GRADE12CHEMISTRY

OLYMPIADSCHOOL

WEDNESDAY2.30 4.30 WEDNESDAY 2 304 30 FRIDAY4.456.45

Structures and Properties of Substances (Chemical Bonding) (Ch i l B di )

Of more than one hundred elements that occur in nature or that have been produced synthetically, only th noble gases exist naturally as b d d th ti ll l the bl i t t ll single, uncombined atoms. The atoms of all other elements occur in some combined form, bonded together. b d dt th Chemical bonds are electrostatic forces that hold atoms together in compounds. Why, however, do atoms form bonds at all? The answer involves energy. In nature, systems of lower energy tend to be favoured over systems of higher energy. Said in a different way, lower-energy systems tend to have greater stability than higher-energy systems. Bonded atoms therefore tend to have lower energy than single atoms, therefore, single, uncombined atoms.

Using Lewis Structures to Represent Atoms in Chemical Bonding

Chemical bonding involves the interaction of valence electrons g Valence Electrons: the electrons that occupy the outermost principal energy level of an atom. You have used Lewis structures previously to indicate the valence electrons of atoms. To draw the Lewis structure of an atom, replace its nucleus and inner electrons with its atomic symbol Then add dots around the atomic symbol. symbol to represent the valence electrons (Many chemists place the dots starting at the top and continue adding dots clockwise). We will now learn how to draw Lewis structures to represent molecules and the simplest formula unit of an ionic solid. Drawing a Lewis structure for a molecule lets you see exactly how many electrons are involved in each bond, which helps to keep track of the number of valence electrons. Some chemists use dots only. Other chemists show the bonding pairs as lines between atoms. Dots are reserved for representing a lone pair (a non-bonding p ) of p g p ( g pair) electrons.

Ionic Bonding
The force of attraction between oppositely charged ions, cations {+} and anions {-}, constitute an ionic bond Ionic bonding bond. occurs between atoms of elements that have large differences in electronegativity usually a metal with a low electronegativity and a non-metal with high electronegativity. Th units of ionic compounds such as The it f i i d h sodium chloride and magnesium fluoride cannot be separated easily by direct heating f the h ti of th crystal salts. Th i t l lt The ions th t that make up the ionic solid are arranged in a specific array of repeating units. In solid sodium chloride, f example, th i di hl id for l the ions are arranged in a rigid lattice structure. In such systems, the cations and anions are arranged so that the system has the minimum possible energy.

Because of the large differences in electronegativity, the atoms in an ionic compound usually come from the s block metals and the p block non-metals. For example, magnesium in Group 2 and fluorine in Group 7 combine to form the i i compound magnesium fl id M F2 bi t f th ionic d i fluoride, MgF2. Through bonding, the atoms of each element obtain a valence electron configuration like that of the nearest noble g g gas. In this case, the nearest noble gas for both ions is neon.

Properties of Ionic Solids

Magnesium fluoride has many properties that are characteristic of ionic solids In general ionic solids have the following solids. general, properties: Crystalline with smooth, shiny surfaces y , y Hard but brittle Non-conductors of electricity and heat y High melting points Most ionic solids are also soluble in water.

Covalent Bonding
C Covalent b d are f l t bonds forces of attraction formed when atoms of a f tt ti f d h t f molecule share electrons. Covalent bonding involves a balance between the forces of attraction and repulsion that act between the nuclei and electrons of two or more atoms. This idea is represented with a molecule of hydrogen, H2. There is an optimum separation for two hydrogen atoms at which their nucleusnucleus electron attractions, nucleus-nucleus repulsions, and electronelectron repulsions achieve this balance. This optimum separation favours a minimum energy for the system and constitutes the system, covalent bond between the two hydrogen atoms. Unlike ionic bonding, in which electrons behave as if they are transferred from one atom to another, covalent bonding i t t th l t b di involves th sharing of pairs of l the h i f i f electrons.

 The quantum mechanical model, which we applied to the atom, can be extended to explain bonding. A covalent bo d may form when t o half-filled ato c orbitals co a e t bond ay o e two a ed atomic o b ta s from two atoms overlap to share the same region of space. A covalent bond involves the formation of a new orbital, caused by the overlapping of atomic orbitals. y pp g The new orbital has energy levels that are lower than those of the original atomic orbitals. Since electrons tend to occupy the lowest available energy level the new orbitals provide a level, more energetically favourable configuration than the two atoms had before they interacted.

Characteristics of Covalent Bonding g

Electron-sharing enables each atom in a covalent bond to acquire a noble gas configuration. configuration For H2 each atom acquires a H2, filled valence level like He by treating the shared electrons like part of its own composition. A single shared pair of electrons - a b di i l h d i f l t bonding pair - fills the valence level of both hydrogen atoms at the same time. The period 2 nonmetals, from C to F, must fill their 2s and their three 2p orbitals to acquire a noble gas configuration like Ne. Covalent bonding that involves these elements obeys the octet rule (filling 8 electrons) electrons). In the formation of the diatomic fluorine molecule, F2, for example, the bonding (shared) pair of electrons gives each fluorine atom a complete valence level. Each fluorine atom also has three unshared pairs of electrons. These pairs of electrons, called lone pairs, pairs are not involved in bonding bonding.

The covalent bond that holds molecules of hydrogen, fluorine, and hydrogen fluoride together is a single bond It involves a single bond. bonding pair of electrons. Some molecules are bonded together with two shared pairs of electrons. These are called double bonds. Carbon dioxide is an example of a covalent molecule that consists of double bonds. Molecules that are bonded with three shared pairs of electrons have triple bonds. Nitrogen, N2, another diatomic molecule, is a triple-bonded molecule.

BondEnergy gy
In chemistry, bond energy (E) is a measure of bond strength in a chemical bond. It is the heat required to break Avogadro's number of molecules into their individual t th i i di id l atoms. Bond energy i th energy required t b k th f B d is the i d to break the force of attraction between two atoms in a bond and to separate them. Thus, bond energy is a measure of the strength of a bond. You i ht Y might expect th t the bond energy would i t that th b d ld increase if more electrons l t were shared between two atoms because there would be an increase in charge density between the nuclei of the bonded atoms. In other words, you might predict th t d bl b d are stronger than single b d and th t i ht di t that double bonds t th i l bonds, d that triple bonds are stronger than double bonds.

Predicting Ionic and Covalent Bonds

What if you know the formula of a compound but dont know how atoms with higher electronegativity values attract electrons g g y more strongly than atoms with the lower electronegativity values. [ELECTRONEGATIVITY: the ability of an atom to attract electrons towards itself] itself]. In sodium chloride, for instance, chlorine (EN = 3.16) attracts an electron much more strongly than sodium ( gy (EN = 0.93). ) Therefore, sodiums valence electron has a very high probability of being found near chlorine, and a very low probability of being found near sodium sodium. A high electronegativity difference is characteristic of ionic compounds. p

- It is common for chemists to describe the formation of ionic p g compounds in terms of a transferring of electrons from one atom to another. For example, in forming sodium chloride, you often read that sodium loses its valence electron and that chlorine gains an electron. - Terms such as these - electron transfer, losing electrons, gaining t f l i l t i i electrons - make it easier to discuss and model the behaviour of atoms during ionic bonding and the formation of ionic compounds. - The figure provides a guide to classifying chemical b d b l if i h i l bonds based on d their electronegativity difference. Notice that this bonding continuum, as it is sometimes called, avoids definitive classifications. Instead, the character of chemical bonds changes g gradually with a change in electronegativity.

 Chemists consider bonded atoms with a difference in EN between 0 and 0.4 as being mostly covalent; electrons are shared equally or nearly equally. For bonded atoms that have a difference in EN between 0.4 and 1.7, the bond is termed polar covalent A polar covalent 17 covalent. bond is a covalent bond with an unequally shared pair of electrons between two atoms. This unequal sharing results in a bond that has partially positive and partially negative poles. Bonded atoms with a difference in EN between 1 7 and 3 3 are mostly ionic; electrons are shared 1.7 3.3 so unequally that one bonded atom has a strong negative charge and the other has a strong positive charge.

Molecular Shape and Polarity

How To Draw Lewis Structures for Simple Molecules and Ions with a Central Atom p Step 1: Position the least electronegative atom in the centre of the molecule or polyatomic ion. Write the other atoms around this central atom, with each atom bonded to the central atom by atom a single bond. Step 2: (a) Determine the total number of valence electrons in the molec le or ion For polyatomic ions, pay close attention to molecule ion. pol atomic ions pa the charge. For example, if you are drawing a polyatomic anion such as CO3 2-, add two electrons to the total number of valence electrons calculated f th structure CO3 F a l l t l l t d for the t t CO3. For polyatomic cation such as NH4+, subtract one electron from the total number of valence electrons calculated for the structure NH4. NH4 (b) Once you have the total number of valence electrons, determine the total number of electrons needed for each atom to achieve a noble gas electron configuration.

 (c) Subtract the first total (number of valence electrons) from the second total (number of electrons needed to satisfy the octet rule) to get the number of shared electrons. ) g Then divide this number by 2 to give the number of bonds. Double or triple bonds may be needed to account for this number of bonds Double bonds count as two bonds Triple bonds. bonds. bonds count as three bonds. Step 3: Subtract the number of shared electrons from the number of valence electrons to get the number of non-bonding electrons. Add these electrons as lone pairs to the atoms surrounding the central atom so that you achieve a noble gas electron configuration for each atom.

Example: Lewis structure of the nitrite ion The formula of the nitrite ion is NO2. Step one: Nitrogen is the least electronegative atom, so it is the central atom. Step Step two: Count valence electrons. Nitrogen has 5 valence electrons; each oxygen has 6, for a total of (6 2) + 5 = 17. The ion has a charge of 1, which indicates an extra electron, so the total number of electrons is 18. , Step three: Place ion pairs. Each oxygen must be bonded to the nitrogen, which uses four electrons two in each bond. The 14 remaining electrons should initially be placed as 7 lone pairs. Each oxygen may take a maximum of 3 lone p p yg y pairs, g giving each oxygen g yg 8 electrons including the bonding pair. The seventh lone pair must be placed on the nitrogen atom. Step four: Satisfy the octet rule. Both oxygen atoms currently have 8 electrons assigned to them. The nitrogen atom has only 6 electrons assigned to it. One of the lone pairs on an oxygen atom must form a double bond, but either atom will work equally well. We therefore must have a resonance structure. Step five: Tie up loose ends. Two Lewis structures must be drawn: one with each S f oxygen atom double-bonded to the nitrogen atom. The second oxygen atom in each structure will be single-bonded to the nitrogen atom. Place brackets around each structure, and add th charge ( ) to the upper right outside th b k t D t t d dd the h () t th i ht t id the brackets. Draw a double-headed arrow between the two resonance forms.

Someexamples Some examples

Co-ordinate Covalent Bonds

A covalent bond involves the sharing of a pair of electrons between two atoms; each atom contributes one electron to the shared pair. In some cases such as the hydronium ion H3O+ one atom contributes both cases, ion, H3O+, of the electrons to the shared pair. The bond in these cases is called a coordinate covalent bond. In terms of the quantum mechanical model, a coordinate covalent bond forms when a filled atomic orbital overlaps with an empty atomic orbital. O t t i bit l Once a co-ordinate bond i f di t b d is formed, it b h d behaves i th in the same way as any other single covalent bond. Note that the Lewis structure for NH4+ does not indicate which atom provides each shared pair of electrons around th central nitrogen atom. id h h d i f l t d the t l it t However, the quantum mechanical model of the atom can explain the bonding around this nitrogen atom. The condensed electron configuration for nitrogen is [Ne] 2s22p3. Each nitrogen atom has only three unpaired 2p electrons in three half-filled orbitals available for bonding. Since there are four covalent bonds shown around nitrogen in the Lewis structure, electrons in one of the bonds must have come from the filled g orbitals of nitrogen. Therefore, one of the bonds around the central nitrogen atom must be a coordinate covalent bond.

Resonance Structures: More Than One Possible Lewis Structure

Imagine that you are asked to draw the Lewis structure for sulfur dioxide, SO2. A typical answer would look like this

This Lewis structure suggests that SO2 contains a single bond d double bond. b d and a d bl b d However, experimental measurements of bond lengths indicate that the bonds between the S and each O are identical. identical The two bonds have properties that are somewhere between a single bond and a double bond. In effect, the SO2 molecule co a s o o e a d a a bo ds contains two one-and-a-half bonds. To communicate the bonding in SO2 more accurately, chemists draw two Lewis structures and insert a doubleheaded arrow between them.

 Each of these Lewis structures is called a resonance structure. Resonance structures are models that give the same relative position o ao s of atoms as in Lewis s uc u es, bu s o d e e p aces for their e s structures, but show different places o e bonding and lone pairs.

Many molecules and ionsespecially organic onesrequire resonance structures to represent their bonding. It is essential to bear in mind that resonance structures do not exist in reality. For example, SO2 does not shift back and forth from one structure to the other. An actual SO2 molecule is a combinationa hybridof its two resonance structures. It is more properly referred to as a resonance hybrid hybrid. You could think of resonance hybrids as being like mutts. For example, a dog that is a cross between a spaniel and a beagle (a speagle) is part spaniel and p beagle. p g ) p p part g It does not exist as a spaniel one moment and a beagle the next. Instead, a speagle is an average, of sorts, between the two breeds. Similarly a resonance hybrid is a weighted average between two or Similarly, more resonance structures.

Central Atoms with an Expanded Valence L V l Level l

The octet rule allows a maximum of four bonds (a total of eight electrons) t form around an atom. l t ) to f d t Based upon bond energies, however, chemists have suggested that the bonding in some molecules (and polyatomic ions) is best explained by a model that shows more than eight electrons in the valence energy level of the central atom. This central atom is said to have an expanded valence energy level. One example of a molecule with an expanded valence energy level is phosphorus pentachloride PCl5 a pungent pentachloride, PCl5, pungent, pale-yellow powder that is used in various industries.

 Until recently, chemists explained bonding in molecules such as PCl5 by assuming that empty d orbitals of the central atom were involved. involved However, experimental evidence does not support this idea. Current thinking suggests that larger atoms can accommodate g gg g additional valence electrons because of their size. Assume that the octet rule usually applies when drawing Lewis structures for simple molecules. t t f i l l l Sometimes, however, you must violate the rule to allow for more than four bonds around a central atom atom.

Shapes and Polarity of Molecules (Introducing V l (I t d i Valence-Shell Sh ll Electron Pair Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory
The fundamental principle of the Valence-Shell Electronp y gp , Pair Repulsion theory is that the bonding pairs and lone, non-bonding pairs of electrons in the valence level of an atom repel one another.

 As you know, electron pairs of atoms are localized in orbitals, which are shapes that describe the space in which electrons a e os are most likely to be found a ou d a nucleus. The o b a for ey o ou d around uc eus e orbital o each electron pair is positioned as far apart from the other orbitals as possible. The effect of this positioning minimizes the forces of repulsion between electron pairs. A lone pair (LP) will spread out more than a bond pair. Therefore, the repulsion is greatest between lone pairs (LPLP) Bonding pairs (BP) are more localized (LPLP). between the atomic nuclei, so they spread out less than lone pairs. Therefore, the BP-BP repulsions are smaller than the LPLP repulsions The repulsion between a bond pair and a repulsions. lone-pair (BPLP) has a magnitude intermediate between the other two. In other words, in terms of decreasing repulsion: LP - LP > LP - BP > BP - BP. The tetrahedral shape around a single bonded carbon atom, the trigonal planar shape around a carbon atom with one double bond, and the linear shape around a carbon atom with a triple bond result from repulsions between lone pairs and bonding pairs of electrons.

 The figure shows the five basic geometrical arrangements that result from the interactions of lone pairs and bonding pairs around a central atom. These arrangements involve up to six atom electron groups. An electron group is usually one of the following: a single bond a double bond a triple bond a lone pair E h of th electron-group arrangements results in a minimum Each f the l t t lt i i i total energy for the molecule. Variations are possible, depending on whether a bonding pair or a lone pair occupies a specific position. It is important to distinguish between electron-group arrangement and molecular shape. t d l l h Electron-group arrangement refers to the ways in which groups of valence electrons are positioned around the central atom atom. Molecular shape refers to the relative positions of the atomic nuclei in a molecule.

When all the electron groups are bonding pairs, a molecule will have one of the five geometrical arrangements shown. If one or more of the electron groups include a lone p pair of electrons, variations in one of the five geometric arrangements result. g g

Molecular Geometry

 Each of the molecules has four pairs of electrons around the central atom. Observe the d e e ces in the number o bo d g a d lone pa s in Obse e e differences e u be of bonding and o e pairs these molecules. Methane, CH4, has four BPs. Ammonia, NH3, has three BPs and one LP. Water, H2O, has two BPs and two LPs. Notice the effect of these differences on the shapes and bond angles of the g molecules. Methane, with four BPs, has a molecular shape that is the same as the electron-group arrangement in which four electron g p g p g groups surround a central atom: tetrahedral. The angle between any two bonding pairs in the tetrahedral electron-group arrangement is 109.5. This angle corresponds to the most favourable arrangement of electron groups to minimize th f f l t t i i i the forces of repulsion among th f l i them. When there are 1 LP and 3 BPs around a central atom, there are two types of repulsions: LP - BP and BP - BP. Since LP - BP repulsions are greater than BP - BP repulsions, th b d angle b t t th l i the bond l between th the bond pairs in NH3 is reduced from 109.5 to 107.3. When you draw the shape of a trigonal pyramidal molecule, without the lone pair, you can see that the three bonds form the shape of a pyramid with a triangular base. In a molecule of H2O, there are two BPs and two LPs. The strong LPLP repulsions, in addition to the LPBP repulsions, cause the angle between the bonding pairs to be reduced further to 104.5.

The table summarizes the molecular shapes that commonly occur. The VSEPR notation used for these shapes adopts the letter A to represent the central atom, the letter X to represent a bonding pair, and the letter E to represent a lone pair p gp p p of electrons. For example, the VSEPR notation for NH3 is AX3E. This indicates that ammonia has three BPs around its central atom, and one LP.

Predicting Molecular Shape

1. Draw a preliminary Lewis structure of the molecule based on the formula given. given 2. Determine the total number of electron groups around the central atom (bonding pairs, lone pairs and, where applicable, account for the charge on the ion). Remember that a double bond or a triple bond is counted as one electron group. 3 Determine which one of the five geometric arrangements will 3. accommodate this total number of electron groups. 4. 4 Determine the molecular shape from the positions occupied by the bonding pairs and lone pairs.

The Relationship Between Molecular Shape and Molecular Polarity y

A molecules shape and polarity are directly related. As you know, the electronegativity difference between two atoms is the principal f t th t d t i i l factor that determines th t i the type of chemical b di f h i l bonding between them. When atoms of two different elements have a difference in EN between 0.5 and 1.7, the bond between them , is polar covalent. The electrons are shared unequally between the two types of atoms. F example, i th HCl molecule, th Cl atom is more For l in the l l the t i electronegative than the H atom. Thus, the Cl atom exerts a g pair stronger force of attraction on the shared p of electrons. As a result, the Cl end of the bond develops a partial negative charge (delta neg) and the H end develops a partial positive charge (delta pos) This polarity in a bond is called a bond pos).This dipole.

Compare two molecules with the same molecular shape: CCl4 and CCl3H. Since the polarity of the CCl bond is different from that of the CH b d the polarities of these two molecules are h f h bond, h l ii f h l l different. The CCl4 molecule is symmetrical about any axis joining the two atoms of the CCl bond The polarities of the CCl bond. bonds counteract one another. Thus, the carbon tetrachloride p , polarity of the y molecule is non-polar. In the case of CCl3H, the p HCl bond is different from that of the three CCl bonds. Thus, the molecule is polar.

Intermolecular Forces in Liquids and Solids

W t and hydrogen sulfide h Water d h d lfid have th same molecular shape: b t the l l h bent. Both are polar molecules. However, H2O, with a molar mass of 18 g, is a liquid at room temperature, while H2S, with a molar mass of 34 g, q p , , is a gas. Waters boiling point is 100C, while hydrogen sulfides boiling point is 61C These property differences are difficult to explain using what i -61C. Th t diff diffi lt t l i i h t we know thus far. Our models focused on the forces of attraction between ions in ionic solids, between individual atoms in covalent and polar covalent compounds, and between positive metal ions and free electrons in metals. metals These are intramolecular forces forces exerted within a forcesforces molecule or polyatomic ion. During a chemical change, intramolecular forces are overcome and chemical bonds are broken. Therefore, these forces influence the chemical properties of substances Forces substances. that influence the physical properties of substances are called intermolecular forces.

 These are forces of attraction and repulsion that act between molecules or ions. I t Intermolecular forces were extensively studied by the l l f t i l t di d b th Dutch physicist Johannes van der Waals (18371923). To mark his contributions to the understanding of g intermolecular attractions, these forces are often called van der Waals forces. Th are categorized into the following groups: dipoleThey t i d i t th f ll i di l dipole forces, ion-dipole forces, induced dipole forces, dispersion (London) forces, and hydrogen bonding. p ( ) , y g g

Dipole-Dipole Forces p p
In the liquid state, polar molecules (dipoles) orient themselves so that oppositely charged ends of the molecules are near to one another. The attractions between these opposite charges are called dipole dipole dipole-dipole forces. As a result of these dipole-dipole forces of attraction, polar molecules will tend to attract one another more at room temperature than similarly sized non-polar molecules would. The energy required to separate polar molecules from one another is g p p therefore greater than that needed to separate non-polar molecules of similar molar mass. This is indicated by the extreme difference in melting and boiling points of these two types of molecular substances.

Ion-Dipole Forces p
Sodium chloride and other soluble ionic solids dissolve in polar solvents such as water because of ion-dipole forces. A i di l f An ion-dipole force i th f is the force of attraction between an ion and a f tt ti b t i d polar molecule (a dipole). For example, NaCl dissolves in water because the attractions between the Na+ and Cl- ions and the water molecules provide enough energy to overcome the forces that bind the ions together. The figure shows how ion-dipole forces dissolve any type of soluble g p y yp ionic compound.

Dispersion ( p (London) Forces )

The shared pairs of electrons in covalent bonds are constantly vibrating. While this applies to all molecules, it is of p g pp , particular interest for molecules that are non-polar. The bond vibrations, which are part of the normal condition of a non-polar molecule, cause momentary, uneven distributions of charge. y, g In other words, a non-polar molecule becomes slightly polar for an instant, and continues to do this on a random but on-going basis. basis At the instant that one non-polar molecule is in a slightly polar condition, it is capable of inducing a dipole in a nearby molecule. An intermolecular force of attraction results. This force of attraction is called a dispersion force Chemists also force. commonly refer to it as a London force, in honour of the German physicist, Fritz London, who studied this force. U lik other i t Unlike th intermolecular f l l forces, di dispersion (L d ) f i (London) forces act between any particles, polar or otherwise. They are the main intermolecular forces that act between non-polar molecules. l l

Two factors affect the magnitude of dispersion forces. One is the number of electrons in the molecule and the other is the shape of the g molecule. Vibrations within larger molecules that have more electrons than smaller molecules can easily cause an uneven distribution of charge. The dispersion forces between these larger molecules are thus stronger, which has the effect of raising the boiling point for larger molecules. A molecule with a spherical shape has a smaller surface area than a straight chain molecule that has the same number of electrons. The smaller surface area allows less opportunity for the molecule to induce a charge on a nearby pp y g y molecule. Therefore, for two substances with molecules that have a similar number of electrons, the substance with molecules that have a more spherical shape will have weaker dispersion forces and a lower boiling point point.

Hydrogen Bonding y g g
A dipole-dipole interaction that is very significant in many biological molecules and some inorganic molecules such as molecules, H2O(l), is hydrogen bonding. Hydrogen bonding is a particularly strong form of dipole-dipole attraction that exists between a hydrogen atom in a polar polarbonded molecule that contains bonds such as HO, HN, or HF, and an unshared pair of electrons on another small, electronegative electronegati e atom s ch as O N, or F such O, N F. The small, electronegative atom can be on its own, but is usually bonded in a molecule. y When hydrogen is bonded to oxygen, fluorine, or nitrogen, the strong force of attraction exerted by any of these three very electronegative atoms draws the electron density from the hydrogen atom in the polar-bonded molecule, leaving the hydrogen atom with a partial positive charge. This dipole is easily attracted to the partially negative lone pair on a nearby electronegative atom: N, O, or F.

 You can see the effect of hydrogen bonding clearly in the boiling point data of the binary hydrides of Groups 14 to 17 (IVA to VIIA). The increase in boiling point from methane, CH4, to tin(IV) hydride, SnH4, is due to an increase in the number of electrons electrons. Therefore, there are larger dispersion forces, since more electrons are able to temporarily shift from one part of the molecule to another. In SnH4, this results in greater intermolecular forces of attraction. , g There is no hydrogen bonding in these substances, because there are no lone pairs on the molecules. However, the hydrides of Groups 15, 16, and 17 (VA to VIIA) only show the expected trend based on dispersion forces for the larger mass hydrides. The smallest mass hydrides, NH3, H2O, and HF, have relatively high boiling points indicating strong intermolecular forces caused by points, hydrogen bonding. Why is there no hydrogen bonding in H2S and H2Se, which have unshared electron pairs on their central atoms? Neither S nor Se is p small enough or electronegative enough t support hydrogen ll h l t ti h to th d bonding. Thus, H2O (with its small and very electronegative O atom) has a much higher boiling point than H2S and H2Se H2Se. A hydrogen bond is only about 5% as strong as a single covalent bond. However, in substances that contain numerous hydrogen bonds the impact of hydrogen bonding can be significant For significant. example, the double-helix structure of DNA occurs because of hydrogen bonds.

Homework

Homework