Fundamentals of

Renewable Energy Processes

Aldo Vieira da Rosa
Stanford University

Amsterdam Boston Heidelberg London New York Oxford

Paris San Diego San Francisco Singapore Sydney Tokyo

Table of Contents
Page
Chapter Book
Foreword
Acknowledgments

XV

xvii

Chapter 1 Generalities
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10

Units and Constants

Energy and Utility
Conservation of Energy
Planetary Energy Balance
The Energy Utilization Rate
The Population Explosion
The Market Penetration Function
Planetary Energy Resources
Energy Utilization
The Ecology Question
1.10.1 Biological
1.10.2 Mineral
1.10.3 Subterranean
1.10.4 Undersea
1.11 Nuclear Energy
1.11.1 Fission
1.11.2 Fusion
1.11.3 Cold Fusion
1.12 Financing
References
Problems

Part I

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.8
1.9
1.13
1.16
1.19
1.20
1.20
1.21
1.22
1.22
1.25
1.27
1.31
1.36
1.39
1.41

1
2
3
4
5
8
9
13
16
19
20
20
21
22
22
25
27
31
36
39
41

2.1
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.3
2.4
2.5

53
53
54
55
55
56
57

Heat Engines

Chapter 2 A Minimum of Thermodynamics

and of Kinetic Theory of Gases
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7

The Motion of Molecules

Temperature
The Perfect-Gas Law
Internal Energy
Specific Heat at Constant Volume
The First Law of Thermodynamics
The Pressure-Volume Work

2.8
2.9

Specific Heat at Constant Pressure

Adiabatic Processes
2.9.1 Abrupt Compression
2.9.2 Gradual Compression
2.9.3 p-V diagrams
2.9.4 Polytropic Law
2.10 Isothermal Processes
2.11 Functions of State
2.12 Enthalpy
2.13 Degrees of Freedom
2.14 Entropy
2.14.1 Changes in Entropy
2.15 Reversibility
2.15.1 Causes of Irreversibility
2.15.1.1 Friction
2.15.1.2 Heat Transfer Across
Temperature Differences
2.15.1.3 Unrestrained Compression
or Expansion of a Gas
2.16 Negentropy
2.17 How to Plot Statistics
2.18 Maxwellian Distribution
2.19 Fermi-Dirac Distribution
2.20 Boltzmann's Law
Appendix (Symbology)
Problems
Chapter 3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5

2.5
2.6
2.6
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.15
2.16
2.17
2.19
2.20
2.21
2.23
2.23

57
58
58
62
63
64
65
67
68
69
71
72
73
75
75

2.23

75

2.24
2.24
2.25
2.26
2.29
2.31
2.33
2.34

76
76
77
78
81
83
85
86

3.1
3.4
3.5
3.9
3.13
3.13
3.13
3.13
3.17
3.18
3.23
3.25
3.28
3.29

89
92
93
97
101
101
101
101
105
106
111
113
116
117

Mechanical Heat Engines

Heats of Combustion
Carnot Efficiency
Engine Types
Efficiency of an Otto Engine
Gasoline
3.5.1
Heat of Combustion
3.5.2
Antiknock Characteristics
3.6
Knocking
3.7
Hybrid Engines for Automobiles
3.8 The Stirling Engine
3.9 The Implementation of the Stirling Engine
3.10 Cryogenic Engines
References
Problems

Table of Contents

Chapter 4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7

Ocean Thermal Energy Converters

Introduction
OTEC Configurations
Turbines
OTEC Efficiency
Example of OTEC Design
Heat Exchangers
Siting
References
Problems

Chapter 5

6.1
6.2
6.3

125
126
128
130
131
133
134
135
136

5.1
5.6
5.8
5.11
5.12
5.16
5.17
5.18
5.20
5.22
5.25
5.25
5.29
5.32
5.33
5.33
5.34
5.37
5.38
5.39
5.43
5.45
5.46
5.47

139
144
146
149
150
154
155
156
158
160
163
163
167
170
171
171
172
175
176
177
181
183
184
185

6.1
6.3
6.6
6.8

199
201
204
206

Thermoelectricity

5.1 Experimental Observations

5.2
Thermoelectric Thermometers
5.3 The Thermoelectric Generator
5.4
Figure of Merit of a Material
5.5
The Wiedemann-Franz-Lorenz Law
5.6
Thermal Conductivity in Solids
5.7
Seebeck Coefficient of Semiconductors
5.8
Performance of Thermoelectric Materials
5.9
Some Applications of Thermoelectric Generators
5.10 Design of a Thermoelectric Generator
5.11 Thermoelectric Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
5.11.1 Design Using an Existing Thermocouple
5.11.2 Design Based on Given Semiconductors
5.12 Temperature Dependence
5.13 Battery Architecture
5.14 The Physics of Thermoelectricity
5.14.1 The Seebeck Effect
5.14.2 The Peltier Effect
5.14.3 The Thomson Effect
5.14.4 Kelvin's Relations
5.15 Direction and Signs
Appendix
References
Problems
Chapter 6

4.1
4.2
4.4
4.6
4.7
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12

Thermionics

Introduction
Thermionic Emission
Electron Transport
6.3.1 The Child-Langmuir Law

6.4

6.5

6.6
6.7

6.8

Lossless Diodes with Space Charge Neutralization

6.4.1 Interelectrode Potentials
6.4.2 V-J Characteristics
6.4.3 The Open-Circuit Voltage
6.4.4 Maximum Power Output
Losses in Vacuum Diodes with No Space Charge
6.5.1 Efficiency
6.5.2 Radiation Losses
6.5.2.1 Radiation of Heat
6.5.2.2 Efficiency with Radiation Losses Only
6.5.3 Excess Electron Energy
6.5.4 Heat Conduction
6.5.5 Lead Resistance
Real Vacuum Diodes
Vapor Diodes
6.7.1 Cesium Adsorption
6.7.2 Contact Ionization
6.7.3 Thermionic Ion Emission
6.7.4 Space Charge Neutralization Conditions
6.7.5 V-J Characteristics
High-Pressure Diodes
References
Problems

Chapter 7
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7

Chapter 9
9.1
9.2

7.1
7.3
7.4
7.6
7.7
7.9
7.12
7.14

241
243
244
246
247
249
252
254

8.5

259

9.1
9.2

263
264

Radio-Noise Generators

References
Part II

210
210
212
212
213
214
214
215
215
217
219
220
220
220
221
222
225
226
237
228
232
235
236

AMTEC

Operating Principle
Vapor Pressure
Pressure Drop in the Sodium Vapor Column
Mean Free Path of Sodium Ions
V-I Characteristics of an AMTEC
Efficiency
Thermodynamics of an AMTEC
References

Chapter 8

6.12
6.12
6.14
6.14
6.15
6.16
6.16
6.17
6.17
6.19
6.21
6.22
6.22
6.22
6.23
6.24
6.27
6.28
6.29
6.30
6.34
6.37
6.38

The World of Hydrogen

Fuel Cells

Introduction
Electrochemical Cells
viii

Table of Contents

9.3

9.4

9.5

9.6

9.7

9.8

Fuel Cell Classification

9.3.1 Temperature of Operation
9.3.2 State of the Electrolyte
9.3.3 Type of Fuel
9.3.4 Chemical Nature of the Electrolyte
Fuel Cell Reactions
9.4.1 Alkaline Electrolytes
9.4.2 Acid Electrolytes
9.4.3 Molten Carbonate Electrolytes
9.4.4 Ceramic Electrolytes
9.4.5 Methanol Fuel Cells
Typical Fuel Cell Configurations
9.5.1 Demonstration Fuel Cell (KOH)
9.5.2 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFC)
9.5.2.1 A Fuel Cell Battery (Engelhard)
9.5.2.2 First-Generation Fuel Cell Power Plant
9.5.3 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC)
9.5.4 Ceramic Fuel Cells (SOFC)
9.5.4.1 High Temperature Ceramic Fuel Cells
9.5.4.2 Low Temperature Ceramic Fuel Cells
9.5.5, Solid-Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells
9.5.5.1 Cell Construction
9.5.5.2 Membrane
9.5.5.3 Catalysts
9.5.5.4 Water Management
9.5.6 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells
9.5.7 Solid Acid Fuel Cells
9.5.8 Rechargeable Fuel Cells (NiMH)
9.5.9 Metallic Fuel CellsZinc-Air Fuel Cells
Fuel Cell Applications
9.6.1 Stationary Power Plants
9.6.2 Automotive Power Plants
9.6.3 Other Applications
The Thermodynamics of Fuel Cells
9.7.1 Heat of Combustion
9.7.2 Free Energy
9.7.3 Efficiency of Reversible Fuel Cells
9.7.4 Effects of Pressure and Temperature on the
Enthalpy and Free Energy Changes of a Reaction
9.7.4.1 Enthalpy Dependence on/Temperature
9.7.4.2 Enthalpy Dependence on Pressure
9.7.4.3 Free Energy Dependence on Temperature
9.7.4.4 Free Energy Dependence on Pressure
9.7.4.5 Voltage Dependence on Temperature
Performance of Real Fuel Cells

9.6
9.6
9.7
9.7
9.8
9.8
9.9
9.9
9.10
9.10
9.10
9.12
9.12
9.13
9.13
9.14
9.15
9.16
9.21
9.23
9.25
9.26
9.28
9.29
9.30
9.31
9.33
9.34
9.36
9.37
9.38
9.38
9.40
9.41
9.41
9.43
9.46

268
268
269
269
270
270
271
271
272
272
272
274
274
275
275
276
277
278
283
285
287
288
290
291
292
293
295
296
298
299
300
301
302
303
303
305
308

9.47
9.47
9.49
9.50
9.54
9.56
9.57

309
309
311
312
316
318
319

9.SJ.I Current Delivered by a Fuel Cell

9.1
3.2 Efficiency of Practical Fuel Cells
9.1
J.3 Characteristics of Fuel Cells
9.5.3.1 Scaling Fuel Cells
9.i
J.4 More Complete VjY Characteristics
of Fuel Cells
3.5 Heat Dissipation by Fuel Cells
9.1
9.5.5.1 Heat Removal from Fuel Cells
References
Problems
Chapter 10

9.57
9.58
9.59
9.62

319
320
321
324

9.63
9.71
9.73
9.74
9.76

325
333
335
336
338

10.1
10.3
10.3
10.4
10.4
10.5
10.5
10.6
10.6
10.7
10.7
10.8
10.8
10.8
10.8

353
355
355
356
356
357
357
358
358
359
359
360
360
360
360

10.9
10.11
10.11
10.16
10.16
10.17
10.17
10.18
10.19
10.19
10.22
10.24
10.25
10.25
10.31
10.33

361
363
363
368
368
369
369
370
371
371
374
376
377
377
383
385

Hydrogen Production

10.1 Generalities
10.2 Chemical Production of Hydrogen
10.2.1 Historical
10.2.2 Modern Production
10.2.2.1 Partial Oxidation
10.2.2.2 Steam Reforming
10.2.2.3 Thermal Decomposition
10.2.2.4 Syngas
10.2.2.5 Shift Reaction
10.2.2.6 Methanation
10.2.2.7 Methanol
10.2.2.8 Syncrude
10.2.3 Hydrogen Purification
10.2.3.1 Desulfurization
10.2.3.2 CO2 Removal
10.2.2.3 CO Removal
and Hydrogen Extraction
10.2.4 Hydrogen Production Plants
10.2.4.1 Compact Fuel Processors
10.3 Electrolytic Hydrogen
10.3.1 Introduction
10.3.2 Electrolyzer Configurations
10.3.2.1 Liquid Electrolyte Electrolyzers
10.3.2.2 Solid Polymer Electrolyte Electrolyzers
10.3.2.3 Ceramic Electrolyte Electrolyzers
10.3.3 Efficiency of Electrolyzers
10.3.4 Concentration-Differential Electrolyzers
10.3.5 Electrolytic Hydrogen Compressors
10.4 Thermolytic Hydrogen
10.4.1 Direct Dissociation of Water
10.4.2 Chemical Dissociation of Water
10.5 Photolytic Hydrogen

Table of Contents

10.5.1 Generalities
10.5.2 Solar Photolysis
10.6 Photobiologic Hydrogen Production
References
Problems
Chapter 11

Chapter 12

385
386
387
389
390

11.3
11.5
11.7
11.8
11.8
11.10
11.11
11.11
11.17
11.21
11.25
11.29
11.32
11.33

399
401
403
404
404
406
407
407
413
417
421
425
428
429

12.1
12.4
12.4
12.7
12.7
12.10
12.11
12.11
12.11
12.11
12.12
12.13
12.14
12.15
12.15
12.16
12.17
12.18

445
448
448
451
451
454
455
455
455
455
456
457
458
459
459
460
461
462

Hydrogen Storage

11.1 Compressed Gas

11.2 Cryogenic Hydrogen
11.3 Storage of Hydrogen by Adsorption
11.4 Storage of Hydrogen in Chemical Compounds
11.4.1 Generalities
11.4.2 Hydrogen Carriers
11.4.3 Water Plus a Reducing Substance
|i
11.4.4 Metal Hydrides
t
11.4.4.1 Characteristics of Hydride Materials
11.4.4.2 Thermodynamics of Hydride Systems
11.5 Hydride Hydrogen Compressors
11.6 Hydride Heat Pumps
References
Problems
Part III

10.33
10.34
10.35
10.37
10.38

Energy from the Sun

Solar Radiation

12.1 The Nature of the Solar Radiation

12.2 Insolation
12.2.1 Generalities
12.2.2 Insolation on a Sun-Tracking Surface
12.2.3 Insolation on a Stationary Surface
12.2.4 Horizontal Surfaces
12.3 Solar Collectors
12.3.1 Solar Architechture
12.3.1.1 Exposure Control
12.3.1.2 Heat Storage
12.3.1.3 Circulation
12.3.1.4 Insulation
12.3.2 Flat Collectors
12.3.3 Evacuated Tubes
12.3.4 Concentrators
12.3.4.1 Holographuc Plates
12.3.4.2 Nonimaging Concentrators
\\ 12.4 Some Solar Plant Configurations
xi

12.4.1 High Temperature Solar Heat Engine

12.4.2 Solar Chimney
12.4.3 Solar Ponds
Appendix A (The Measurement of Time)
The Duration of an Hour
Time Zones
Time Offset
The Calendar
The Julian Day Number
Appendix B (Orbital Mechanics)
Sidereal versus Solar
Orbital Equation
Relationship Between
Ecliptic and Equatorial Coordinates
The Equation of Time
Orbital Eccentricity
Orbital Obliquity
References
Problems
Chapter 13

14.1
14.2
14.3

462
464
464
466
466
466
467
467
469
470
470
472

12.32
12.33
12.36
12.37
12.39
12.40

476
477
480
481
483
484

13.1
13.1
13.2
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.4
13.6
13.7
13.8
13.8
13.11
13.13
13.14
13.21
13.28
13.29

493
493
494
494
495
496
496
498
499
500
500
503
505
506
513
520
521

14.1
14.6
14.13

525
530
537

Biomass

13.1 Introduction
13.2 The Composition of Biomass
13.2.1 A Little Bit of Organic Chemistry
13.2.1.1 Hydrocarbons
13.2.1.2 Oxidation Stages of Hydrocarbons
13.2.1.3 Esters
13.2.1.4 Carbohydrates
13.3 Biomass as Fuel
13.3.1 Wood Gasifiers
13.3.2 Ethanol
13.3.2.1 Ethanol Production
13.3.2.2 Fermentation
13.3.3 Dissociated Alcohols
13.3.4 Anaerobic Digestion
13.4 Photosynthesis
References
Problems
Chapter 14

12.18
12.20
12.20
12.22
12.22
12.22
12.23
12.23
12.25
12.26
12.26
12.28

Photovoltaic Converters

Introduction
Theoretical Efficiency
Carrier Multiplication

Table of Contents

14.4 Spectrally Selective Beam Splitting

14.4.1 Cascaded Cells
14.4.2 Filterd Cells
14.4.3 Holographic Concentrators
14.5
Thermo-photovoltaic Cells
If'1 14.6 The Ideal and the Practical
14.7 The Photodiode
14.8 The Reverse Saturation Current
14.9 Practical Efficiency
14.10 Solar-Power Satellite
14. 10.1 Beam from Space
14. 10.2 Solar Energy to DC Conversion
14. 10.3 Microwave Generation
14. 10.4 Radiation System
14. 10.5 Receiving Array
14. 10.6 Attitude and Orbital Control
14. 10.7 Space Transportation
and Space Construction
14.10.8 Future of Space Solar Power Projects
Appendix A
Appendix B
References
Problems

hr

Part IV

14.14
14.15
14.16
14.17
14.17
14.19
14.20
14.40
14.42
14.44
14.46
14.46
14.47
14.48
14.49
14.50

538
539
540
541
541
543
544
564
566
568
570
570
571
572
573
574

14.50
14.51
14.52
14.53
14.60
14.61

574
575
576
577
584
585

15.1
15.4
15.4
15.6
15.7
15.8
15.8
15.9
15.10
15.12
15.12
15.13
15.13
15.13
15.14
15.15
15.16

597
600
600
602
603
604
604
605
606
608
608
609
609
609
610
611
612

Wind and Water

[{>- 'Chapter 15 Wind Energy

15.1 History
15.2 Wind Turbine Configurations
15.2.1 Drag-Type Wind Turbines
15.2.2 Lift-Type Wind Turbines
15.2.3 Magnus Effect Wind Machines
15.2.4 Vortex Wind Machines
15.3 Eolergometry
15.4 Availability of Wind Energy
15.5 Wind Turbine Characteristics
15.6 Principles of Aerodynamics
15.6.1 Flux
15.6.2 Power in the Wind
15.6.3 Dynamic Pressure
15.6.4 Wind Pressure
15.6.5 Available Power
15.6.6 Efficiency of a Wind Turbine
15.7 Airfoils
xiii

15.8 Reynolds Number

15.9 Aspect Ratio
15.10 Wind Turbine Analysis
15.11 Aspect Ratio (of a wind turbine)
15.12 Centrifugal Force
15.13 Performance Calculation
15.14 Magnus Effect
References
Problems

15.19
15.21
15.23
15.30
15.31
15.33
15.35
15.36
15.37

615
617
619
626
627
629
631
632
633

16.1
16.1
16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.4
16.5
16.5
16.6
16.7
16.8
16.8
16.9
16.11
16.11
16.13
16.13
16.14
16.14
16.14
16.15
16.15
16.16
16.16
16.16
16.16
16.16
16.19
16.22
16.24

651
651
651
652
653
654
654
655
655
656
657
658
658
659
661
661
663
663
664
664
664
665
665
666
666
666
666
666
669
672
674

Chapter 16 Ocean Engines

16.1 Introduction
16.2 Wave Energy
16.2.1 About Ocean Waves
16.2.1.1 The Velocity of Ocean Waves
16.2.1.2 Wave Height
16.2.1.3 Energy and Power
16.2.2 Wave Energy Converters
16.2.2.1 Offshore Wave-Energy Converters
16.2.2.1.1 Heaving Buoy Converters
16.2.2.1.2 Hinged Contour converters
16.2.2.1.3 Overtopping Converters
16.2.2.2 Shoreline Wave Energy Converters
16.2.2.2.1 Tapered Channel System
16.2.2.2.2 Wavegen System (OWC)
16.3 Tidal Energy
16.4 Energy from Currents
16.4.1 Marine Current Turbine System
16.4.1.1 Horizontal Forces
16.4.1.2 Anchoring Systems
16.4.1.3 Corrosion and Biological Fouling
16.4.1.4 Cavitation
16.4.1.5 Large Torque
16.4.1.6 Maintenance
16.4.1.7 Power Transmission
16.4.1.8 Turbine Farms
16.4.1.9 Ecology
16.4.1.10 Modularity
16.5 Salination Energy
16.6 The Osmotic Engine
References
Problems
Subject Index

677