Midterm Study Guide

Psych 1

The midterm will cover chapters 1 through 5. Please bring a scan tron and a blue
book. There are 30 multiple-choice questions and 5 essay questions.

Chapter 1:

What does the field of psychology study?

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Know who the following founders of psychology are, what they believed, who came
first:

Wundt:
- (1879) Created Structuralism with Titchener
- Defined Psychology as the study of conscious experience

James:
- Created Functionalism
- Argued that consciousness cannot be broken into elements.

Watson:
- Behaviorism (1878-1958) U.S.
- Focused on learning as a kind of conditioning.

Skinner:
- Behaviorism Revisited
- Skinner focused on the role of reinforcement and punishment on learning
.
Pavlov:
- (1849-1936) Russian
- First Classical Conditioning

Freud:
- (1856-1939)
- Australian Physician
- Approach grew out of efforts to treat mental disorders
- Developed Psychoanalysis
- Emphasized unconscious processes
The Study of Behavior
 Rogers:
- Led Humanism
- Emphesized Freedom and Personal Growth
- Non-Directive Psychotherapy (Client-Centered Therapy)
- Later Renamed as Person-Centered Approach (PCA)
- To Reflect All Interactions Between People

Maslow:
- Created Hierarchy of Needs

When and where was psychology established as an independent discipline?

Psychology as an independent field began in 1879 when Wundt created a laboratory

dedicated to psychology in Germany. This is why Wundt is commonly referred to as the
“father of psychology.”

Explain the development of humanistic psychology. What were the major areas of
concern for this field of psychology?

- The humanistic approach seeks to glimpse the whole person--not just the
fragmented parts of the personality or cognitive functioning.

- Emphasis on Subjective Meaning

- Rejection of Determinism
- Concern for Positive Growth (Rather than Pathology)
What are the differences between humanist and behaviorist theories in regards to
animal research?

Humanists: all people should care equally for each other

Behaviorist: Only on External, Publicly Observable Behavior, and the Conditions Under
Which Such Behavior Was Elicited

What is the difference between clinical and counseling psychology?

Counseling:
- Less on Severe Psychopathology (e.g., Depression & Anxiety)
- More Likely to Assume Client-Centered or Humanistic Theoretical Approach
- Both Normal Developmental Issues & Physical, Emotional, Mental Disorders

Clinical:
- Seriously Disturbed Individuals (e.g., Schizophrenia & Personality Disorders)
- Less Likely to Assume Client-Centered or Humanistic Theoretical Approach

What premises are sciences based upon according to your text?

Explain the differences between these research designs:

Experimental research:
An investigator deliberately manipulates selected events or circumstances and
then measures the effects of those manipulations on subsequent behavior.

Advantages
- Conclusions about causality can be made
Disadvantages
- Behavior is constrained to laboratory
- Important to avoid experimenter bias
- More ethical considerations
Correlational research:

A research technique based on finding if there is a naturally occurring relationship

between two or more variables.

Advantages
- Description and prediction possible
Disadvantages
- No control over variables
- Cannot imply cause-and-effec
Case studies:

Detailed description of a single individual or just a few individuals.

Advantages
- Rich description of an individual
- Each individual serves as own control
- No large groups of participants
- No random assignment
Disadvantages
- Observer bias
- Generalizability is decreased by small sample size
- The individual being studied may be an exception

Naturalistic observation:

Observing and recording the behavior of humans or animals in their natural

environment

Advantages
- Can observe what occurs before and after target behavior
- Insight into the important factors to study
- No artificiality of the laboratory
Disadvantages
- Less control over variables
- Cannot imply causality
- Observer bias
- Target behavior only occurs once
Be able to explain and/or identify:

Independent variable:

The variable that is manipulated by the experimenter to test its effects

Dependent variable:

The variable that is measured to see how it is changed by the independent

variable

Experimental group:

The group subjected to a change in the independent variable

Control Group:

The group that is not subjected to a change in the independent variable

Appendix A:

Define the following:

Mean: The Average of a set of numbers.

(e.g., the Average of 5, 10, 15, 20, and 100 is [5+10+15+20+100] Divided
by 5 [the amount of numbers])

Median: The Middle Number of a set of numbers

(e.g., the Median of 5,10,15,20, and 100 is 15. If the amount of numbers is
even, then the average of the two middle numbers is the Median.

Mode: The number that appears most often in a set of numbers

(e.g., the Mode of 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 5 is 5 because it appears most often)

Explain:
Standard Deviation: An index of the amount of variability in a set of data.

(e.g., the Standard Deviation of 3, 7, 7, and 19 is the Average, Then each

number minus the Average, then the square of those numbers, then
the average of those squares, and finally the square root of that
number.)
A normal distribution: A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that represents the
pattern in which many human characteristics are dispersed in the population.
Chapter 2:
What is the basic structure of the neuron? What does each part do?

1. Neurons receive messages from other neurons through short fibers, called
dendrites
2. A longer fiber, called an axon, carries outgoing messages from the cell
3. Some axons are covered with a myelin sheath, made up of glial cells; this
increases neuron efficiency and provides insulation
4. Neurotransmitters are released at the terminal buttons

A group of axons bundled together forms a nerve or tract

What are the functions of neurons?

Neurons are all specialized to receive and transmit information.

What are the functions of these neurotransmitters? Discuss their impact on

behavior.
Endorphins:
Reduces pain by inhibiting the neurons that transmit pain messages to the
brain.
Dopamine:
Plays a role in motor disorders, such as Parkinson’s disease.
Serotonin:
Affects emotions, arousal, and sleep
Norepinephrine:
Influences wakefulness and arousal, as well as learning, memory, and
emotional mood.

How are Parkinson’s disease and depression associated with neurotransmitters?

Dopamine plays a role with motor disorders and when you have Parkinson’s
disease, you have a hard time controlling your voluntary movements.
Also, Norepinephrine affects your emotional mood, among other things, which
can make you depressed.

What are the divisions of the nervous system?

The central nervous system (CNS), which consists of the brain and spinal cord

The peripheral nervous system (PNS), is made up of nerves that radiate

throughout the body, linking all of the body's parts to the CNS
What do these sections of the brain specialize in?

Medulla:
Controls breathing, heart rate, blood pressure
Cerebellum:
Involved in balance and coordination of movement
Thalamus:
Sensory switchboard
Hypothalamus:
Bodily maintenance functions and pleasurable rewards.
Cerebral Cortex:
Plays a key role in memory, attention, perceptual awareness, thought,
language, and consciousness.
Corpus Callosum:
Facilitates communication between the two hemispheres
Occipital Lobe:
Processes information for the sense of vision
Parietal Lobe:
Sensations of touch and bodily position
Primary somatosensory cortex: Registers and processes body sensations
Primary motor cortex: Controls voluntary muscle movement
Wernicke’s Area:
Involved in comprehension of spoken or written language.
Broca’s Area:
Involved in production of speech.
Left Hemisphere:
Right hand touch and movement
Speech
Language
Writing for right handed individuals
Right Hemisphere:
Left hand touch and movement
Spatial construction
Face recognition
Nonverbal imagery
Writing for left handed individuals
Limbic System:
System of loosely connected structures located between the central core
and the cerebral hemispheres
Linked primarily to memory, emotions, drives
Appears to play a central role in times of stress
Hippocampus:
Aids in the processing of memory for storage
Amygdala:
Involved in fear and aggression
What are the differences in specialization between the hemispheres? Is one
hemisphere more dominant than the other? What were the results of the split-brain
operations?

Right Hemisphere: More involved in imagery, face recognition, and other things
not using language.

Left Hemisphere: More involved in language, such as comprehension and

production of speech and writing.

The cerebral hemisphere that is more involved than the other in governing certain
body functions, such as controlling the arm and leg used preferentially in skilled
movements.
When they disconnected the Corpus Callosum, the seizures of the patient nearly
disappeared altogether.
Some patients acted as if they had two different personalities in the two
hemispheres after the operation, such as one hand placing items in a grocery cart while
another returns them to the shelf.

Chapter 3:
Define sensation and perception. What occurs to produce sensation and therefore
perception?

Sensation: energy stimulating a receptor cell in one of the sense organs.

Transduction: the process of converting physical energy into
electrochemical codes
Perception: the process of creating meaningful patterns from raw sensory
information

Sensation is energy stimulation a receptor cell in a sense organ. Transduction converts

physical energy into electrochemical codes. Then, perception, the process of making
sense of the raw sensations, occurs.
What is the basic structure of the eye, what does each part do?

Cornea: A clear, protective coating which light passes through

Pupil: The opening of the Iris
Iris: The muscle that opens and closes the Pupil to let more or less light in.
Retina: The light-sensitive inner lining of the eye
Rods:
- Highly light sensitive
- Responsible for night vision
- Responsible for brightness perception
- Not in the fovea, but concentrated outside of it
- Many rods connect to individual bipolar cells
Cones:
- Moderately light sensitive
- Most useful in daylight
- Responsible for color vision
- Located mainly in the fovea
- Typically only one cone connects to single bipolar cell (higher acuity
results).
Blind Spot: The place on the retina where the axons of all the ganglion cells join to form
the optic nerve
Optic Nerve: Carries messages from each eye to the brain
What are the theories of color vision that are discussed in your text?

Trichromatic theory
1. There are three types of cones:
1. red, green, and blue
2. Perceived colors are result from differing amount of light absorbed by
the three types of cones.
2. The trichromatic theory provides an explanation for some types of
colorblindness
1. Monochromats:
1. People who are totally colorblind
2. Dichromats:
1. People who are blind to either red-green or yellow-blue
3. This theory best explains the way the cones transduct color

Opponent-Process Theory
1. Color-sensitive ganglion cells are arranged in opposing cells:
1. Red-green, yellow-blue, black-white (brightness)
2. The activation of one cone (at retinal level) inhibits another cone
2. This theory explains color vision at the level of the ganglion cells
3. Opponent-process theory may explain color afterimages
1. Continual viewing of red weakens the ability to inhibit green
2. Remove red and you see green

Know the 5 Gestalt principles:

Gestalt principles help explain some of the factors that influence form perception.

- Proximity: Things that are near to one another seem to belong together.
- Closure: People often group items to create closure
- Similarity: We tend to group similar things together.
- Simplicity: We organize in the simplest form.
- Continuity: Follow the direction created.

Know the difference between the gustatory and olfactory system and how they are
associated. What are the four basic tastes?

- Gustatory System: the Sensory System for the sense of taste

- Bitter
- Sour
- Salty
- Sweet
- Olfactory System: Sensory system for the sense of smell.
- Flavor: Combination of Taste and Smell
How are perceptual experiences subjective? Give examples.
• Perceptual Set: Information given to you prior to you viewing something creates
a perceptual set. This set helps you organize and interpret information being
presented to you.

If you are told to look at the vase in this picture, you will likely see the vase before you
see the faces:

What is “phantom limb” pain? How frequently does it occur?

- “Phantom Limb” Pain: Pain appearing to come from where an amputated limb
used to be.
- Only a small minority experience constant pain from their phantom limb.

Identify the functions and where information is reported from in the:

Vestibular System:
The sense of equilibrium and awareness of body position in space
Two types of vestibular senses:
- Body Rotation: From 3 semicircular canals of inner ear
- Gravitation and Movement: from vestibular sacs that lie
between the semicircular canals and the cochlea.
Kinesthetic System:
- Provides specific information about muscle movement
- Changes in Posture
- Strain on Muscles and Joints
Stretch Receptors and Golgi Tendon: Provide information about
stretching and contraction of individual muscles
Chapter 4:

What does consciousness include awareness of?

Consciousness includes the awareness of internal and external stimuli.

Define the following brain waves, when do we experience them, what are their
differences?

Delta: Delta waves are the slowest and highest amplitude brain waves.
Theta: Brain waves which are even slower in frequency and greater in amplitude
than alpha waves.
Alpha: Brain waves, occurring during periods of relaxation, that are slower,
increased amplitude, and more synchronous.
Beta: Brain waves, occurring during day to day wakefulness, which are highest in
frequency, lowest in amplitude, and not very consistent in their pattern

What are the stages of sleep? What are the brain waves that are prominent in each
stage? What stage do we dream in primarily?

- Stage 1: Sleeper easily awakened. Alpha and Theta Waves Prominent.

- Pulse slows
- Muscles relax
- Eyes move side-to-side
- Stage 2 & 3: Sleeper is hard to awaken. Also known as Delta Sleep.
- Doesn’t respond to noise or light
- Heart rate, blood pressure, and temperature continue to drop
- Stage 4: Functions lowest points, Delta waves Prominent.
- Heart and Breathing rates, blood pressure, and body temperature are at
their lowest points of the night
- After about an hour the sleeper begins to ascend through stages back to
Stage 1. This process takes about 40 minutes.
REM Sleep:
- Eyes move rapidly under closed eyelids, and the muscles are more relaxed than
any other time in the cycle.
- Body’s voluntary muscles are paralyzed
- Brain activity, heart rate, blood pressure, and other functions closely resemble
waking consciousness.
- Some research suggest REM sleep is the stage where most dreaming occurs.
What are the known purposes of REM sleep? What occurs in your body during
REM? When, during the night, do we experience the most REM sleep?
What is insomnia and sleep apnea?

What are our Circadian Rhythms, what requires some adjustment to your biological
clock?

Circadian Rhythms:
1. Circadian cycles are an ancient and a fundamental adaptation to the 24-hour solar
cycle of light and dark
2. The human biological clock is actually a tiny cluster of neurons in the
hypothalamus that responds to levels of proteins in the body, the SCN
(suprachiasmatic nucleus)
3. Over the course of a day, metabolism, stomach acidity, alertness, body
temperature, blood pressure, and the level of most hormones vary predictably
4. SCN releases neurotransmitters in response to light sensed from the eyes
1. Epinephrine (which causes the body to go on alert) reaches a peak in the
late morning hours and declines until around midnight
2. By contrast, levels of melatonin (which promotes sleep) surge at night and
drop off during the day
3. Normally, the rhythms and chemistry of all these different cycles interact
smoothly, so that a shift in one brings about a corresponding shift in others

What is melatonin?

Melatonin affects our sleepiness. The more melatonin in our system, the more we
want to sleep.

Define insomnia:

Difficulty falling asleep or remaining asleep

How does rotating shift work and sleep deprivation effect productivity and
concentration?

Because of our biological clock, a constant schedule can help productivity and
concentration. If we eat, sleep, and do other things around the same time every day, it
won’t surprise our body and things will become more natural. Researchers have found
that it is much better to go to sleep and wake up at the same time than go to sleep early on
the weekdays and staying up late on weekends. You will feel more refreshed and
awakened.
What hormone is associated with sleep?

Growth hormones are associated with sleep.

What does the research say about dreams in regards to when we are dreaming, how
much time we spend dreaming, variations between individuals and the proposed
functions of dreams

Several theories have been proposed:

1. Dreams as unconscious wishes
1. Freudian
2. Manifest content (surface content)
3. Latent content (hidden desires expressed through dream)
2. Dreams and information processing
1. We reprocess the information we learned during the day
2. Forming memories of material that seems important
3. Integrating new information with old
4. Tying emotional responses to what happened
3. Dreams and waking life
1. Dreams as extensions of our waking life (undisguised)
4. Dreams and neural activity
1. Parts of brain related to emotions, motivations, memories (limbic system)
are very active during dreams.
2. Working memory, attention, logic, self-monitoring are relatively inactive.
3. Explains how dreams are emotional but without much critical insight.

What are common effects of hypnosis?

- Hypnosis is a trancelike state in which susceptibility to suggestion is heightened.

- Hypnosis is not able to produce foolish or embarrassing behaviors
- Therapeutic uses:
- Athletes
- Treating anxiety disorders
- Stopping bad habits

Define a psychoactive drug:

A chemical substance that results in temporary changes in perception, mood,

consciousness and behavior, the most popular psychoactive drug is alcohol.
Chapter 5:

Define learning:

Occurs whenever experience or practice results in a relatively permanent change

in behavior or in potential behavior.

Define the following:

Classic Conditioning: A form of learning in which a response elicited by one

stimulus becomes elicited by a previously neutral stimulus, almost
by accident.

Unconditioned Stimulus: is a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response

without previous conditioning.

Conditioned Stimulus: is a previously neutral stimulus that has, through

conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned
response.

Unconditioned Response: is an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus

that occurs without previous conditioning.

Conditioned Response: is a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that

occurs because of previous conditioning.

Be able to apply the above definitions to situations, as in the classroom exercise.

How are phobias related to classical conditioning?

- Phobias can be acquired through classical conditioning by pairing a neutral

stimulus with something that really causes pain.
- For example, if you see a white, fuzzy rat while at the same time a hammer comes
and almost smacks you in the head, which can get you to have a phobia of white,
fuzzy rats.
- The Neutral stimulus was the white, fuzzy rat and the unconditioned stimulus
would be the hammer.
- The unconditioned response would be fear of the loud sound and almost smacking
your face.

How did Pavlov come up with classical conditioning?

Pavlov discovered that when he paired ringing a bell with giving food to the dogs,
eventually simply ringing the bell would cause the dogs to salivate.
Define Operant Conditioning:

Operant Conditioning was created by B.F. Skinner.

- Learning to make or withhold a certain response because of its consequences

- We make operant behaviors
- Consequences follow
- Consequences take one of two forms
- Reinforcers
- Punishers