NETWORK THEORY

TERMS:
ELECTRIC NETWORK: An interconnection of various electric elements, connected in manner whatsoever, is called an electric network. CIRCUIT: A circuit is a closed conducting path through which an electric current either flows or intends to flow. If a network contains atleast one closed path, it is called an electric circuit. PARAMETERS: Various elements of an electric circuit or circuit elements are called its parameters. E.g. resistance, inductance, capacitance. Circuit element consists of two terminals. ACTIVE ELEMENT: Active elements are those capable of delivering power to some external device. An active element is defined as one that delivers an average power greater than zero to some external device over an infinite time interval. E.g. Ideal energy sources, transistor PASSIVE ELEMENT: Passive elements are those, which are capable only of receiving power. A passive element is defined as one that cannot supply an average power greater than zero over an infinite time interval. E.g. Resistors, capacitors, inductors (Inductors & Capacitors are capable of storing finite amount of energy and return it later to an external element) LINEAR ELEMENT: A circuit element is linear if relation between current and voltage remains constant or its voltage current characteristic is at all times a straight line through the origin. It obeys the principle of superposition. E.g. Resistor NONLINEAR ELEMENT: If relation between current and voltage is not constant, a circuit element is nonlinear. E.g. Capacitor, Inductor BILATERAL ELEMENT: In a bilateral element, the voltage-current relation is same for current flowing in either direction. E.g. Transmission lines UNILATERAL ELEMENT: In a unilateral element, the voltage-current relation is not same for current flowing in both directions. E.g. Vacuum diode, diode rectifiers etc.

LUMPED ELEMENT: If the element is concentrated at a particular point and is electrically separable it is known as a lumped element. E.g. Resistors, capacitors, inductors, transformers

DISTRIBUTED ELEMENT: If the elements are spatially distributed and is not electrically separable it is known as a distributed element. E.g. Transmission line NODE: Node is a junction in a circuit where two or more circuit elements are connected together. Voltage of any node w.r.t a datum or ground is known as node voltage or nodal voltage. Voltage between any pair of nodes is node-pair voltage.

BRANCH: Branch is a part of the network, which lies between two junctions. LOOP: Loop is a closed path in a circuit in which no element or node is encountered more than once. MESH: Mesh is a loop that contains no other loop within it. VECTOR: Vector is a generalized multidimensional quantity having both magnitude and direction. PHASOR: Phasor is a two dimensional vector used in electrical technology which relates to voltage and current.

SOURCES OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

INDEPENDENT SOURCES
Voltage or current sources, which do not depend on any other quantity in the circuit, are known as independent sources. VOLTAGE SOURCE Ideal voltage source is a 2-terminal element which maintains a terminal voltage V, whatever is the value of current through its terminals. At any instant, the value of terminal voltage is a constant w.r.t current.

In practical voltage source the voltage across the terminals keeps falling as the current through it increases. Practical voltage source can be explained as an ideal voltage source in series with a resistance. Then, the terminal voltage is given by,

v1 = v i1 r

where i1 is the current flowing and r is internal resistance of a practical voltage source

Practical voltage source approaches ideal voltage source when r becomes zero.

 CURRENT SOURCE Ideal current source is a 2-terminal element, which maintains a current I flowing through its terminals regardless of the value of voltage. At any instant, the value of current is a constant w.r.t terminal voltage.

In practical current source the current through the source decreases as the voltage across it increases. Practical current source can be explained as an ideal voltage source in series with a resistance. Then, the terminal voltage is given by,

v1 = v i1 r
practical voltage source

where i1 is the current flowing and r is internal resistance of a

Practical voltage source approaches ideal voltage source when r becomes zero.

 DEPENDENT SOURCES OR CONTROLLED SOURCES

Voltage or current sources, which depend on any other quantity in the circuit (that may be either current or voltage), are known as dependent sources. They do not exist as physical entities. Dependent sources are of 4 types: (1) Voltage Dependent Voltage Source or Voltage Controlled Voltage Source

In this the voltage source depends upon the voltage across another branch v. a is the constant of proportionality and it has no unit. (2) Current Dependent Voltage Source or Current Controlled Voltage Source

In this the voltage source depends upon the current in another branch i. is the constant of proportionality and its unit is .

(3) Voltage Dependent Current Source or Voltage Controlled Current Source

In this the current source depends upon the voltage across another branch v. g is the constant of proportionality and its unit is Siemens. (4) Current Dependent Current Source or Current Controlled Current Source

In this the current source depends upon the current in another branch i. is the constant of proportionality and it has no unit.

SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
A real physical source is represented by, (a) a resistance in series with an ideal voltage source (b) a resistance parallel with an ideal current source

In fig (a), output voltage at terminal AB, v1 = v i1 R In fig (b) current flowing in the resistance R will be i i1, so that voltage at terminal AB, v1 = i R i1 R In order that circuits in (a) and (b) be equal, v = i R Hence if it is required to convert a voltage source v in series with an internal resistance R into an equivalent current source, it is done by replacing the voltage source with a current source of value v / R, placed in parallel with a resistance R. If a current source i in parallel with a resistance R is to be converted into a voltage source, it is achieved by substituting a voltage source i R in series with a resistance R. E.g: (2) (1)

CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
Circuit analysis is done in order to simplify complicated networks and to calculate the solutions easily. Certain laws and methods are applied in order to simplify circuits such as Kirchoffs laws, Mesh analysis, Nodal analysis, Superposition theorem, Thevenins theorem etc.

KIRCHOFFS CURRENT LAW (KCL)

Kirchoffs current law states as follows, In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of currents meeting at a point or junction is zero. i.e.; current entering a node is equal to the current leaving the node.

Eg: Assume the incoming currents as positive and outgoing currents as negative, then, (- I1 ) + I2 + I3 + (- I4 ) = 0 I2 + I3 = I4 + I1 Incoming Currents = Outgoing Currents This law is also known as Kirchoffs point law or Kirchoffs first law or Kirchoffs junction rule (nodal rule).

KIRCHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW (KVL)

Kirchoffs voltage law states that, The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistance (or impedance) in each of the conductors in any closed path in a network plus the algebraic sum of e.m.f in the path is zero.

IR+ CONVENTIONS Following conventions can be used: (a) Sign of battery e.m.f :

e.m.f = 0

As we move from ve terminal to +ve terminal of the battery there is rise in potential, hence this voltage should be given +ve sign.

As we move from +ve terminal to -ve terminal of the battery there is fall in potential, hence this voltage should be given -ve sign.

(b)

Sign of IR drop: If we go through a resistor (or impedance) in the same

direction as the current, then there is a fall in potential because current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential. Hence this voltage fall should be taken as ve.

If we go through a resistor (or impedance) in the opposite direction as the current, then there is a rise in potential because current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential. Hence this voltage fall should be taken as +ve.

Note: The sign of voltage drop across a resistor (or impedance) depends on the direction of current through that resistor (or impedance) but is independent of the polarity of any other source of e.m.f in the circuit under consideration. (c) Assumed Direction of Current: The direction of current flow may be assumed either clockwise or anticlockwise (preferably clockwise). If the assumed direction of current is not the actual direction, then on solving the question, this current will be found to have a minus sign. If the answer is +ve, then assumed direction is same as the actual direction. E.g. Consider the closed path ABCDA. We can write the KVL equation of the loop and apply the above stated conventions.

Applying KVL to ABDCA, - I1 R1 I2 R2 E2 + I3 R3 + E1 I4 R4 = 0 E1 E2 = I1 R1 + I2 R2 I3 R3 + I4 R4

MAXWELLS LOOP CURRENT OR MESH METHOD

In this method, we consider loop or mesh currents instead of currents in the various elements or branch currents. Here currents in different meshes are assigned continuous paths so that they do not split at a junction into branch currents. Mesh analysis is applicable only for planar networks. A mesh is defined as a loop which does not contain any other loops within it .To apply mesh analysis our first step is to check whether the circuit is planar or not and second is to select the mesh currents. Finally write kirchoffs voltage law equations in terms of unknowns and solving them leads to the final solution. Figure shows 2 batteries E1 and E2 connected in the network. Let the loop currents for the 3 meshes be I1, I2 and I3. Assume the direction of all the three currents as clockwise.

Mesh1: When Z4 is considered as a part of 1st loop, current through it is (I1 I2) Applying KVL, E1 (I1 Z1) Z4 (I1 I2) = 0 - (I1 Z1) - (I1 Z4) + (I2 Z4) = - E1 (Z1 + Z4) I1 (Z4) I2 = E1 Mesh 2: When Z4 is considered as a part of 2nd loop, current through it is (I2 I1). When Z5 is considered as a part of 2nd loop, current through it is (I2 I3). Applying KVL, - (I2 Z2) (I2 I3) Z5 (I2 I1) Z4 = 0 - (I2 Z2) (I2 Z5) + (I3 Z5) (I2 Z4) + (I1 Z4) = 0 - (Z4) I1 + (Z2 + Z4+ Z5) I2 - (Z5) I3 = 0 Mesh 3: When Z5 is considered as a part of 3rd loop, current through it is (I3 I2). Applying KVL, - (I3 I2) Z5 (I3 Z3) E2 = 0 (2) (1)

- (I3 Z5) + (I2 Z5) (I3 Z3) = E2 - (Z5) I2 + (Z5 + Z3) I3 = - E2 (3)

Equations (1), (2) and (3) can be written in matrix form as,

(4) [Z] [I] = [V] Equation (5) gives Ohms law in matrix form. From (4), (5)

The value of currents are given by,

MESH ANALYSIS BY INSPECTION From equation (4),

IMPEDANCE MATRIX

(a), (e) and (j) = Represents the self impedance of mesh (1), (2) and (3) which is sum of the impedances in mesh (1), (2) and (3) and can be denoted as Z11, Z22 and Z33 respectively. Rest of the elements in the impedance matrix represents the mutual impedance between meshes taken two at a time. (b) = (c) = (d) = (f) = [Sum of all impedances common to mesh (1) and (2)] ; Denoted as Z12 [Sum of all impedances common to mesh (1) and (3)] ; Denoted as Z13 [Sum of all impedances common to mesh (2) and (1)] ; Denoted as Z21 [Sum of all impedances common to mesh (2) and (3)] ; Denoted as Z23 [Sum of all impedances common to mesh (3) and (1)] ; Denoted as Z31 [Sum of all impedances common to mesh (3) and (2)] ; Denoted as Z32

(g) = (h) = Also, Z12 = Z21 Z23 = Z32 Z31 = Z13

CURRENT MATRIX I1, I2 and I3 represent the current in mesh (1), (2) and (3) respectively. VOLTAGE MATRIX E1 Represent the algebraic sum of voltages in mesh (1) E2 Represent the algebraic sum of voltages in mesh (2) E3 Represent the algebraic sum of voltages in mesh (3) The generalized form of the above matrix is given as,

Note: It would be easier if direction of loop current is taken as clockwise because only then, (i) all self impedances will always be ve (ii)all mutual impedances will always be +ve

SUPER MESH ANALYSIS

Suppose any one of the branches in the network has a current source, then it is difficult to apply mesh analysis straight forward. An easier method is by using supermesh analysis. A supermesh is constituted by 2 adjacent loops that have a common current source. E.g .

Supermesh AHGFCBA Applying KVL, V (I1Z1) (I2 I3) Z3 = 0 V (I1Z1) (I2Z3) + (I3Z3) = 0 - (I1Z1) (I2Z3) + (I3Z3) = -V Mesh 3 Applying KVL, - (I3 I2) Z3 (I3Z4) = 0 - (I3Z3) + (I2Z3) (I3Z4) = 0 (I2Z3) (Z3 + Z4)I3 = 0 I1 I2 = I (3) (2) (1)

Solving equations (1), (2) and (3) we can obtain the values of loop currents

NODAL ANALYSIS
Node equation is based directly on KCL. For the application of this method, every junction in the network where 3 or more branches meet is regarded as a node. One of these is regarded as the reference node or datum node or zero potential node. Hence the no. of simultaneous equations to be solved becomes (n 1) where n is the no. of independent nodes. Consider the circuit which has 3 nodes. One of these i.e; node 3 has been taken as the reference node. Current directions can be chosen arbitrarily. Current direction followed here is such that all currents leave their respective nodes. V a represents the potential at node 1 with reference to datum node 3. Similarly, Vb represents the potential at node 2 with reference to datum node 3.

At node (1) I1 + I4 + I2 = 0 Applying KVL in the 1st branch,

(1) Va E1 (I1Z1) = 0 I1 = Va E1 Z1 (2)

Applying KVL in the 4th branch, Va (I4Z4) = 0 I4 = V a Z4 Applying KVL in the 2nd branch, Va + E3 (I2Z2) Vb = 0 I2 = Va + E3 Vb Z2 Substituting (2), (3) and (4) in (1), Va E1 + Va + Va + E3 Vb = 0 Z1 Z4 Z2 (1/Z1 + 1/Z2 + 1/Z4) Va (1/Z2)Vb = E1 E3 Z1 Z2 At node (2) I5 + I2 + I3 = 0 Applying KVL in the 5th branch, Vb (I5Z5) = 0 (6) (5) (4) (3)

I5 = V b Z5 Applying KVL in the 3rd branch, Vb (I3Z3) E3 = 0 I3 = Vb E2 Z3 Applying KVL in the 2nd branch, Vb - E3 (I2Z2) Va = 0

(7)

(8)

I2 = Vb - E3 Va (9) Z2 Substituting (7), (8) and (9) in (6), Vb E2 + Vb + Vb - E3 Va = 0 Z3 Z5 Z2 (1/Z2)Va + (1/Z2 + 1/Z3 + 1/Z5) Vb = E2 + E3 Z1 Z2 (10)

Solving equations (5) and (10) we can obtain the values of Va and Vb. NODAL ANALYSIS BY INSPECTION At node (1), the terms are, (a) Product of node potential Va and sum of the reciprocal of branch impedances connected to this node (1/Z1 + 1/Z2 + 1/Z4) (b) (Adjacent Potential / Interconnecting Impedance) i.e; Vb/Z2 (c) (Adjacent Battery Voltage / Interconnecting Impedance) i.e; E1/Z1 (d) + Battery between 2 nodes / Impedance between 2 nodes Note: Sign of this term depends upon the polarity of the battery (e) All the above set to zero Similarly, equation at node (2) can be written.

SUPERNODE ANALYSIS
If there is a voltage source alone between two nodes then it is slightly difficult to apply nodal analysis. This difficulty is overcome using super node analysis. In this method the

two adjacent nodes that are connected by a voltage source are reduced to a single node and then equations are formed by applying KCL as usual. Eg:

In the above circuit, At node 1, I = I1 + Z1 I2 Z2 (1) I = V1 + V1-V2

Due to the presence of voltage source Vx in between nodes 2 and 3, combined equation for node 2 and 3 is given by, I2 Z2 Also, V2 V3 = Vx + I3 + I4 + Z3 Z5 (3) I5 4 = 0 (2) V2 V1 + V2 + V3 + V3 Vy = 0

Solving (1), (2) and (3) we obtain the values of node voltages.

COUPLED CIRCUITS
Two circuits are said to be coupled when energy transfer takes place from one circuit to another when one of the circuits are energized. There are many types of coupling like conductive coupling, inductive or magnetic coupling .Certain coupled elements are frequently used in network analysis and synthesis. Transformer, transistors and electronic pts are some among these circuits. Eg for Conductive coupling: Potential divider

Eg for Inductive coupling: 2 winding transformer

CONDUCTIVELY COUPLED AND MUTUAL IMPEDANCE

A circuit in which there no magnetic coupling is known as conductively coupled circuit. It can be represented as a two port network.

The mutual impedance for a conductively coupled circuit can be defined as the voltage developed at one port per unit current at the other port

SELF INDUCTANCE
Whenever current flows through a coil a magnetic field will be developed across the coil. When we increase the current the flux will also incase and if decrease the current correspondingly flux will also decrease. When the flux linking with the coil changes an emf will be developed across the coil according to Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction. The induced emf can be represented as V = L( di/dt).Its unit is Henry.

MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
Its a property associated with 2 or more coils or inductors which are in close proximity and the presence of common magnetic flux which links them. Consider 2 coils L1 and L2 which are sufficiently close together so that the flux produced by I1 in coil L1 also links with coil L2

When a voltage V1 is applied across L1 ,a current I1 will start flowing in the coil and produce a flux . This flux also links coil L2 ,if I1 is changed w.r.t time the flux would also change w.r.t. time. The time varying flux surrounding the second coil L2 induces an emf or voltage across the terminals of L2.Thi voltage is proportional to the time rate of change of current flowing through the first coil L1. The 2 coils are said to be inductively coupled .Because of this property they are called coupled elements or coupled circuits and the induced voltage or emf is called the voltage of mutual induction and is given by V2(t) = M di1(t)/dt V2 voltage induced in coil L2 M Mutual inductance If current is made to pass through coil L2 with coil L1 open, would cause voltage V1 in the coil.

V1(t) = M di2(t)/dt

In general if a pair of linear time variant coupled coils with a non-zero current in each of the 2 coils, produces a mutual voltage in each coil due to the flow of current in the other coil. This mutual voltage is present independently of and in addition to the voltage due to self induction. Mutual inductance is also measured in Henry and s positive .But the mutually induced emf may be either positive or negative, depending on the physical construction of the coil and reference direction.

DOT CONVENTION IN COUPLED CIRCUITS

Dot convention is used to establish the choice of correct sign for the mutually induced voltages in coupled circuits. Circular dot marks or special symbols are placed at the one end of the two coils which are mutually coupled to simplify the diagrammatic representation of the windings around its core. When the currents through each of the mutually coupled coils are going away from the dot or towards the dot the mutual inductance is positive, while when the current through the coil is leaving the dot from one coil and entering the other, the mutual inductance is negative.

ELECTRICAL EQUIVALENCE OF MAGNETICALLY COUPLED CIRCUITS.

From the circuit V1(t) = L1( di1/dt)+M di2(t)/dt V2(t) = L2( di2/dt )+M di1(t)/dt. Hence mutually induced voltages can be shown as controlled voltage sources

COEFFICIENT OF COUPLING
The amount of coupling between the inductively coupled coils is expressed in terms of the coefficient of coupling which is defined as K= M/ L1L 2 Co-efficient f coupling is always less than unity and has a maximum value of 1.This case for K =1 is called perfect coupling, when the entire flux of one coil links with the other.

ANALYSIS OF MULTI WINDING COUPLED CIRCUITS

Inductively coupled multi winding circuits can be analyzed by using Kirchoffs laws by loop current methods.
L11 For such a system inductance can be defined as L = L 21 L 31 L12 L 22 L 32 L13 L 23 L 33

Where L11, L22, L33 -L12, L21, L31

--

self Inductance of coupled circuits mutual Inductance of coupled circuits

Voltage across the coils [V] =[L] [di/dt] where V and i are the vectors of branch voltages and currents respectively

SERIES CONNECTION OF COUPLED CIRCUITS

Two inductors of self inductances L1 and L2 and mutual inductance of M are connected in series .There are 2 kinds of series connection. 1) Series aiding 2) Series opposing

SERIES AIDING

In the case of series aiding connection, the currents in both inductors at any instant of time are in the same direction. Hence the magnetic fluxes of self induction and mutual induction linking wit each element add together. If 1 and 2 are the flux produced by coils 1 and 2 respectively then the total flux is = 1 + 2 1 = L1i1 + Mi2 2 = L2i2 + Mi1 = Li = L1i1 + Mi2 + L1i1 + Mi2 As series circuit i1 =i2 = i L eq= L1 + L2 + 2M

SERIES OPPOSING

In the case of series aiding connection, the currents in both inductors at any instant of time are in the opposite direction. = 1 + 2 1 = L1i1 - Mi2 2 = L2i2 - Mi1 = Li = L1i1 - Mi2 + L1i1 - Mi2 As series circuit i1 =i2 = i L = L1 + L2 - 2M