BSC 1010 Chapter 4-Cell Structure

1. Cell Theory 1.1. History 1.1.1. Eukaryotic cells 10-100 micrometers 1.1.2. Prokaryotic cells 1-10 micrometers in diameter 1.1.3. Cell discovery did not occur until invention of microscope 1.1.4. Robert Hooke-1st to observe cells, Leeuwenhoek-1st to observe live cells, Schleiden -1st to observe plant cells, Schwann-studied animal cells 1.2. Foundation of Cell Biology 1.2.1. All organisms composed of one or more cells and life process of metabolism and heredity occur w/in cells 1.2.2. Cells are smallest living things, basic unit of life 1.2.3. Cells arise only by division of pre-existing cell 1.3. Cell Size 1.3.1. Cells relatively small due to diffusion of substances in and out of cells 1.3.2. Rate of diffusion is affected by surface area, temperature, concentration gradient of diffusing substance, and distance of diffusion 1.3.3. As cell size increases, time of diffusion from membrane-interior increases 1.4. Microscopes 1.4.1. Egg cells visible to naked eye 1.4.2. Resolution-minimum distance two points can be apart and still be distinguished as two separate points (reason humans cannot see cells) 1.4.3. Types of microscopes 1.4.3.1. Light microscopes-operate w/visible light and 2 lenses 1.4.3.2. Compound microscope-microscope w/several lenses to separate magnifying stages 1.4.3.3. Light microscopes typically not strong enough to see cells 1.4.3.4. Electron microscope-uses electron beams 1.4.3.5. Transmission electron microscopes-electrons used to visualize cells are transmitted through material capable of resolving objects .2 nm apart 1.4.3.6. Scanning electron microscope-beams electrons on to surface of specimen and electrons are reflected back to a screen where image is viewed 1.4.4. Stains, created by antibodies are used to stain cells (immunohistochemistry) 1.5. Structural Similarities of Cells 1.5.1. Centrally Located Genetic Material 1.5.1.1. Every cell contains DNA 1.5.1.2. In prokaryotes, genetic material is singular molecule of DNA in the nucleoid; however, it is not segregated from the rest of the cell w/membranes 1.5.1.3. DNA in eukaryotes is in the nucleus and bound by nuclear envelope (double membrane)

BSC 1010 Chapter 4-Cell Structure

1.5.2. Cytoplasm 1.5.2.1. Cytoplasm-semifluid matrix that fills interior of cell 1.5.2.2. Contains sugars, amino acids, and proteins the cell uses to carry out everyday activities 1.5.2.3. In eukaryotes, cytoplasm contains membrane-bound organelles 1.5.2.4. Cytosol-cytoplasm that contains organic molecules and ions in solution (everything but membrane-bound organelles) 1.5.3. Plasma Membrane 1.5.3.1. Plasma membrane-encloses cell and separates it from surroundings 1.5.3.2. Phospholipid bilayer with proteins 5-10nm thick 1.5.3.3. Proteins in plasma membrane responsible for cells ability to interact with environment 1.5.3.4. Transport proteins-help ions and molecules move across plasma membrane 1.5.3.5. Receptor proteins-induce changes w/in cell when they come in contact w/molecules in environment, markers that identify cell as particular type 2. Prokaryotic Cells 2.1. Prokaryotes-simplest organisms w/o nucleus or membrane-bound organelles 2.2. Small w/cytoplasm surrounded by plasma membrane w/in rigid cell wall 2.3. Two domains-archae and bacteria 2.4. Contain ribosomes which carry out protein synthesis 2.5. Lack cytoskeleton but have actinlike proteins that form supporting fibrils 2.6. Plasma membrane performs functions that organelles perform in eukaryotes 2.6.1. Bacterial Cell Walls 2.6.1.1. Bacterial cells encased by strong cell wall made of peptidoglycan (carbohydrate matrix, polymers of sugar,cross-linked by polypeptide units) 2.6.1.2. Cell walls-protect cell, maintain shape, prevent excessive uptake or loss of water 2.6.1.3. Mollicutes (class) called mycoplasma lack cell wall 2.6.1.4. Bacteria classified by Gram staining 2.6.1.4.1. Gram-positive bacteria-think, single-layered peptidoglycan cell wall that stays violet from Gram stain 2.6.1.4.2. Gram-negative bacteria-multilayered cell wall that does not retain purple dye, will turn red 2.6.1.5. Susceptibility of bacteria to antibiotics depends on structure of cell walls 2.6.1.6. Can also secrete polysaccharide protective capsule which allow them to adhere to any surface 2.6.2. Archaea Cell Walls 2.6.2.1. Archaea cell walls have polysaccharaides and proteins, also inorganic compounds

BSC 1010 Chapter 4-Cell Structure

2.6.2.2. Membrane lipids include saturated hydrocarbons bonded to glycerol 2.6.2.3. Results in greater thermal stability of cell but loses ability to adapt to environmental temperatures 2.6.2.4. Cellular machinery that replicates DNA and synthesizes proteins more like eukaryotes 2.6.3. Flagella 2.6.3.1. Flagella-long, thread-like structures that allow prokaryotes to move 3. Eukaryotic Cells 3.1. More complex than prokaryotes 3.2. Compartmentalized by endomembrane system 3.3. Central vacuole-membrane-bound sac stores protein, pigments, and waste (found in plant cells) 3.4. Vesicles-smaller sacs that transport and store materials 3.5. Chromosomes-DNA wound around proteins and packaged into compressed units in the nucleus 3.6. Cytoskeleton-internal protein scaffold 3.6.1. Nucleus 3.6.1.1. Spherical in shape, typically located in central region 3.6.1.2. Repository of genetic information that leads to the synthesis of proteins of eukaryote 3.6.1.3. Mammalian erythrocytes (red blood cells) lose nuclei when mature 3.6.1.4. Nucleolus-in nucleus, region of intensive synthesis of RNA 3.6.2. Nuclear Envelope 3.6.2.1. Two phospholipid bilayers with nuclear pores 3.6.2.2. Allows small molecules to diffuse between nucleoplasm and cytoplasm while controlling passage of proteins and RNA 3.6.2.3. Passage is restricted to: 3.6.2.3.1. Proteins moving into the nucleus to be incorporated in nuclear structures or catalyze nuclear activities 3.6.2.3.2. RNA and RNA-protein complexes formed in nucleus and transported to cytoplasm 3.6.2.4. Inner surface of nuclear envelope made of fibers that create nuclear lamina which gives nucleus shape and is involved in cell division 3.6.3. Chromatin 3.6.3.1. In eukaryotes, DNA is in multiple linear chromosomes 3.6.3.2. Chromatin-complex structure that organizes chromosomes and proteins 3.6.3.3. Histones-chromosomes packaged with proteins 3.6.3.4. Nucleosomes-DNA wrapped in histones 3.6.3.5. Chromatin-extended form allows regulatory proteins to attach to nucleotide sequences to regulate gene expression 3.6.4. Nucleolus

BSC 1010 Chapter 4-Cell Structure

3.6.4.1. Cells must construct ribosomes to synthesize proteins 3.6.4.2. Copies of genes encode the ribosomal RNA and cluster on chromosomes then cell generates the molecules needed to produce ribosomes 3.6.4.3. All this occurs in the nucleoli 3.6.5. Ribosomes 3.6.5.1. RNA-protein complexes that synthesize proteins 3.6.5.2. Only organelle that is truly universal (found in all cells) 3.6.5.3. Composed of two subunits composed of rRNA (ribosomal RNA) and proteins 3.6.5.4. 2 subunits only form functional ribosome when actively synthesizing proteins 3.6.5.5. Synthesis requires messenger RNA (mRNA) which carries coding information from DNA and transfer DNA (tRNA) which carries amino acids 3.6.5.6. Ribosomes can be free in cytoplasm or associated w/internal membranes 3.6.5.7. Free ribosomes synthesize proteins found in cytoplasm, nuclear proteins, mitochondrial proteins, and proteins found in organelles not derived from endomembrane system. 4. Endomembrane System 4.1. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-largest internal membrane composed of phospholipid bilayer with embedded w/proteins 4.2. 2 largest compartments of ER: cisternal space (lumen) and he cytosol (fluid component of cytoplasm containing dissolved organic molecules & ions 4.2.1. Rough ER 4.2.1.1. Synthesizes proteins to be exported from cell to lysosomes, vacuoles or embedded in plasma membrane 4.2.1.2. Proteins enter lumen to be sorted then through the golgi apparatus 4.2.1.3. Glycoproteins-newly synthesized proteins modified by short-chain carbs (these proteins are destined for secretion and kept separate) 4.2.2. Smooth ER 4.2.2.1. Regions of ER w/ few bound ribosomes, contains enzymes 4.2.2.2. SER stores Ca 2+ ions to keep cytoplasmic level low so Ca 2+ can be used as signaling molecule 4.2.2.3. Ratio of RER:SER depends on cell function 4.2.2.4. Cells that carry out extensive lipid synthesis have abundance of SER 4.2.2.5. SER modifies foreign substances (i.e. liver) 4.2.3. Golgi Apparatus 4.2.3.1. Collective Golgi bodies=Golgi apparatus 4.2.3.2. Fed-ex of cell, collection, packaging, and distribution of molecules

BSC 1010 Chapter 4-Cell Structure

4.2.3.3. Proteins and lipids from RER & SER are modified by GA, usually by addition or modification of short sugar chains resulting in the formation of glycoproteins and glycolipids 4.2.3.4. Glycoproteins and glycolipids collect at end of GB in cisternae (vessel) before being pinched off as vesicles and transported to appropriate part of cell 4.2.3.5. GA synthesizes cell wall components 4.2.4. Lysosomes 4.2.4.1. Membrane-bound digestive vesicles 4.2.4.2. Arise in GA and contain high levels of degrading enzymes 4.2.4.3. Break down old organelles 4.2.4.4. Activated by fusing with food vesicle produced by phagocytosis which activates proton pumps in lysosomal membranes resulting in more acidic internal pH 4.2.5. Microbodies 4.2.5.1. Enzyme-bearing, membrane-enclosed vesicles 4.2.5.2. Glyoxysome-plant enzyme that converts fats to carbs 4.2.5.3. Preoxisome-catalyze the removal of electrons and H+ atoms 4.2.5.3.1. Hydrogen Peroxide is produced as by-product of oxidative enzymes; however, peroxisomes contain enzyme catalase that breaks down HO5 into H2O and 2O2. 4.2.5.4. Vacuoles 4.2.5.4.1. Specialized membrane-bound structures found in plant cells 4.2.5.4.2. Plant cells have large central vacuole 4.2.5.4.3. Tonoplast-membrane surrounding vacuole (helps cell maintain osmotic balance) 4.2.5.4.4. Central vacuole regulates water balance, storage of sugars, ions, pigments, and waste, cell growth 4.2.5.4.5. Plant cells grow by expanding central vacuole 5. Mitochondria and Chloroplasts 5.1. Mitochondria 5.1.1. Tubular-shaped organelles bound by 2 membranes: smooth outer and folded inner made of cristae (contiguous layers) 5.1.2. Cristae contains matrix (in the inner membrane) and an intermembrane space (b/w 2 membranes) 5.1.3. Surface of inner membrane contains proteins that carry out oxidative metabolism to produce ATP 5.1.4. Mitochondria has own DNA which contains proteins for oxidative metabolism 5.1.5. Eukaryotes divide mitochondria in cell division 5.1.6. Mitochondrial replication is impossible w/o the nucleus so cannot be grow in culture 5.2. Chloroplasts 5.2.1. Carry out photosynthesis

BSC 1010 Chapter 4-Cell Structure

5.2.2. Manufacture own food 5.2.3. Contains chlorophyll that gives plants green color 5.2.4. Has 2 membranes: grana (stacked membranes) in inner membrane 5.2.5. Thylakoids-found in granum, light-capturing photosynthetic pigments 5.2.6. Stroma-fluid matrix that surrounds thylakoids 5.2.7. Contain DNA but genes that specify chloroplast components found in nucleus 5.2.8. Leucoplasts-DNA-containing organelles in plants, lack pigment and complex internal structure 5.2.9. Leucoplasts can serve as starch storage sites 5.2.9.1. Amyloplast-leucoplast that stores starch 5.2.10. Plastids-chloroplasts, leucoplasts, and amyloplasts 5.3. Endosymbiosis 5.3.1. Symbiosis-close relationship b/w organisms of different species that live together 5.3.2. Endosymbiosis theory-some eukaryotes organelles evolved by symbiosis b/w 2 cells that were free living 5.3.2.1. 1 cell (prokaryote) was engulfed by another 5.3.3. Mitochondria-thought to have originated as bacteria capable of oxidative metabolism 5.3.4. Chloroplasts-arose from photosynthetic bacteria 6. Cytoskeleton 6.1. Cytoplasm of all eukaryotes crisscrossed by network of protein fibers 6.2. Supports shape of cell and anchors organelles 6.3. Actin and myosin-2 major proteins that make up vertebrate muscle 6.3.1. Actin Filaments (microfilaments) 6.3.1.1. long fibers of 2 protein chains containing pearls of actin 6.3.1.2. microfilaments are polar which determine direction of growth 6.3.1.3. responsible for cellular movements during division and formation for cellular extension 6.3.2. Microtubules 6.3.2.1. Largest cytoskeletal elements that are hollow tubes made of protein protofilaments 6.3.2.2. Alpha and beta tubulin polymerize to make protofilaments 6.3.2.3. Form from nucleation centers and radiate outwards 6.3.2.4. Continually polymerizing and depolymerizing, short half-life 20 s10 min 6.3.2.5. Polar, + away from center, - towards center 6.3.2.6. Facilitate cellular movement, organize cytoplasm and move materials w/in cell 6.3.3. Intermediate Filaments 6.3.3.1. Most durable element of cytoskeleton 6.3.3.2. Fibrous protein molecules that are stable (dont break down) 6.3.3.3. Vimentin-provides structural stability

BSC 1010 Chapter 4-Cell Structure

6.3.3.4. Keratin-found in epithelial cells, structure of hair and nails 6.3.3.5. Neurofilament-filaments of nerve cells 6.3.4. Centrosomes 6.3.4.1. Centriole-cytoplasmic organelle located outside nuclear membrane which divides spindle fibers during mitosis and meiosis 6.3.4.2. Centrosome-region surrounding centriole pair 6.3.4.3. Pericentriolar Material-ring-shaped structures made of tubulin that surround centrioles in the centrosome 6.3.4.3.1. Nucleate assembly of microtubules in animal cells (microtubule-organizing centers) 6.3.4.4. Centrosome responsible for reorganization of microtubules after cell division 6.3.4.5. Plants lack centrioles but contain MOC 6.3.5. Moving Materials w/in Cell 6.3.5.1. To move materials from one place to another in cytoplasm, cells use channels of ER 6.3.5.2. This requires 6.3.5.2.1. Organelle that is to be transported 6.3.5.2.2. Motor protein for energy-driven motion 6.3.5.2.3. Connector molecule that connects organelle to motor protein 6.3.5.2.4. Microtubules to carry the organelle 6.3.5.3. Direction of organelle movement depends on motor protein and polarity of microtubules 6.3.5.3.1. Kinesin-motor protein that binds to organelle and then uses ATP to move towards cell periphery 6.3.5.3.2. Dynein- motor protein 7. Extracellular Structures and Cell Movement 7.1. Cells can crawl which is the result of actin filaments rapidly polymerizing at the edge of the cell 7.2. Myosin-protein that is vital in muscular contraction 7.2.1. Flagella & Cilia 7.2.1.1. 9+2 Structure-nine microtubule pairs surrounding 2 central microtubules found in eukaryotes 7.2.1.2. flagella undulates to cause movement 7.2.1.3. Cilia-short cellular projects organized in rows once used for movement 7.2.2. Plant Cell Walls 7.2.2.1. Cellulose-based cell wall 7.2.2.2. Primary walls-cell walls laid when cell is growing 7.2.2.3. Middle lamella-glues cells together 7.2.2.4. Secondary walls-found inside primary walls 7.2.3. Animal Cells Extracellular Matrix 7.2.3.1. Animal cells lack cell wall

BSC 1010 Chapter 4-Cell Structure

7.2.3.2. ECM-mixture of glycoproteins that surround cell 7.2.3.3. Collagen, elastin, and proteoglycans form protective layer over cell 7.2.3.4. Fibronectin-glycoprotein that attaches ECM to plasma membrane and integrins (attached to microfilaments and allow ECM to influence cell behavior)