Faculty Of Art Translation Department Contrastive Linguistics Term paper Entitled: A contrastive study of English and Arabic Consonants

Submitted to: Prof. Yowell Aziz Prepared by: Ahmad Zureikat University number: 201020388

Table of contents 1- Abstract 2- Introduction 3- The phonemic system 4- Place of articulation 4.1 English consonants 4.2 Arabic consonants 4.3 Contrast 5- Manner of articulation 5.1 English consonants 5.2 Arabic consonants 5.3 contrast 6- Distribution 7-Airstream mechanism 8- Syllable structure 9- Conclusion 10-Refrences 1 2 2

Abstract
The highly appreciated aim of the contrastive linguistics is to be utilized in the pedagogical implication that serves mainly the second language learners. So, the first skill they have to acquire is to be capable to pronounce sounds correctly. Thus, one of the most important areas to be studied in contrastive linguistics is phonology and phonetics. However, this term-paper will be engaged in comparing and contrasting English with Arabic, only, in terms of the consonantal phonemic system. And to be precise, when I compared the two languages I have been working on the same level, i.e. this study will be dealing only with the Modern standard Arabic (MSA) and Modern Standard English (MSE). In this study, the similarities and the differences between consonants in E and A will be plainly exemplified in regard to various aspects: first, I examined the phonemic system for both languages by pointing out what are the common and restricted consonants. In the second and the third level, I attempted to illustrate how consonants are classified in terms of the place of articulation and the manner of articulation including some examples. After that, the paper will be concerned in checking out how consonants are distributed on initial, medial, and final positions of the word. Furthermore, I discussed the airstream mechanism that used in both languages in order to produce sounds. Finally, the subcategorization of the syllable structure will be shortly explained with some examples.

Introduction
Any spoken language has a sound system combined of a limited number of vowels and consonants. To differentiate between them, Peter (1991, p.10) defined vowels as: sounds in which there is no obstruction to the flow of air as it passes from the larynx to the lips. Meanwhile, consonants can be recognized as the sounds which are produced with complete obstruction or partial obstruction, but not without any kind obstruction. However, the comparison will be exclusively concerned in the examining of the phonetic features of consonants. Now, the dominant question that may be raised why does the paper involve consonants not vowels? This question can be answered by J.D.OConnor(1980,p.24) as he said in this respect : First, consonants contribute more to making English understood than vowels do. Second, consonants are generally made by a definite interference of the vocal organs with the airstream, so are easier to describe and understand. However, in order to compare and contrast English with Arabic, and to manifest the similarities and the differences, the sound system of consonants will need to be presented mainly in terms of:

A - Phonemic system In this respect, only the phonemes of both languages will be presented, therefor, allophones will be intentionally disregarded. Since we are concerned in comparing the two languages in term of phonemic system, we have to be acquainted with the common consonants between E and A , and the restricted consonants for each language.

1- The common consonants : Common /b/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /f/ /s/ /z/ /m/ /n/ consonants /r/ /w/ /y/ /h/ // // /d/ // /l/ 2- The consonants restricted to English : Restricted to E /p/ /g/ /v/ /t/ 3- The consonants restricted to Arabic : Restricted to A /q/
//
//

//

//

// //

/x/ /t/

/d/ /s/

//

Contrast: 1- The phonemic system in E comprises 24 consonants; in contrast, Arabic system contains 28 consonants. 2- /p/ in E is phonemic while in A it has not a phonemic Status rather that is allophonic.
3- The glottal stop // is phonemic in A while it is allophonic in E. 4- all consonants restricted to E can be produced in colloquial Arabic , while the consonants restricted to A cannot occur in E sound system at all .

B- Place of articulation
In this term, we need to know what are the speech organs contributed to produce consonants in both languages. As Peter (1991, p. 8) stated that all the sounds we make when we speak are the result of muscles contracting . English consonants: English has a consonant sound system comprises twenty-four consonants distributed on six places of articulation. As known, this kind of classification is not fixed in all books written in this field, so I relied basically on Fromkin/Rodman (1974, pp, 47-48) and J.D.OConnor (1980, pp.13-22) in order to figure out this explanation. 1- Labials : Sounds are produced by changing the shape of the lips and they are five sounds classified into two groups: - Bilabial : pronounced by pressing the two lips tightly together , and there are three bilabial sounds in E : - /p/: peace /pi:s/ . - /b/: beat / bi:t/ . - /m/: meat /mi:t/.

- Labiodental : pronounced by touching the lower lip to the upper teeth, and they are two sounds : - /f/ feel /fi:l/ - /v/ veal /vi:l/ .

2- Alveolar : In this category, sounds are produced according to Frokmin/Rodman (1973 , p. 48) when we raise the tip of the tongue to the hard palate right at the point of the bony tooth ridge . English has a list of seven alveolar sounds as the following : -/t/ : teeth /ti:/ , /d/ : deal /di:l/ , /s/ : seem /si:m/ , /z/ : zeal /zi:l/,/n/ knees /ni:z/ , /l/ : leaf /li:f/ , /r/ : real / ri:l/ . 3- Interdental : Sounds are articulated by pressing the front part of the tongue to the upper teeth . there are two interdental sounds in English : - // thief : /i:f/ . - / / these : / i:s/. 4- Palatal: Sounds are produced by raising the front part of the tongue to the hard palate. They can be divided into two groups: -Alveo-palatal : -/ t/ cheer : / ti:r/, /d/ just : / dst

-Palatal : /j/ : yes :/ jes/,/ / she/i:/, // pleasure : / ple/.

5- Velar: a group of sounds are pronounced by raising the back of the tongue to the soft palate (velum). In English, there are three velar sounds : /k/ keen: /ki:n/ , /g/ game /gem/ , // hang : / h/

6- Glottal: there is only one glottal sound in English , - /h/ : To describe the mechanism that occurs to produce the glottal sound /h/ ,Frokmin/Rodman ( 1974,p.52) stated the glottis is open as in the production of voiceless sounds . No other modification of the airstream mechanism occurs in the mouth . for example , /h/ house : /has/.

Arabic consonants: Arabic contains twenty-eight consonant phonemes. To classify them in terms of their places of articulation, I relied on Muhammad Alkhuli (1986,pp. 33-36 ) , Dawood Abdoh (2010,pp.3940),and Hussam albahnasawi (2005,p.34). 1- Labial ( :)there is ,also, two divisions : - Bilabial (: ) -/b/: / bb/ -/m/ : / ms/ -/w/ / wdi/ - labiodental ( : ) - /f/ : /: fz/.

2- Alveo-Dental (:)- -/d/ : / di:n/ - /t/ :/ ti:n/ -/d/ / der/ / s/ / s:r/ -/ t/ / t:r/ 3-interdental)) - // / r/ - // / nb/ -/ / / erf/

4-alveolar )) -/s/ : / sir/ ,/z/: / z:r/,/n/: / n:r/, /l/: / lm/, /r/: / ri:f/. 5- palatal (: ( - /j/ : / jnm/ 6- alveo-platal (: ) - // : / a/. - / d/ / dn/. 7- Velar (: ) -/ k/ / kn/. - / / / b/. - / x/ / xn/.

9- uvular ( : ) -/ q/ / q:m/ This sound can be pronounced as hussam albhnasawi(2005,p.82) analyzed ,translated by me, when the back of tongue raises to touch the uvula and the back of the palate , and this movement obstruct the oral cavity , after that the air releases making an explosive sound .

10-pharyngeal (:) According to what Pual Tench (1992, p.81) stated, the pharyngeal sounds, which are also called regarding to the Arab phoneticians the emphatic sounds ( ,) are characterized by three main features. First, the back of the tongue touches the back wall of the pharynx. Second, while the air passing throughout these articulators, it produces a large resonance chamber, and finally, there must be a high masculine tension. There are two pharyngeal sounds in Arabic: - // / :r/ . - / / / d/ 11- laryngeal or glottal ( :) /h/ / hrib/ -// / sed/. The // sound can be pronounced as Fromkin/Rodman (1973,p.52) explained If the air is stopped completely at the glottis by tightly closed vocal cords .

Contrast 1- The sound /t/ is alveolar in E, while it is dental in A. 2- The sound /d/ is alveolar in E, while it is dental in A. 3- E has no pharyngeal sounds, while A has two sounds: // and / /. 4- A has two glottal or laryngeal sound (/h/, //) , in contrast , E has only one sound which is (/h/). Although the glottal stop (//) sound can be pronounced in many American accents as Fromkin/Rodman (1973, p.52) pointed out, it is not considered as phonemic in standard English. 5- // Is dental( )in E while it is interdental ()in A. 6- / / Is dental( )in E while it is interdental ()in A. 7- /j/ is palatal( )in E ,while it is alveo-palatal( )in A . 8- There are no sounds pronounced from the uvular place in E, while A has /q/ as a uvular ( )sound.

C-Manner of articulation : In this part, we will be engaged in how the consonants are produced, rather than where . English consonants: 1- Plosives (stops): Peter (1991,p.30) pointed out that there are four peculiar characteristics for plosives as they are pronounced :first ,one articulator moves against another ,so no air is possible to pass through oral cavity . Secondly, there is an air compressed in a stricture. Thirdly, the compressed air is allowed to be released which makes a noise ,and finally , during the previous process, there may be voicing . However, E includes six plosive consonants: Plosives in E /p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /g/ /k/

2- Fricatives : To show out how these sounds are articulated Fromkin/Rodman(1973,pp.49-50) stated that the airstream is not stopped completely but is obstructed from flowing freely . Meanwhile, the air passes through a narrow gab shaped by tow articulator. E contains nine fricatives, as following:

Fricatives in E

/f/

/v/

/s/

/z/

// // // // /h/

3- Affricates : The affricates are a combination between plosive and fricative sounds. E has two affricates:

Affricates in E

/d/

/t/

4- Nasals : To exemplify the mechanism occurs when nasals are pronounced J.D.OConnor (1980, pp.48-49) stated In all nasals consonants the soft palate is lowered and at the same time the mouth passage is blocked , so that all the air is pushed out of the nose . There are three phonemes represents nasals in E : Nasals in E /n/ /m/ //

5- Lateral : J.D.OConnor (1980, p.61) pointed out that the lateral sound pronounced when the air passing round the sides of the mouth, instead of passing down to the center of the mouth.

/l/ is the only lateral sound in E

6- Liquids : Fromkin/Rodman(1973,p.51)described that these consonants are produced while there is some obstruction of the airstream in the mouth , but not enough to cause friction. E has only one liquid sound which is the /r/ sound, or what is called (retroflex) .Although some phoneticians consider /l/ as a liquid , it has been classified in this study under the category of the lateral sounds. The liquid sound in E /r/

7- Glides : These sounds are the most unnatural among the consonants in E, because there are more like vowels as they behave like them, so they are called sometimes semivowels .however,in English there are two glide phonemes : Glides In E /w/ /y/

Arabic Consonants: To show the Arabic consonantal system in terms of manner of articulation, I counted on what Hussam (2005,pp.48-56) has explained in this respect , and also Paul(1992,p.78).

1- Plosives (: ) Pual (1992,p.78) divided the eight plosives, in Arabic into two categories , as following : NonPlosives Emphatic in A plosives Emphatic /d/ plosives 2- Fricatives(: ) As plosives, paul(1992,p.78) divided the twelve fricatives into two categories : Fricatives In A Emphatic fricatives Non-Emphatic fricatives // /s/ /s/ /z/ // /x/ // /h/ / / // // / /t/ /b/ /t/ /k/ /d/ // /q/

3- Affricates)) Arabic has only one affricate sound : /d/

4- Lateral ): ) there is only one lateral sound : /l/. 5- Nasals (: ) Nasal sounds in A are represented by two phonemes: Nasals In A /n/ /m/

6- Trilled (:), As Fromkin/Rodman (1973,p.51) explained that the mechanism used in order to pronounce trilled sound is the tip of the tongue vibrating against the roof of the mouth In A the only trilled sound is/r/.

7- Glides(: ) In Arabic there are two glide consonants : Glides In A /w/ /y/

Contrast: 1- Arabic consonantal system classifies plosives into two categories: Emphatic as in /t/ and non-emphatic. In contrast, English does not apply the emphasis quality to the consonantal system. 2- Similar to plosives, Arabic divides fricatives into : emphatic and non-emphatic , while E ,also, has not this classification. 3- E has two affricates (/d/ , /t/ ) , while A has only one affricate sound (/d/) 4- E consonantal system contains three nasal sounds (/n/, /m/,/ /). In contrast, A has only two nasals (/n/,/m/). 5- In A /r/ is featured as trilled while in E is retroflex.

D-

Distribution

Peter (1991, p.44) said that In every language there are restrictions on the sequences of phonemes that are used. This means that some consonants may or may not occur in a particular position (initial, medial, or final) in a word, and they require a peculiar environment i.e. being preceded or followed by a particular sounds. But in this explanation I am not going to be engaged in the environment, rather than I will show what are the restrictions on positions that sound cannot occur in.

Distribution of consonants in E: There are many restrictions on the distribution of consonants that is related to position in E, as the following: 1-// : does not occur at the beginning of the word . based on J,D.OConnor(1980,pp.35-36), this sound occurs rarely in the final position , even exclusively to some limited words borrowed from French. For example : Rouge: /ru: /, Garage: /gr:/

2- //: does not come in the initial position, and occurs in the middle between two vowels. J,D.OConnor(1980,pp.5253)

3-/h/ it nevers occurs in the final place of the word. J,D.OConnor(1980,pp.37-38). 4-/w/ does not occur at the end of the word. J,D.OConnor(1980,p.58). 5-/y/: does not occur in the final position. J,D.OConnor(1980,p.58).

-The other consonants that are not mentioned above occur in every position (initial, medial, final). Distribution of consonants in A: There are no restrictions on the distribution of consonants in A. So, all of them can occur in all positions. E- Airstream Mechanism Languages in the world use different mechanisms like pulmonic ingressive mechanism and pulmonic agressive in order to produce sounds. In regard to what Fromkin /Rodman (1974,p.43) explained , English uses the the pulmonic airstream mechanism to produces its sounds . in the mechanism , the air that is coming from the lungs is pushed out of mouth passing through the speech organs .

According to what Sameer shareef (2005,p.29) pointed out that , translated by me All sounds in Arabic are pulmonic egressive . Thus, the two languages are similar in term of the airstream mechanism used by both of them.

F- Syllable structure First of all, J,D.OConnor(1980,p.150) defined syllable as a un it consisting of one vowel or syllabic consonant ..). However, the syllable in term of structure has three parts as Peter (1991,p.73) illustrated : the onset which represents the initial part , the peak represents the middle of the syllable ,and the coda that occupies the final position . the peak is the only obligatory part that must be occupied by vowels.

Syllable structure in E

Based on Aziz (1999, p.25), E has a complex syllable structure that contains 15 syllable patterns, as the following:

1 V 2 Cv 3 Vc 4 cvc 5 ccv

I The Eat Sit Three

6 7 8 9

vcc ccvc cccvc cccvcc

east Stood Street streets

11 12 13 14

cvcc ccvcc cvccc cccv vccc

Sips Treats Depths Screw asks

10 cccvccc strengths 15

Syllable structure in A : Pual( 1992,p.79) said that there are five syllable patterns in A: 1 2 3 4 5 CV CVC CVV CVVC CVCC / bi/ //sin/ /maa/ /baab/ /nahir/

Contrast 1- A syllable structure is more limited than E. while A has 5 patterns, E, on the other hand, has 15. The reason behind this contrast as Aziz (1999, p.25) pointed out, A has strict constraint on the consonant clusters. 2- The onset in A is obligatory element while in E is optional. So, no word in A begins with vowel. In contrast, a vowel in E can stand alone as a one syllable. 3- The maximum consonant clusters in E that can come in the onset are three, and four in the coda. On the other hand, A has no consonant cluster in the onset part, and only two consonant cluster can occupy the coda position .

Conclusion

References

English References Fromkin/ Rodman.1974. An introduction to language . Holt,Rineheart and Winston , Inc. J.D.OConnor.1980.Better English pronunciation , 2nd edition .Cambridge University Press. Tench,Paul.1992. Studies systemic phonology . Pinter Publisher London and New york.pp.77-86. Roach,Peter .1991. English Phonetics and Phonology.2nd Edition.Cambridge University Press. Khalil,Aziz. M.1999.A contrastive Grammar English and Arabic . Jordan Book Center.p.11-25. -------------------------------------------Arabic Refrences . , , :

.2005, , ,: , .2010,, .1987, , : , - - , , :,,, .2005,