1 Limits and Derivatives Limits The concept of limit of a function is best understood if one can distinguish between the

statements; the value of f (x) at x = a and the value of f (x) as x a (i.e. x tends to a or x approaches a). x a (or x approaches a) implies that |x a| < , where can be made as small as desired. The interval (a , a + ) is called the neighbourhood of a. Let y = f(x) be a given function defined in the neighbourhood of x = a, but not necessarily at the point x = a. The limiting behaviour of the function in the neighbourhood of x = a when x a is small, is called the limit of the function when x approaches a and we write this as lim f(x).
x a

Remarks: (i) Often, f(x) can be simplified by using series expansion, rationalization or using conjugate surds, before limit is obtained. (ii) For the existence of the limit at x = a, f(x) need not be defined at x = a. However if f(a) exists, limit need not exist or even if it exists then it need not be equal to f(a). Algebra of limits The following are some of the Basic Theorems on limits which are widely used to calculate the limit of the given functions. Let lim f(x) = 1 and lim g(x) = 2 where 1 and 2 are finite numbers. Then
x a x a

x x

lim (c1f(x)
a a

c2g(x)) = c1 1
x a x a

c2 2, where c1and c2 are given constants.

lim f(x).g(x) = lim f (x). lim g (x) = 1. 2.

lim f(x)
x x a a

f(x) lim x a g(x)

lim g(x)

1 , 2 0 . 2

Note: If lim f(x) g(x) exists, then it is not always true that lim f(x) and lim g(x)
x a

will exist. Some Important Results on Limits

If p(x) is a polynomial, lim p(x) = p(a).

x a

lim
x a

a x a

nan 1 , a > 0

lim
x

(1 x)n 1 n. x 0

lim
x a

xm am x
n

xm am x a x a xn an x a lim

mam 1

1 na
n 1

m m a n

2
sin x tan x lim lim cosx = 1 (where x is in radians) x x x 0 x 0 x 0 tan x sin x 1 sin x 1 lim lim lim lim 1 cos x x 0 x x 0 cos x x 0 x x 0 x For two function within the same domain, we say that f < g if f(x) < g(x) for all x in the domain. lim f x lim g x . If both lim f x and lim g x exist, then f g lim
x

If lim f x
x a

lim h x and f, g, h are real functions such that f

x a

h for

all points in an open interval containing a, then lim g x

x

l . (Sandwitch
0,

theorem) If for all points in an open interval containing a, 0 then lim f x

x a

g and lim g x
x a

0.
0.
x a

lim f x
x a

0 if and only if lim f x

Limit at infinity In case we want to find the limit of a function f (x) as x takes larger and larger values, we write lim f(x) . If the degree of the denominator in a rational (polynomial) function
x

is higher than the degree of the numerator, then the lim is zero. If the degree of the
x

denominator is lower than the degree of the numerator, then the lim
x

Left and right hand limits If the limit of f (x) as x a+, (indicating that x approaches a from values of x greater than a), exists, we write lim f(x) lim (a h) = l1, h > 0.
x a h 0

If the limit of f (x) as x a , (indicating that x approaches a from values of x lesser than a), exists, then we write lim f(x) lim (a h) = l2, h > 0.
x a h 0

The limits l1 and l2 are called the right hand limit and the left hand limit respectively. When l1 = l2 = l, then the function f (x) has a limit as x a, and we write lim f(x) = l.
x a

If l1

l2, then the lim f(x) does not exist.

x a

Differentiability The derivative or differential coefficient of f(x) w.r.t. x at x or f '(x), is

dy dx lim
x 0

(a, b), denoted by dy/dx

f(x

x) f(x) x

... (1)

provided the limit exists and is finite; and the function is said to be differentiable.

3 Right Hand Derivative Right hand derivative of f(x) at x = a is denoted by, Rf (a) or f (a+) and is defined as f a h f a R f a = lim , h > 0. h h 0 Left Hand Derivative Left hand derivative of f(x) at x = a is denoted by Lf a or f a and is defined as

Lf a = lim
h

f a h h

f a

, h > 0.

Clearly, f(x) is differentiable at x = a if and only if R f (a) = Lf (a). To find the derivative of f(x) from the first Principle

dy dx

lim
x x0 x 0

f(x0

x) f(x0 ) x

lim
x 0

f(x0

x) f(x 0 ) , x

x > 0.

It implies that if the right hand derivative and the left-hand derivative exist and are equal, the function f (x) is said to be differentiable at x = x0 and has the derivative f (x0). When the derivative of a function is obtained directly by using the above definition of the derivative, then it is called differentiation from the first principle. List of derivatives of important functions:

d n (x ) nxn 1 , n dx

d (sin x) cos x dx d (cos x) sin x dx d (tan x) sec 2 x dx d (cot x) cosec 2 x dx d (sec x) sec x tan x dx d (cosecx) cosecx cot x dx Product of two functions f(x) and g(x). If y = u (x) v (x) w (x), then dy d dw dv du dw (u v) w(x) uv vw uv = uw dx dx dx dx dx dx dy df 2f(x) If g (x) = f (x), then y = (f (x))2 dx dx 3 If u (x) = v (x) = w (x) = f (x), then y = [f (x)]

4
dy 2 df 2 df 2 df f(x) f(x) f(x) dx dx dx dx In general, for y = (f (x))n, n R, dy df n(f(x))n 1 dx dx
2

and

3 f(x)

df . dx