings etc etc \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ Anding process in PCs? Before sending any packets to destination, the system performs the ANDing of des tination IP address and subnet mask and if the resultant network ID is located i n its routing table then it forwards the packet to its default gateway otherwise the packet is dropped in the computer Routing table lookup? When the router performs lookup it bases its decision on the following criteria in the order they are given. 1. Longest prefix match a. Parent routes - these are the classful network IDs i.e., /24, /16, /8, /32, etc c. Child routes - these are the routes of different parent class es e.g., /28, /29, /30, etc are the child routes of /24 parent route 2. Administrative distance - Each protocol has its own value for adminis trative distance. It is sort of the level of authencity/authority of passing inf ormation 3. Metric - This depends on BW of the routes and they depend on protocol s e.g., for OSPF the lower the metric the higher the preference whereas for EIGR P the higher the metric the higher the preference. The router knows what a metri c means as it is running the protocols which provide these metrics If all of the above criteria are equal for two routes then the router divides th e packets to be sent between the routes \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ ATM Header (5 bytes): UNI: VPI (Virtual Path Identifier) - Identifies a group of virtual channels = 1 byte VCI (Virtual Channel Identifier) - Identifies a virtual channel = 2 bytes GFC (Generic Flow Control) - 0000 shows uncontrolled GFC and some value in this field means flow control is employed. The flow control means that the traffic be tween user and network will be controlled = 4 bits PT (Payload Type) - 1st PT bit is used to indicate the data being carried is eit her control data or user data, 2nd bit i.e., R bit is used to indicate congestio n (1 means there is congestion), 3rd bit is used to indicate if it is the last c ell of the data being carried (packet is divided into cells) CLP (Cell Loss Priority) - If it is set then it means that if the congestion bi t in PT field is set then this cell will be dropped = 1 bit HEC (Header Error Control) - Calculated using an algorithm to detect and correct single bit errors and detect multiple bit errors (but not correct them) = 1 byt e NNI:

GFC is not present and its 4 bits are alloted to VPI PPPoE: PPP ID - specifies the type of protocol being carried in payload of the PPPoE he ader = 2 bytes Header (6 bytes): Version + Type = 4 + 4 bits = 1byte Code = 1byte Session ID - a unique ID which identifies the session of the customer with the B RAS = 2 bytes Length - size of data in the data portion of the packet = 2 bytes IPv4: Header (20 bytes): Version - IP version no = 4 bits Header length - No of 32-bit words in header = 4-bits Total length - Total length of the IP packet = 2 bytes Identification - To uniquely identify the fragments of an original IP packet = 2 bytes Flags - bit 0 = reserved and should be zero, bit 1 = DF(dont fragment) bit - sho uld be set if packet has to be dropped when fragmentation is required (for syste ms which dont support fragmented IP packets), bit 2 = MF (more fragments) - when more fragments are coming then it is set, if it is the last fragment then it is zero in which case fragmentation offset will indicate that it is a fragment = 3 bits Fragment offset - specifies in bytes the beginning of the current offset = 13 bi ts Time to live - expresses the time in seconds after which the packet is discarded = 1 byte Protocol - protocol in the data portion of the packet = 1 byte Header checksum - to detect NOT correct errors = 2 bytes Source IP field = 4 bytes Destination IP field = 4 bytes TCP: Header (20 bytes - 60 bytes): Source port = 2 bytes Destination port = 2 bytes Sequence number = 4 bytes Acknowledgement number = 4 bytes Data offset - size of tcp header = 4bits Window size = 2 bytes Checksum = 2 bytes UDP Header = 12 bytes \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\