The evolution of matter and radiation in the universe

Dynamics of a homogeneous universe

Evolution of scale factor (Friedman with k = 0):
a
2
a
2
= H
2
= H
2
0
_

r
x
4
+
m
x
3
+
v
_
,
where
x =
a
a
0
,
r
0.8 10
4
,
m
= 0.26,
v
= 0.74.
Evolution of energy density:
d(a
3
)
dt
+p
da
3
dt
= 0.
Radiation in thermal equilibrium:
p =

3
a
4
= constant.
Stefan-Boltzmann law
= T
4
;
in radiation-dominated universe:
T
1
a

t
.
Non-relativistic matter in thermal equilibrium at T > 0
Boyle-Gay-Lussac:
a
3
= nmc
2
+
3
2
nk
B
T, pa
3
= nk
B
T;
in a matter-dominated universe:
3
2
nk
B
dT
dt
+
nk
B
T
a
3
da
3
dt
= 0
and
T
1
a
2

1
t
4/3
.
Decoupling
Radiation/relativistic gas Planck distribution
n
T
()d =
8
2
d
e
h/k
B
T
1
.
After decoupling:
a a

=
a
a

.
Then
n
T
()d =
_
a

a
_
3
8
2
d

e
h

/k
B
T

1
= n

)d

,
with new temperature such that

T
=

aT = a

.
Similarly for non-relativistic gas with initial distribution
n(p) d
3
p = Ce
p
2
/2mk
B
T
d
3
p,
after expansion a a

=
pa
a

a
2
T = a
2
T

.
Conclusion:
after decoupling relativistic/non-relativistic gases behave as if
in equilibrium at a temperature T which scales as for a radia-
tion/matter dominated universe.
non-relativistic matter cools much faster than massless particles
(radiation).
CMB
CMB temperature:
T = 2.725 0.001 K
Photon and energy density:
n

=
2(3)

2
_
kT
c
_
3
= 0.41 10
9
m
3
,

=

2
15
(k
B
T)
4
(c)
3
= 0.260MeV m
3
.

= 0.46 10
4
Baryons
Galaxy counts, star counts,
nucleosynthesis:

B
0.04
n
B0
0.2 m
3
Present baryon-to-photon ratio:

B

n
B0
n
0
0.4- 0.6 10
9
Electrons: n
e
n
B

e
2 10
5
.
Decoupling of thermal photons
Ionisation energy of hydrogen: E
ion
= 13.6 eV.
Large photon density
only a fraction 10
10
of photons with energy E
ion
;
after H-formation atoms permanently in excited state.
Optically thick e-p- plasma for temperatures kT
dec
> 0.27 eV;
hence decoupling of photons takes place at
T
dec
3130K x
dec
=
a
dec
a
0
=
T
0
T
dec
0.87 10
3
,
t
dec
=
1
H
0
_
x
dec
0
xdx

r
+
m
x
3.5 10
5
yr.
Neutrinos
At energies k
B
T > 0.8 MeV neutrinos interacted with electrons
and baryons via pair creation or elastic scattering, e.g.:
+ e

+e
+
+, n + p
+
+e

thermal equilibrium with baryons, electrons and photons.

Decoupling happens when the interaction rate of neutrinos is
smaller than the expansion rate of the universe

|v|n < H =

8G
eff
3
T
2
Condition satised at k
B
T = 0.8 MeV when
x
dec
=
a
dec
a
0
= 0.2 10
9
, t
dec
1 sec.
Cosmic neutrino background
Cosmic -background unobserved;
After decoupling a thermal background of relativistic neutrinos
is expected with an eective temperature at late times
T

= 0.71T

.
If s still relativistic now (m

0.17 meV), this temperature is

T
0
= 1.95 K. For 3 stable relativistic -species
n

= 3
3
4

_
T

_
3
n

0.33 10
9
m
3
,

= 3
7
8

_
T

_
4

0.17 MeV m
3
,

(massless)
0.30 10
4
.
Massive neutrinos
Neutrinos are relativistic up to temperatures k
B
T

c
2
At this time the photon temperature is
T

= 1.40T

= 1.40
m

c
2
k
B
.
The corresponding scale factor is
a
a
0
=
T
0
T

= 0.71
k
B
T
0
m

c
2
After that neutrinos are non-relativistic and
k
B
T
0
=
_
a
a
0
_
2
k
B
T

= 0.5
_
k
B
T

0
m

c
2
_
2
m

c
2
=
0.029 meV
2
m

c
2
.
For m

c
2
= 10 meV:
T
0
= 0.034 K
Neutrino number densities are xed at decoupling, when they are
still very relativistic n
0
= 0.33 10
9
m
3
.
Then with m

as above, for three species:

0
= 3.3 MeV m
3

(massive)
= 0.6 10
3

m
,
and the cross-over to non-relativistic behaviour takes place at
a
a
0
0.02 z 50.
Photon vs. neutrino temperature
After neutrino decoupling, the neutrino temperature and the
photon temperature are given by
a T = a
dec
T
dec
.
Subsequently electron-positron annihilation heats the photon gas:
e

+e
+
+.
As a result the photon density and temperature are raised com-
pared to the neutrino density and temperature. How much?
Computation based on thermodynamics of relativistic gases
First law of thermodynamics
TdS = dU +pdV Td(sV ) = d(V ) +pdV
with
s(T) =
S
V
, (T) =
U
V
,
Ts = +p = T
dp
dT
.
Radiation:
p =

3
= T
4
, s =
4
3
T
3
.
N.B.:
F
=
7
8

B
.
During e
+
e

-annihilation entropy remains constant:

s
+
= s

+
T
3
+
=

T
3

.
Before decoupling 3 components in thermodynamic equilibrium:
(, e

, e
+
)

+
=
_
1 +2
7
8
_

B
=
11
4

B
;
after decoupling 1 component left:

=
B
.
Therefore
T

T
+
=
_
11
4
_
1/3
= 1.40.
Primordial nucleosynthesis
With the known baryon-to-photon ratio
B
spontaneous synthe-
sis of light nuclei: D,
3
He,
4
He, from free nucleons was possible
at photon and baryon temperatures between 100 and 10 keV.
4
He is by far the most stable of the light nuclei
practically all neutrons (> 99%) end up in -particles.
Then the mass of
4
He as a fraction of total baryon mass is
Y (
4
He) =
4n

n
n
+n
p
=
2n
n
n
n
+n
p
=
2(n
n
/n
p
)
1 +(n
n
/n
p
)
.
Observed: Y (
4
He) = 0.24 n
n
/n
p
= 0.13.
Initial condition determined by thermal equilibrium
_
n
n
n
p
_
0
= e
mc
2
/k
B
T
0
= 0.2
at k
B
T
0
= 0.8MeV.
Neutron life time = 886 sec

_
n
n
n
p
_
1
=
n
n0
e
t/
n
p0
+n
n0
(1 e
t/
)
= 0.13 for t = 328 sec.
k
B
T
1
0.09 MeV.
Very sensitive to
B
.
Formation of neutral hydrogen
In a plasma of hydrogen atoms, protons, electrons and photons,
we can calculate the degree of ionisation as a function of tem-
perature:
X =
n
p
n
p
+n
H
, 1 X =
n
H
n
p
+n
H
Use charge neutrality and chemical equilibrium:
n
e
= n
p
,
H
=
p
+
e
.
In units c = k
B
= = 1, non-relativistic equilibrium densities are:
n
i
= g
i
_
m
i
T
2
_
3/2
exp
_

i
m
i
T
_

1 X
X
=
n
H
n
p
=
g
H
g
p
_
m
H
m
p
_
3/2
exp
_

H
m
H

p
+m
p
T
_

g
H
g
p
exp
_

e
m
e
+B
T
_
=
g
H
g
e
g
p
_
2
m
e
T
_
3/2
n
e
e
B/T
Now g
e
= g
p
= 2, g
H
= 4, and
n
e
= n
p
= 0.76X
B
n

= 0.76X
B
2(3)

2
T
3

1 X
X
2
= 2.9
B
_
T
m
e
_
3/2
e
B/T
S(T),
where the ionization energy is B = 13.6 eV.
B
1.0
0
0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50
0.5
X
T (eV)
= 0.6
9
x 10
X(T) =
_
_
1 +4S(T) 1
_
2S(T)
.
Photon decoupling temperature
Interaction rate of photons and electrons:

= c
T
n
e
=
8
2

2
3m
2
e
c
n
e
Compare with expansion rate of the universe

H
=
c
T
n
e
H
=
c
T
n
p
H
0
H
0
H
=
c
T
H
0
0.76X(T)
B
n

x
2

r
+
m
x
where
x =
a
a
0
=
T
0
T

=
2.35
T(eV)
10
4
,
n

= n
0

_
T

T
0
_
3
= n
0

_
T(eV)
2.35
_
3
10
12
m
3
,
and we have a dimensionless factor
c
T
n
0
H
0
= 0.34 10
9
.
Then

H
= 0.0016X(T)
_
T
T
0
_
3
x
2

r
+
m
x

_

B
0.6 10
9
_
.

H
< 1 X(T) < 0.01 T < 0.27eV = 3130K.