Digital Modualtion Recognition

DIGITAL MODULATION RECOGNITION
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES
OF
MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

BY

EREM ERDEM

IN PARTIAL FULLFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR
THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

DECEMBER 2009
Approval of the thesis:


submitted by EREM ERDEM in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of Master of Science in Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Department, Middle East Technical University by,

Prof. Dr. Canan zgen
Dean, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences

Prof. Dr. smet Erkmen
Head of Department, Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Prof. Dr. Yaln Tank
Supervisor, Electrical and Electronics Engineering Dept., METU

Examining Committee Members:

Prof. Dr. Mete Severcan
Electrical and Electronics Engineering Dept., METU

Prof. Dr. Yaln Tank

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Melek Ycel

Assoc. Prof. Dr. A. zgr Ylmaz

Y. Mh. Enis Doyuran
ASELSAN Inc.

Date: 04.12.2009

iii

I hereby declare that all information in this document has been obtained and
presented in accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct. I also
declare that, as required by these rules and conduct, I have fully cited and
referenced all material and results that are not original to this work.

Name, Last Name : Erem ERDEM
Signature :
iv

ABSTRACT

Erdem, Erem

M. S., Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Supervisor : Prof. Dr. Yaln Tank

September 2009, 144 pages

In this thesis work, automatic recognition algorithms for digital modulated signals
are surveyed.
Feature extraction and classification algorithm stages are the main parts of a
modulation recognition system. Performance of the modulation recognition system
mainly depends on the prior knowledge of some of the signal parameters, selection
of the key features and classification algorithm selection.
Unfortunately, most of the features require some of the signal parameters such as
carrier frequency, pulse shape, time of arrival, initial phase, symbol rate, signal to
noise ratio, to be known or to be extracted. Thus, in this thesis, features which do
not require prior knowledge of the signal parameters, such as the number of the
peaks in the envelope histogram and the locations of these peaks, the number of
peaks in the frequency histogram, higher order moments of the signal are
considered. Particularly, symbol rate and signal to noise ratio estimation methods
v
are surveyed. A method based on the cyclostationarity analysis is used for symbol
rate estimation and a method based on the eigenvector decomposition is used for the
estimation of signal to noise ratio. Also, estimated signal to noise ratio is used to
improve the performance of the classification algorithm.
Two methods are proposed for modulation recognition:
1) Decision tree based method
2) Bayesian based classification method
A method to estimate the symbol rate and carrier frequency offset of minimum-shift
keying (MSK) signal is also investigated.
Keywords: digital modulation recognition, feature extraction, Bayesian blind
classification, MSK carrier frequency and symbol rate estimation.
vi

Z
SAYISAL MODLASYON TANIMA

Erdem, Erem

Yksek Lisans, Elektrik Elektronik Mhendislii Blm
Tez Yneticisi : Prof. Dr. Yaln Tank

Eyll 2009, 144 sayfa

Bu tez almasnda, saysal modlasyona sahip sinyaller iin otomatik modlasyon
tanma algoritmalar aratrlmtr.
znitelik karm ve snflandrma algoritmas; modlasyon tanma sistemlerinin
temel yaplardr. Modlasyon tanma sistemlerinin baarm kriteri temel olarak
sinyale zg baz parametrelerin nceden bilinmesine, znitelik seimine ve
snflandrma algoritmas seimine dayanmaktadr.
Ne yazk ki, zniteliklerin ounluu tayc frekans, darbe biimi, sinyal geli
zaman, faz bilgisi, veri hz, sinyal gcnn grlt gcne oran gibi baz sinyale
zg parametrelerin bilinmesini veya bulunmasn gerektirir. Bu nedenle, bu tez
almas kapsamnda genlik histogramnda yer alan tepe says ve bu tepelerin
konumlar, frekans histogramnda yer alan tepe says, sinyalin yksek dereceden
momenti gibi sinyale zg parametre ihtiyac gerektirmeyecek znitelikler zerinde
dnlmtr. zellikle, veri hz ve sinyal gcnn grlt gcne oran kestirme
vii
metotlar da aratrlmtr. Dairesel-duraan analize dayal bir metot sembol veri
hz kestirmede ve z-vektr dalmna dayal bir metot sinyal gcnn grlt
gcne orann kestirmede kullanlmtr. Bulunan sinyal gcnn grlt gcne
oran, snflandrma algoritmasnn performansnn arttrlmasnda da kullanlmtr.
Modlasyon tanma iin 2 metot nerilmitir:
1) Karar aac yntemine dayal bir metot
2) Bayes dayal bir snflandrma metodu
MSK sinyalinin veri hzn ve tayc frekansn bulmaya ynelik bir metot da
incelenmitir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: saysal modlasyon tanma, znitelik bulma, Bayes dayal kr
snflandrma, MSK tayc frekans ve veri hz bulma.
viii

To My Parents
ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Prof. Yaln Tank for his guidance,
advice, criticism, patience and encouragement throughout the completion of the
thesis.
I would like to thank to all of my friends and colleagues for their support and
encouragements.
Finally, I would like to thank to my family for everything that I have. This thesis is
dedicated to them.
x

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................... IV
Z ...................................................................................................................................................... VI
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................... IX
TABLE OF CONTENTS.................................................................................................................... X
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS...........................................................................................................XII
LIST OF TABLES.......................................................................................................................... XIV
LIST OF FIGURES......................................................................................................................... XVI
CHAPTERS
1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 BACKGROUND....................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 OUTLINE OF THESIS.............................................................................................................. 4
2. LITERATURE SURVEY................................................................................................................ 5
2.1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 RELEVANT PREVIOUS WORK............................................................................................. 6
3. BASIC FEATURE EXTRACTION BLOCKS.............................................................................. 21
3.1 SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO (SNR) ESTIMATION BLOCK................................................. 21
3.2 BANDWIDTH AND SPECTRAL SHAPE............................................................................. 26
3.2.1 LINEARLY MODULATED SIGNALS ......................................................................... 27
3.2.2 CPM SIGNALS............................................................................................................... 28
3.3 CYCLOSTATIONARY ANALYSIS...................................................................................... 31
3.3.1 LINEARLY MODULATED SIGNALS ......................................................................... 31
3.3.2 CPM SIGNALS............................................................................................................... 32
3.3.3 CYCLOSTATIONARITY IN MODULATION RECOGNITION................................. 34
3.4 ENVELOPE FEATURES........................................................................................................ 39
xi
3.5 SPECTRAL ANALYSIS OF MOMENTS .............................................................................. 42
3.6 INSTANTANEOUS FREQUENCY FEATURES .................................................................. 43
3.7 CARRIER FREQUENCY OFFSET ESTIMATION............................................................... 46
3.7.1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................... 46
3.7.2 THE PROPOSED METHOD.......................................................................................... 48
3.7.3 SIMULATIONS.............................................................................................................. 55
3.7.4 SELECTION OF BLOCK PARAMETERS.................................................................... 55
3.7.5 SIMULATION RESULTS.............................................................................................. 59
3.7.6 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................... 61
4. SPECIFIC MODULATION RECOGNITION TOOLS................................................................. 62
4.1 OUTPUTS OF THE FEATURE EXTRACTION BLOCKS.................................................... 62
4.2 MASK RECOGNITION.......................................................................................................... 67
4.3 MPSK RECOGNITION.......................................................................................................... 74
4.4 MQAM RECOGNITION........................................................................................................ 82
4.5 CW RECOGNITION............................................................................................................... 91
4.6 CPFSK RECOGNITION......................................................................................................... 95
4.7 AWGN RECOGNITION....................................................................................................... 101
4.8 CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................................... 103
5. THE RECOGNITION SYSTEM................................................................................................. 105
5.1 THE DECISION TREE METHOD........................................................................................ 105
5.2 THE BAYESIAN BASED RECOGNITION SYSTEM........................................................ 108
5.3 SIMULATION RESULTS .................................................................................................... 110
5.3.1 FEATURES OF SIMULATIONS................................................................................. 110
5.3.2 TUNING OF THE RECOGNITION SYSTEM............................................................ 112
5.3.3 CONDUCTION OF TESTS.......................................................................................... 130
5.3.4 RESULTS OF SIMULATIONS.................................................................................... 130
6. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK................................................................................... 136
REFERENCES................................................................................................................................. 139

xii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AM Amplitude Modulation
ANN Artificial Neural Network
ASK Amplitude Shift Keying
COMINT Communication Intelligence
CPFSK Continuous Phase Frequency Shift Keying
CPM Continuous Phase Modulation
CW Continuous Wave
DFT Discrete Fourier Transform
DTC Decision Tree Classifier
ECM Electronic Counter Measure
ESM Electronic Support Measure
EW Electronic Warfare
FDD Frequency Difference Detector
FFT Fast Fourier Transform
FM Frequency Modulation
FSK Frequency Shift Keying
xiii
HOC High Order Cumulant
IF Intermediate Frequency
LPF Low Pass Filter
MASK M-ary Amplitude Shift Keying
MPSK M-ary Phase Shift Keying
MQAM M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
MSK Minimum Shift Keying
NNC Neural Network Classifier
QAM Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
QLLR Quasi-Log-Likelihood Ratio
PLL Phase-Locked Loop
RBF Radial Basis Function
SLC Square Law Classifier
SNR Signal to Noise Ratio
SVC Support Vector Machine
PSD Power Spectrum Density
PSK Phase Shift Keying
RF Radio Frequency

xiv
LIST OF TABLES
TABLES
Table 4-1: Peak Vectors for ASK2, ASK4 and ASK8 Signals................................ 68
Table 4-2: Peak Vectors for PSK2, PSK4 and PSK8 Signals.................................. 75
Table 4-3: Peak Vectors for QAM2, QAM4 and QAM8 Signals............................ 85
Table 4-4: The Outputs of Each Block .................................................................. 103
Table 4-5: Features and Modulation Type Relation .............................................. 104
Table 5-1: Probability of
4
1.5 n .......................................................................... 114
4
1.5 3 n < .................................................................... 114
4
3 n < ............................................................................. 115
3
(1) 1
p
v = ........................................................................ 116
3
(1) 2
p
v = ....................................................................... 116
3
(1) 3
p
v = ....................................................................... 117
3
(1) 4
p
v = ....................................................................... 117
3
(1) 5
p
v = ....................................................................... 118
3
(1) 6
p
v = ....................................................................... 118
3
(2) 0
p
v = .................................................................... 119
3
(2) 3
p
v = .................................................................... 119
3
(2) 5
p
v = .................................................................... 120
3
(2) 6
p
v = .................................................................... 120
3
(2) 7
p
v = .................................................................... 121
3
(3) 0
p
v = .................................................................... 121
xv
3
(3) 5
p
v = ..................................................................... 122
3
(3) 7
p
v = .................................................................... 122
3
(4) 0
p
v = .................................................................... 123
3
(4) 7
p
v = .................................................................... 123
0
1 k = ........................................................................... 125
2
1 k = ........................................................................... 125
4
1 k = ........................................................................... 126
8
1 k = ........................................................................... 126
5
1.5 n ........................................................................ 127
5
1.5 2.5 n < ............................................................... 128
5
2.5 4.5 n < ............................................................... 128
5
4.5 8 n < .................................................................. 129
Table 5-28: Confusion Matrix of The Bayesian Based Recognition System at
SNR=6 dB......................................................................................................... 131
Table 5-29: Confusion Matrix of The Decision Tree Method at SNR=6 dB......... 131
SNR=9 dB......................................................................................................... 132
Table 5-31: Confusion Matrix of The Decision Tree Method at SNR=9 dB......... 132
SNR=12 dB....................................................................................................... 133
Table 5-33: Confusion Matrix of The Decision Tree Method at SNR=12 dB....... 133
SNR=15 dB....................................................................................................... 134
Table 5-35: Confusion Matrix of The Decision Tree Method at SNR=15 dB....... 134

xvi
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURES
Figure 3-1 Estimation Bias vs. SNR........................................................................ 25
Figure 3-2 Estimation STD vs. SNR........................................................................ 26
Figure 3-3 Absolute Estimation Average Error Normalized to Symbol Rate (Fb) for
Linear Modulation Signals vs. SNR.................................................................... 38
Figure 3-4: Absolute Estimation Average Error Normalized to Symbol Rate (Fb) for
CPFSK (h=0.5; Fb=2kHz) vs. SNR.................................................................... 38
Figure 3-5: Absolute Estimation Average Error for CW (f
s
=50kHz, SNR=20 dB) vs.
Carrier Frequency Offset..................................................................................... 45
Figure 3-6: Block Diagram of The Frequency and Symbol Rate Estimator............ 49
Figure 3-7: Basic PLL Block Diagram.................................................................... 50
Figure 3-8: The baseband equivalent PLL Block Diagram..................................... 52
Figure 3-9: PLL Block Diagram.............................................................................. 52
Figure 3-10: Logarithm of the Estimation Error at SNR=-5dB............................... 57
Figure 3-11: Logarithm of the Estimation Error at SNR=0dB ................................ 58
Figure 3-12: Absolute Carrier Frequency Estimation Error at / 15
b o
E N dB = ....... 59
Figure 3-13: Absolute Symbol Rate Estimation Error at / 15
b o
E N dB = ............... 60
Figure 3-14: Average Number of Bit Errors at / 15
b o
E N dB = .............................. 60
Figure 4-1: Envelope Histograms for ASK8............................................................ 64
Figure 4-2: Histogram Output for ASK2 ................................................................. 69
Figure 4-5: Spectral Analysis of Moments Block Output for MASK vs. SNR....... 72
Figure 4-6: Frequency Histogram Output ( )
5 6
, n n for MASK vs. SNR.................. 73
xvii
Figure 4-7: Histogram Output For PSK4................................................................. 76
Figure 4-8: Histogram Output For PSK8................................................................. 77
Figure 4-9: Spectral Analysis of Moments Block Output for PSK2 vs. SNR......... 79
Figure 4-10: Spectral Analysis of Moments Block Output for PSK4 vs. SNR....... 80
Figure 4-11: Spectral Analysis of Moments Block Output for PSK8 vs. SNR....... 80
5 6
, n n for MPSK vs. SNR ................ 81
Figure 4-13: Constellation Diagram of QAM2........................................................ 83
Figure 4-14: Constellation Diagram of QAM4........................................................ 83
Figure 4-15: Constellation Diagram for QAM8 ...................................................... 84
Figure 4-16: Histogram Output for QAM4 vs. SNR ............................................... 86
Figure 4-17: Histogram Output for QAM8 vs. SNR ............................................... 86
Figure 4-18: k2 for QAM2, QAM4 and QAM8 vs. SNR........................................ 89
5 6
, n n for QAM8 vs. SNR................ 90
Figure 4-20: Histogram output for CW vs. SNR..................................................... 92
Figure 4-21:
0 2 4 8
, , , k k k k for CW vs. SNR .............................................................. 93
5 6
, n n for CW vs. SNR..................... 94
Figure 4-23: Frequency Histogram Output (
5 6
, ) for M-level CPFSK vs. SNR.. 97
Figure 4-24: Modulation Index (h) Estimation Performance for CPFSK Signals
(h=0.5) ................................................................................................................. 99
Figure 4-25: A Plot of the Estimated Modulation Index ( h ) vs. True Modulation
Index (h) at SNR=20dB..................................................................................... 100
Figure 5-1: The Proposed Decision Tree for Modulation Classification............... 107
Figure 5-2: The Functional Block Diagram of the Bayesian Based Recognition
System for Modulation Classification............................................................... 109
Figure 5-3: Block Diagram of the Transmitter ...................................................... 111
Figure 5-4: Block Diagram of the Receiver........................................................... 112
Figure 5-5: Block Diagram of the Fixed Tuned Receiver...................................... 112
1
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
There are lots of communication signals with different modulation types and
different frequencies. It is required to identify and monitor these signals for some
applications. Some of these applications are for civilian purposes such as signal
confirmation, interference identification and spectrum management. The other
applications are for military purposes such as electronic warfare (EW), surveillance
and threat analysis. In electronic warfare applications, electronic support measures
(ESM) system plays an important role as a source of information required to
conduct electronic counter measures (ECM), electronic counter-counter measures
(ECCM), threat detection, warning, target acquisition and homing. [1]
In the past, COMINT systems have relied on the manual modulation recognition of
measured parameters to provide classification of different emitters. However,
recently automatic modulation recognition systems have been developed. One of
the oldest versions of modulation recognizers uses a bank of demodulators, each
designed for only one type of modulation. Modulation type of the received signal
can be decided by listening to the demodulator outputs. This type of a recognizer
requires long signal durations and highly skilled operators. The automation of such
a recognizer is achieved by introducing a set of intelligent decision algorithms at the
demodulator outputs. However, the implementation of such systems is complex and
2
requires excessive computer storage. Moreover, the number of modulation types
that can be recognized is limited by the number of demodulators used. [1]
Automatic modulation recognition is more powerful than manual modulation
recognition because by integrating the automatic modulation recognizer into an
electronic support measurement (ESM) receiver, including an energy detector and a
direction finder (DF), would allow an operator to improve his efficiency and his
ability to monitor the different activities in the frequency band of interest. Thus, in
advanced ESM systems, the operator is replaced by sophisticated electronic
machines. The main objective of any surveillance system is threat recognition by
comparing the characteristics of the intercepted emitters against a catalogue of
reference characteristics or signal sorting parameters. One of the important
parameters is the signal modulation type. [1]
Generally, any surveillance system in Communication Intelligence (COMINT)
applications consists of three main blocks: receiver-front-ends (activity detection
and frequency down conversion), modulation recognizer (key features extraction
and classification), and output stage (normal demodulation and information
extraction). There are several types of receiver-front-ends such as channelized,
acoustic-optical spectrum analyzer, instantaneous frequency measurement (IFM),
scanning superheterodyne, and microscan superheterodyne receivers. At the output
stage, there are several functions performed and they are mainly related to
information extraction, recording and exploitations. All these functions are
preceded by signal demodulation. Once the correct modulation type of the
intercepted signal is determined, some of the following functions performed at the
output stage are straightforward classical functions, but some may not be trivial
(e.g. deciphering). Thus, the key functional block is the modulation recognizer. The
prior information required for any modulation recognizer is the signal bandwidth,
which can be determined through the use of an energy detector in the receiver front-
end stage. The information obtained by the energy detector, modulation recognizer,
and parameters estimator such as the carrier frequency, the signal bandwidth, the bit
3
rate, the modulation typeetc. are gathered to perform the signal demodulation and
information extraction. [1]
Modulation recognition is extremely important in COMINT applications for several
reasons. Firstly, applying the signal to an improper demodulator may partially or
completely damage the signal information content. Secondly, knowing the correct
modulation type helps to recognize the threat and to determine the suitable jamming
waveform. [1]
Without any knowledge of the transmitted data and many unknown parameters at
the receiver, blind identification is a difficult task. Particularly, classification
process is even more challenging in real world scenarios with multipath fading,
frequency selective, and time varying channels. Therefore, a better recognition
system can be constructed by dividing the classification problem into subclasses
and dealing with each of these subclasses separately. In this thesis, a blind
recognition system is introduced to discriminate the digitally modulated signals in
an AWGN channel. Also, methods for the extraction of some of the signal
parameters such as the symbol rate, signal to noise ratio (SNR) and the carrier
frequency offset (CFO) are investigated.

4
1.2 OUTLINE OF THESIS
The thesis consists of six chapters. A brief summary of chapters 2 through 6 is
given in the following.
In Chapter 2, relevant previous works for digitally modulated signal classification
are reviewed.
In Chapter 3, the basic blocks that can be used in the classification of digitally
modulated signals are discussed.
In Chapter 4, performances of the selected key features for each modulation type
are investigated.
In Chapter 5, two classification methods are given. The first one is the decision tree
based method and the second one is the Bayesian based method. In addition,
computer simulations are carried out to compare the proposed methods.
In Chapter 6, some concluding remarks are given and future works are discussed.
5
CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In modern communication systems, digital modulation techniques are more
frequently used. Hence, the digital modulation recognizers have critical importance.
In the literature, the recognizers can be divided into two subsets according to
methods used in approaching classification problems:
1) A decision-theoretic approach,
2) A pattern-recognition or feature-extraction approach.
In a decision-theoretic framework, probabilistic arguments are employed to derive a
proper classification rule. This necessitates a statistical description of the signals (or
hypotheses). This approach affords an optimal procedure in the sense that a
discriminating test can be found which is the best under a specific performance
measure. Typically, this optimal rule will be hard to implement exactly. A simpler
way to derive a classifier structure is to rely upon the classic pattern-recognition
concept of feature, which assigns signatures to specific signal formats. The key
advantage of a well-chosen feature set is, of course, simplicity. In a broad sense,
decision theory can be perceived as the rigorous framework which explains and
justifies the selection of the correct features, whereas the more practical pattern-
6
recognition approach chooses these features on an ad hoc (perhaps intuitive) basis,
and is more concerned with issues of implementability. [2]

2.2 RELEVANT PREVIOUS WORK
In [3], an adaptive technique for classifying ASK2, PSK2, PSK4 and FSK2 signals
was introduced. The envelope of the signal, the spectra of the signal, the signal
squared and the signal quadrupled are used to derive the following key features of
the intercepted signal:
The mean of the envelope
The variance of the envelope
Magnitude and location of the two largest peaks in the signal spectrum
The magnitude of the spectral component at twice the carrier frequency
of the signal squared
The magnitude of the spectral component at four times the carrier
frequency of the signal quadrupled
In [3], feature vector extraction, weight vector generation, and the modulation
classification are the main steps of the classifier. There exists a training stage where
weight vectors are generated for each class of signal considered using an adaptive
technique based on LMS algorithm. In this training stage known signals with 20 dB
SNR are used. The features of the intercepted signals are multiplied with the weight
vectors, and then the selection of the modulation type is made according to the
weighting function which produces the largest output. The discrimination of PSK2
and PSK4 signal at 5 dB SNR is the only performance criteria of the proposed
recognizer.
7
In [2], quasi-log-likelihood ratio (qLLR) was used as a classification rule to
discriminate PSK2 and PSK4. Also, the performance of the proposed method was
compared with the square law classifier (SLC) and the Phase-Based Classifier. It is
proved analytically that qLLR is better than the other methods even at low SNR.
However, it is assumed that all the signal parameters such as carrier frequency,
initial phase, symbol rate, SNR, pulse shape at the receiver front end are known.
In [4], a classification method for the constant amplitude signals such as CW,
MPSK, and MFSK was proposed based on the zero-crossing characteristics of the
intercepted signal. By using a zero-crossing sampler, it is easy to obtain information
related to the phase transitions of the received signal in a wide frequency dynamic
range. The proposed method consists of four main stages:
1. Extraction of zero-crossing sequence x(i), zero-crossing interval
sequence y(i), zero-crossing interval difference sequence z(i)
2. Inter-symbol transition (ISI) sample detection
3. CNR, carrier frequency estimation, variance of zero-crossing interval
sequence, G
4. Modulation classification based on G; frequency and phase difference
histograms.
From the simulation results, it is claimed that successful modulation classification is
achievable for SNR>15 dB. The performance of the recognizer to discriminate CW
and MPSK signals is dominated by the estimation accuracy of the carrier frequency;
whereas CW and MFSK discrimination performance is dominated by the ratio of
symbol rate to carrier frequency. The proposed classifier does not need prior
knowledge of the basic signal parameters; it is able to estimate the carrier frequency
and the symbol rate. However, its performance degrades for SNR<12dB; and it
cannot discriminate varying amplitude signals such as MASK.
8
In [5], a classification method for the MPSK signals was proposed based on the
statistical moments of the intercepted signal phase. The Tikhonov function is used
to approximate the asymptotic distribution of the phase of the intercepted signal. It
is shown that nth moment (n even) of the phase of the signal is a monotonic
increasing function of M for MPSK signals. This property is used to find a proper
decision rule for classification. The proposed classifier consists of three main
stages:
1. Phase Extraction
2. Even order moment computation
3. Threshold comparison
4. Decision
It is claimed that the second order moment is sufficient for discrimination of CW
and MPSK; whereas for BPSK eighth order moment, and for QPSK-8PSK higher
order moments are required for proper operation of the classifier at low SNR. The
performance of the classifier with eighth moment is also compared with quasi log-
likelihood ratio (qLLRC), square-law (SLC) and the phase-based (PBC) classifiers.
From the simulation results, it is claimed that qLLR classifier is better at low SNR;
however, proposed classifier outperforms PRC and SRC for SNR>0. All the signal
parameters such as carrier frequency, initial phase, symbol rate and CNR are
assumed to be known exactly.
In [6], a classification method for the CW, BPSK, QPSK, BFSK, QFSK signals was
proposed based on the autoregressive modeling. Instantaneous carrier frequency and
BW of the intercepted signal is obtained from the poles of the autoregressive
polynomial for each analysis frame of the intercepted signal then the following
feature vectors are derived:
Mean of the instantaneous frequency
Standard deviation of the instantaneous frequency (IF)
9
Standard deviation of the instantaneous bandwidth (IB)
Mean of the IB peaks (normalized to the largest peak)
The height of the peaks of the differentiated IF
It is claimed that success rate is greater than 99% at a SNR of 15 dB. Only constant
envelope signals are investigated and it is assumed that only one signal exists at the
receiver input.
In [7], a classification method was proposed for multichannel systems. The
proposed recognizer consists of two main parts. The first one is the outer loop that
detects the individual signal components; the second part is a single tone classifier
that identifies each of the signal components as ASK2, BPSK, QPSK and CW.
BFSK signals are considered as two correlated ASK2 signals. In a single tone
classifier an amplitude histogram is used to distinguish ASK from BPSK, QPSK,
CW and differential phase histogram is used for discrimination of CW, PSK2 and
PSK4 signals. It is claimed that success rate for discrimination of CW, PSK2 and
PSK4 signals is greater than 98% at 10dB SNR; whereas success rate of the
recognizer for ASK2 signals is 87% at 10dB SNR. The basic problem regarding
classification of ASK2 signals is that the phase modulation introduced by the noise.
Carrier frequency offset (CFO) is removed by using instantaneous frequency
histogram and by performing differential phase computation.
In [8], a classification method for the MFSK signals was proposed based on the
higher-order correlations (HOC). Average log-likelihood function of the intercepted
signal in terms of HOC domain is given for both of the channelized and
nonchannelized classifier structures. It is indicated that the optimal rule in the
MFSK classification is the usage of bank of matched filters, each of which is tuned
to one of a prescribed set of frequency locations. However, in the case of the
received signal arriving at a frequency that is not coincident with the center
frequency of any of these filters, mismatch at the outputs of the matched filters
occurs. Hence, in order to avoid mismatch; nonchannelized structures are proposed
10
as a MFSK classifier. In the proposed nonchannelized classifier; signal is divided
into three subbands and for each subband a processor is assigned. The first-order
correlation-based classifier, the second-order correlation-based classifier of the first
kind and the second-order correlation-based classifier of the second kind are
proposed as classifier algorithms. All of the proposed algorithms based on the
comparison of the average log-likelihood function with a threshold to classify
MFSK signals. The signal arrival time is assumed to be known perfectly; hence the
proposed classifiers are all synchronous.
likelihood function (LLF) of the instantaneous phase. Classification of the MPSK
signals is performed by comparing their LLF differences by a threshold.
Quasioptimal rules have been proposed for the following environments:
Environment where the carrier phase and the symbol timing offset are
assumed to be known.
Environment where the carrier phase and the symbol timing offset are
assumed to be unknown.
Environment where the symbol timing offset is assumed to be known
but the carrier phase offset is assumed to be unknown.
In this work, performance comparison of the Statistical-Moment-Based Classifier
(SMBC) [5], Phase-Based Optimal Classifier (PBOC) [11], Phase-Histogram
Classifier (PHC), Square Law Classifier (SLC) and the proposed
quasioptimal/optimal classifiers are made. It is claimed that the proposed
quasioptimal rules and the optimal rules have similar performance curves.
Moreover, SLC requires 1.9 dB more SNR than the qLLR classifier to discriminate
PSK2 and PSK4 and Fourth Law Classifier needs 2.6 dB more SNR than qLLR to
discriminate PSK4 and PSK8. Numerical comparisons and simulations are
performed for rectangular pulse shape.
11
statistical moments of the intercepted signal phase. Exact phase distribution of the
received signal is used instead of Tikhonov function proposed in [5]. The proposed
method is 2 dB superior to the method used in [5] for 99% success rate.
hypothesis testing. Test statistics are derived from the probability density function
of MPSK signals and a classifier is proposed to classify CW, BPSK, QPSK, 8PSK.
Discrimination of CW, BPSK, QPSK, 8PSK is performed by calculation of test
statistics for each modulation type and the modulation type with the largest test
statistics is selected. The performance of the proposed classifier is compared with
[2], and it is claimed that the proposed classifier has a higher probability of correct
classification. Carrier frequency, initial phase and symbol rate of the intercepted
signal are assumed to be known.
In [1], classification method for PSK2, PSK4, ASK2, ASK4, FSK2 and FSK4 was
proposed based on the feature-extraction approach. The intercepted signal is divided
into M segments then the key feature extraction and comparison with a threshold is
performed for each segment. Modulation decision is made by comparing the
decision of M segments. The key features used in [1] are as follows:
The maximum value of the spectral power density of the normalized-
centered instantaneous amplitude of the intercepted signal
The standard deviation of the absolute value of the centered non-linear
component of the instantaneous phase, evaluated over the non-weak
intervals of a signal segment
The standard deviation of the centered non-linear component of the
direct (non absolute) instantaneous phase, evaluated over the non-weak
intervals of a signal segment
The standard deviation of the absolute value of the normalized-centered
instantaneous amplitude of a signal segment
12
The standard deviation of the absolute value of the normalized-centered
instantaneous frequency, evaluated over the non-weak intervals of a
signal segment
Five algorithms are proposed based on the above key features; two of them use
artificial neural network approach to decide modulation type. The carrier frequency
of the intercepted signal is assumed to be known.
In [26], a classification method for both analog and digital modulations was
proposed based on cyclic spectral feature extraction and neural network modulation
recognition approach. The cyclostationarity property of intercepted signal is used to
extract the key features. AM, USB, LSB, FM, ASK, FSK, CW, BPSK: QPSK and
SQPSK signals are used to analyze the performance of the proposed classifier. The
only result about the performance of the proposed classifier is given in Table-1 in
[26].
In [12], a classification method for MPSK signals was proposed based on the
decision theoretic approach. Tikhonov function is used to approximate the phase
probability density function (ppdf) of MPSK signals and classification is performed
by hypothesis-testing derived from the pddfs of the intercepted signal. A
suboptimal classifier to discriminate CW, BPSK, QPSK and 8PSK is introduced
and the performance of the proposed classifier is tested for BPSK and QPSK
signals. It is claimed that the proposed classifier is 2.5 dB superior to the method
used in [5] for 90% success rate.
In [25] a classification method for both analog and digital modulations was
proposed based on the feature extraction approach. Following features are defined
which are not included in [1]:
The standard deviation of the normalized-centered instantaneous
amplitude in the non weak segment of a signal
The kurtosis of the normalized instantaneous amplitude
13
The kurtosis of the normalized instantaneous frequency
A decision tree (DTC) and an artificial neural network (ANNC) architectures are
proposed as a modulation classifier and performance comparison of these classifiers
are given. It is claimed that the success rate of DTC is greater than 94%; while the
success rate of ANNC is greater than 96% at a SNR of 15 dB.
In [13], a classification method for QAM, PSK and FSK signals was proposed
based on the Haar Wavelet Transform (HWT). It is showed that different transients
in frequency, phase or amplitude are observable for different digital modulation
signals and wavelet transform can be used to extract transient information.
Regarding the classification method following observations are given:
The HWT of QAM and FSK is a multi-step function
The HWT of a PSK and amplitude normalized QAM is a constant
The HWT of amplitude normalized PSK and FSK signals are the same
as the ones that are not normalized.
Success rate of the proposed classifier is about 97% at a SNR larger than 5 dB for
50 observation symbols. The assumptions about the intercepted signal are the prior
knowledge of CNR and noise power. No information is given to distinguish M-ary
signals.
In [14], a classification method for QAM and PSK signals was proposed based on
the maximum-likelihood approach for both the coherent and noncoherent cases. In
coherent case all the signal parameters and in noncoherent case, except for the
carrier phase, other parameters are assumed to be known a priori. The only thing
mentioned about the performance of the classifier is that coherent case is 3 dB
superior to the noncoherent case.
In [15] a classification method for digital modulated signals was proposed based on
the constellation shape of the intercepted signal. Firstly, a fuzzy c-means clustering
algorithm is used as the constellation recovery method then recovered constellations
14
are modeled by binomial nonhomogenous spatial random fields. Lastly, ML
approach is used as a constellation shape classification. The symbol timing offset is
assumed to be small and hence the effect of timing errors is neglected. It is claimed
that the success rate of the classifier to discriminate 8PSK and 8QAM is about 90%
at a SNR of 0dB when no carrier and phase offset exist. In the case of random
carrier phase lock error, which is assumed to be constant for the duration of a
symbol, the 45 degree phase offset performance of the classifier to discriminate
16PSK and 16QAM is about 90% at a SNR of 3dB. There is no information about
the performance degradation of the classifier when the carrier phase lock error is
high.
In [22], a classification method to discriminate PSK2, PSK4, PSK8, PSK16, FSK2,
FSK4, QAM8 and OOK signals was proposed based on the pattern recognition
approach. The Margenau-Hill (time-frequency) distribution (MHD) is used to
extract the phase information and higher order autoregressive model is used to
extract frequency and amplitude information of the intercepted signal. It is stated
that, no a priori knowledge about the signal parameters are needed. It is claimed that
the success rate is about 94% at a SNR of 10dB and the success rate of the proposed
classifier is about 97% for real world short-wave signals.
In [16], a classification method for digital quadrature modulations was proposed
based on the maximum-likelihood method. All the signal parameters and the noise
parameters are assumed to be known a priori. An error probability is obtained for
any type of quadrature modulations and it is claimed that as the number of available
data symbols goes to infinity, failure rate of the proposed classifier goes to zero.
In [17], a classification method for baseband digitally modulated signals was
proposed based on the feature extraction and fuzzy classification method. Carrier
frequency is the only parameter assumed to be known a priori. Basic features used
in the classification problem are as follows:
Kurtosis of the envelope of the signal.
15
The envelope distribution of constant envelope signals is a Rician
distribution and for SNR>10dB it can be approximated as Gaussian
distribution; whereas varying amplitude signals envelope distribution is a
mixture of Rayleigh and Rician distribution. Therefore kurtosis ([17] eqn 6.)
of constant envelope and varying envelope signals will be different.
Variance of the PSD derivative.
The probability density function is estimated by Tikhonov function and the
phase variance of the intercepted signal is used to discriminate ASK, FSK
from PSK, QAM.
Mean of the absolute value signal frequency.
Burg method is used to estimate signal PSD. FSK, MSK like signals are
discriminated from ASK, QAM, PSK like signals by calculating this feature.
In this work, Mamdani fuzzy classifier is used as a classification method and ASK,
4DPSK, 16QAM, FSK are used to evaluate the performance of the proposed
classifier. It is claimed that the proposed classifier works properly for SNR>5dB.
In [18], a classification method for digital modulation signals was proposed based
on the feature extraction and artificial neural network approach. Both the statistical
features and the features proposed in [1] are used as a feature set and a multilayer
perception (MLP) is used as a classification method. ASK2, ASK4, BPSK, QPSK,
FSK2, FSK4, QAM16, V29 (16 point QAM signal constellation with 8 phases, 4
amplitudes, 9600bps), V32 (32 point signal constellation TCM with 9600bps) and
QAM64 are used to evaluate the performance of the proposed classifier and it is
claimed that the success rate is about 98% at a SNR of 0dB. The center frequency is
assumed to be known a priori.
In [20], a classification method based on elementary fourth-order cumulants (eqn 3)
was proposed. It is assumed that the carrier phase offset, symbol timing offset and
the pulse shape are known. The performance of the proposed classifier is analyzed
16
in the case of small phase offset, small frequency offset, residual channel effect,
small symbol timing offset, self-interference, cochannel interference and impulsive
nongaussian noise. It is claimed that there is a small decrease in the success rate of
the classifier at a SNR of 12 dB in the case of small frequency offset, phase offset,
and impulsive nongaussian noise when compared to ideal Gaussian environment.
In [19], a classification method, based on the relationships between the second and
higher moments of received signal and signal and noise power, was proposed. The
proposed classifier uses mixed moments of different orders of the intercepted signal
as a feature set. The classifier consists of two stages. In the first stage, the signal
power is estimated and most of the modulations (16QAM, 32QAM, 128QAM, V29,
7200bps, 9600bps) are classified. In the second stage, classification of 4ASK,
8QAM, BPSK, QPSK, 8PSK is performed. The performance of the proposed
classifier is compared with an ideal HOC classifier [19] and it is claimed that at
lower SNR ideal high order cumulant (HOC) is better; whereas at high SNR
performances of classifiers are similar. It is also shown that as the number of data
samples increase, probability of correct classification also increases. Carrier
frequency, time of arrival and pulse shape are assumed to be known, and there is
only one sample for each of the data symbol.
In [21], a classification method to discriminate MASK, MPSK, MQAM, MFSK
signals was proposed based on the signal envelope statistics which is a function of
the second order moment, the fourth order moment of the received signal and
average power of the modulated signal. The modulated signal power is estimated
from the singular value decomposition of the signal auto-correlation matrix and
there is no assumption about the signal parameters. 2ASK, 2PSK, 2FSK, 4QAM, 4-
AM signals are used to analyze the classifier performance and it is claimed that the
probability of correct classification is about 85% at a SNR of 2.5dB.
In [23], a classification method to discriminate ASK2, ASK4, PSK2, PSK4, FSK2,
FSK4 was proposed based on the feature extraction and support vector machine
(SVM) classification approach. The following features are used:
17
Average value of the imaginary part of the multiplication of two
consecutive signal values.
Kurtosis of the real part of the multiplication of two consecutive signal
values.
Kurtosis of the imaginary part of the multiplication of two consecutive
signal values.
Ratio of the second maximum to third maximum of the FFT of the
intercepted signal
It is claimed that the success rate of the proposed SVM classifier is 100% at a SNR
of 5dB when (the ratio of symbol rate to sampling rate) p=0.05. Moreover the
performance of the proposed SVM classifier is compared with maximum likelihood
(ML) classifier proposed in [16], the qLLR classifier proposed in [2], cumulant
based classifier proposed in [20], the proposed decision tree classifier with fixed
threshold and the proposed decision tree classifier with dynamic threshold. Monte-
Carlo simulations show that:
The ML Classifier has the best performance among the compared
classifiers
At low SNR qLLR is the second to the best classifier for small values of
p; but its performance degrades as p increases.
Dynamic threshold classifier outperforms the fixed one.
Performance of the cumulant based classifier is independent of p.
The proposed SVM classifier outperforms fixed and dynamic threshold
classifiers for all modulation types at all SNR values.
The proposed SVM classifier outperforms cumulant based classifier for
SNR>0dB.
18
In [24] a classification method to discriminate both the analog and digital
modulations types was proposed which is based on the feature extraction approach.
Seven key features are used; six of these features are from [25] and the other one is
the occupied bandwidth which is defined as the ratio of the number of FFT bins
with the 90% of total power spectrum density (PSD) for MC. The following
classifiers are proposed to classify CW, AM, LSB, USB, FM, 2PSK, 4PSK, 2FSK,
and 4FSK.
Decision Tree Classifier-1 (DTC1) in which Mahalanobis distance is
used to settle the threshold levels.
Decision Tree Classifier-2 (DTC2) in which the average probability of
correct decision is used to settle the threshold levels.
The minimum distance classifier in which the minimum normalized
Euclidean distance between the unknown entry and the mean values of
each of the other classes is calculated.
Neural Network Classifier (NNC) in which Feed Forward Network with
double hidden layers is used.
The Support Vector Classifier (SVC), which employs SVM (support
vector machine) to find a hyperplane that separate samples from class 1
from those of class 2 in some higher dimension
It is claimed that all the classifiers has a success rate greater than 95% at a SNR of
10 dB. Moreover, the success rate of MDC is 96.2% and the success rate of SVC is
98.4% at a SNR of 5 dB. A hardware implementation of DTC2 is also given and it
is claimed that numerical simulation results and the performance of the prototype
are consistent.
In [27], a classification method to discriminate 2ASK, 4ASK, 2FSK, 4FSK, 2PSK,
4PSK, 16QAM, 64QAM, AWGN, OFDM (DVB-T, 802.11a) signals, under
19
multipath conditions, was proposed. The classification method is based on the
feature extraction and the bootstrap approach. The selected features are:
The maximum frequency of the spectrum of the signal
The variance of the filtered Haar wavelet transform [50] of the signal
(V
1
) and the variance of the filtered twice Haar wavelet transform of the
signal (V
2
).
The standard deviation of the absolute value of the real part of the signal,
evaluated over the non-weak intervals of a signal segment.
Variance of the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) of the autocorrelation
function of the signal.

2
1 1 log ( ( ) / (2 )) DBF d d = + and
2
2 1 log ( ( ) / (2 )) DBF b d = +
where
o
1
1
1
( ) ( ) ( )
N
i i
i
d f t f t
+
=
=
,
o
1
1
1
( ) ( ) ( )
N
i i
i
b a t a t
+
=
=
,
o
( 1)/ 2
2 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 1
1
(2 ) (max{ ( ), ( ), ( )} min{ ( ), ( ), ( )})
N
i i i i i i
i
d a t a t a t a t a t a t
+ +
=
=
1
( ),..., ( )
N
f t f t are defined as the samples of the signal and
1
( ),..., ( )
N
a t a t are defined as the amplitude samples of the signal.
It is claimed that DBF2 can be used to discriminate 2FSK from 2PSK, 4PSK,
4FSK, and DVB-T from 802.11a.
Radial basis function (RBF) based artificial neural network is used to classify
signals. It is claimed that the success rate of the classifier is greater than 80% at a
SNR of 0 dB; and 76% at a SNR of 20dB.
20
In the literature, there are many techniques for digital modulation recognition.
Methods, using a decision-theoretic approach, have better performance than the
ones using feature-extraction approach. However, most of the signal parameters are
assumed to be known a priori in the case of a decision-theoretic approach. In a
feature-extraction approach, the performance of the recognizer mainly depends on
the selected features. In the literature, many features are proposed for the
classification of different types of modulations. Among these features, the ones
which are extracted from the envelope histogram, the frequency histogram, the
higher order statistics, the wavelet transform, the autocorrelation function, the
cyclic autocorrelation function, and the discrete Fourier transform do not require the
knowledge of the most of the signal parameters, such as symbol rate, carrier
frequency offset, pulse shape, time of arrival, initial phase. Moreover, the SNR
value is one of the most important parameters affecting the reliability of the selected
features.

21
CHAPTER 3

BASIC FEATURE EXTRACTION BLOCKS
In this chapter, SNR estimation, bandwidth and spectral estimation, cyclostationary
analysis, envelope extraction, spectral analysis of moments, instantaneous
frequency extraction blocks, which are the selected blocks to be used to extract
features for classification of digital modulation signals, are introduced and
investigated. Moreover, performances of these selected blocks are investigated for
different modulation types.
3.1 SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO (SNR) ESTIMATION BLOCK
SNR is one of the most critical parameters affecting the performance of a
communication system. In the literature, most of the proposed methods, which can
discriminate digital modulation signals, use a prior knowledge or estimation for
SNR to get better classification performance. In [28], a blind SNR estimation
method for digital modulation IF signals in AWGN channel was proposed based on
the eigenvector decomposition and subspace approach. We employ this method in
our work because it does not require any knowledge about the intercepted signal
and accurate SNR estimation of different digital modulation types can be performed
in a simple way.
Let the signal model be ( ) ( ) ( ) r k s k n k = + , where ( ) r k is a down-converted
baseband low-pass equivalent (complex) signal and ( ) n k is AWGN with zero-mean
and variance
2
n
.
22
Assuming that the information signal samples ) (k s and noise samples ) (k n are
uncorrelated then the autocorrelation matrix of the received signal vector
T
N r r r )] ( ),..., 1 ( [ = can be expressed as
{ } { } { }
H H H
r s n
R E rr E ss E nn R R = = + = + (3.1)
where {.} E denotes the expectation operator, H denotes Hermitian transposition
and and N is the number of samples. Since
r
R is conjugate and symmetric
| |
* *
{ ( ) ( )} ( ) ( )
r r r
ij
R E r i r j r i j r j i = = = (3.2)
where M k k r
r
,..., 2 , 1 ), ( = are the samples of the autocorrelation function of the
received signal.

1
* *
1
1
( ) { ( ) ( 1)} ( ) ( 1)
N k
r
n
r k E r n r n k r n r n k
N
+
=
= + = +
(3.3)
and the autocorrelation matrix of noise

2
n n n
R I = (3.4)
where
n
I is an MxM identity matrix. By using the eigenvalue decomposition of
matrices, the autocorrelation matrices of the received signal and the information
signal are given by

H
s
R UQU =
,
(3.5)

H
r
R UPU = (3.6)
where U is an MxM orthogonal matrix containing eigenvectors and
) ,..., , (
2 1 M
b b b diag P = , ) 0 ,..., 0 , ,..., , (
2 1 p
diag Q = are MxM diagonal matrices
containing corresponding eigenvalues. Then

2 H H
r n n
R UPU UQU I = = + (3.7)
23
and eigenvalues

2
2
1,...,
1,...,
i n
i
n
i p
b
i p M

= +
=

= +
(3.8)
where ) ... (
2 1 p i
, (p<M) is the power of the signal along the
th
i
eigenvector.
From (3.7) and (3.8), it can be seen that p eigenvalues spans the signal subspace and
M-p eigenvalues spans the noise subspace. Hence, if the signal subspace dimension
is found then the total power of the received signal can be grouped into power of the
desired signal plus noise and power of the noise [28].
In [28], a minimum description length (MDL) criteria was proposed to determine
the signal subspace dimension. The proposed MDL function is

1/ ( )
1
1
1
( ) ln (2 ) ln( )
1 2
M
M k
i
i k
M
i
i k
b
MDL k k M k N
b
M k
= +
= +
| |
|
|
= +
|
|
(3.9)
Then, the signal subspace dimension is given by
argmin( ( ))
k
p MDL k = (3.10)
Since the signal subspace dimension was determined, then the noise power is

2
1
1
M
n i
i p
b
M p
= +
=

(3.11)
and the estimated signal power is

' '
'
, if 0
0, if 0
s s
s
s
P P
P
P
=

<
(3.12)
24
where
( )
' 2
1
1
p
s i n
i
P b
M

=
=
.
Hence, the estimated SNR becomes

2
s
n
P
snr
= (3.13)
The following bias and standard deviation terms were defined to analyze the
proposed method [28]:

10
10log ( / ) bias mean snr = (3.14)

1/ 2
2
10
1
1
(10log ( / ))
t
N
i
t
STD snr mean
N
=
| |
=
|
\
(3.15)
Where,
t
N is the number of trials, snr is the estimated SNR value and
=
=
t
N
i t
snr
N
mean
1
1
.
We tested the performance of the proposed method, which is given in [28], for
ASK2, ASK4, ASK8, PSK4, PSK8, QAM4, QAM8, CW, MSK, FSK2, FSK4 and
AWGN signals. In the case of AWGN, indicated SNR value is taken as the noise
power. For 2500 symbols with autocorrelation matrix dimension M=100, estimated
bias and STD is given in Figure 3-1 and Figure 3-2.
From Figure 3-1 and Figure 3-2, it can be seen that as the SNR increases, the
absolute value of the estimated bias and the STD also increase. This is due to the
fact that noise power gets smaller as SNR increases; hence, a small estimation error
of noise power, which may be neglected in the low SNR, causes a large SNR
estimation error for a high SNR [28]. The type of modulation has little influence on
the STD. However, the estimation error is quite large for the linear modulation
types (ASK2, ASK4, ASK8, PSK4, PSK8, QAM8) compared to the nonlinear
25
modulations, continuous wave and noise. Moreover, the bias quickly increases as
SNR increases.
In [28], the performance of the proposed method was investigated for different
number of received symbols and different dimensions of the autocorrelation matrix.
It is claimed that the estimated bias and the STD improve little as the dimension of
the autocorrelation matrix, M, increases. Since the performance of the proposed
method is quite good for M=100, we preferred to use M=100 in our analysis to
reduce the simulation time.
The proposed method is considerably accurate for SNR>-10dB and for SNR<20dB
which may provide a satisfactory feedback to a recognition system.

-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
-2.5
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
SNR (dB)
E
s
t
i
m
a
t
i
o
n

B
i
a
s

(
d
B
)

ASK2
ASK4
ASK8
PSK4
PSK8
QAM4
QAM8
MSK
FSK4
FSK8
CW
NOISE

Figure 3-1 Estimation Bias vs. SNR

26
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
0
0.5
1
1.5
SNR (dB)
E
s
t
i
m
a
t
i
o
n

S
T
D

(
d
B
)

ASK2
ASK4
ASK8
PSK4
PSK8
QAM4
QAM8
MSK
FSK4
FSK8
CW
NOISE

Figure 3-2 Estimation STD vs. SNR.

3.2 BANDWIDTH AND SPECTRAL SHAPE
Bandwidth and spectral shape of an intercepted signal are one of the key features in
the classification of signals. Specifically, spectral symmetry is one of the features
proposed in [1] to discriminate analog modulated signals. In [24], the occupied
bandwidth, which is defined as the ratio of the number of FFT bins with the 90% of
total power spectrum density (PSD), is used as a feature to discriminate analog and
digital modulated signals. Bandwidth estimation is also important in the pre-
processing stage of a classification system. We investigate the bandwidth and
spectral shape characteristics of linearly modulated and CPM signals separately.

27

3.2.1 LINEARLY MODULATED SIGNALS
A linearly modulated signal can be expressed as

( )
{ }
2
( ) ( ) cos 2
Re ( )
c
k c
k
j f t
s t I g t kT f t
v t e

| |
=
|
\
=
(3.16)
where T is the symbol rate, g is the pulse shape,
c
f is the carrier frequency, { }
k
I is
a wide-sense stationary symbol sequence and the low-pass equivalent of the signal
is
( ) ( )
k
k
v t I g t kT =
(3.17)
Then, the autocorrelation function of ( ) s t is [29]

{ }
2
( , ) Re ( , )
c
j f
ss vv
R t t R t t e

+ = + (3.18)
where ( , )
vv
R t t + is the autocorrelation function of the equivalent low-pass signal
( ) v t . Hence, the power spectral density is
{ }
1
( ) ( ) ( )
2
ss vv c vv c
S f S f f S f f = + (3.19)
In [29], the power spectral density of ( ) v t is given as

2 1
( ) ( ) ( )
vv ii
S f G f S f
T
= (3.20)
where ( )
ii
S f is the power spectral density of the information sequence { }
k
I and it
is defined as
28

2
( ) ( )
j fmT
ii ii
m
S f R m e

=
(3.21)
where

*
( ) { }
ii n n m
R m E I I
+
= (3.22)
From (3.20), it can be seen that the spectral shape and the bandwidth of the linearly
modulated digital signal depend on the symbol rate, the pulse shape and the
information sequence; whereas they are independent of the type of the linear
modulation.
3.2.2 CPM SIGNALS
A simple representation of a constant envelope continuous-phase modulated (CPM)
signal can be expressed as
( ) cos(2 ( , ))
c
s t f t t I = + (3.23)
where
c
f is the carrier frequency and ( , ) t I is
( , ) 2 ( )
k
k
t I h I g kT d

(3.24)
where { }
k
I is a wide-sense stationary symbol sequence, ( ) g t is the pulse shape
with
'
( ) ( ) q t g t = and ( ) 0; 0 q t t = < ;
1
( ) ;
2
q t t T = > .
And the low-pass equivalent of the signal is

( , )
( )
j t I
v t e

= (3.25)
In [29], power density spectrum of the equivalent low-pass signal of full response
CPM with rectangular pulse shape is given as
29

2
2
1 1 1
1 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
M M M
ss n c nm n m
n n m
S f T A f f B f A f A f
M M
= = =
(
= +
(

(3.26)
where

( )
( )
1
sin 2 1
2
( )
1
2 1
2
n
fT n M h
A f
fT n M h
(

`
(
)
=
(

`
(
)
(3.27)

( )
2
cos 2 cos( )
( )
1 2 cos(2 )
nm nm
nm
fT
B f
fT

=
+
(3.28)
( 1 )
nm
h m n M = + (3.29)

sin( )
( )
sin( )
M h
jh
M h
= = (3.30)
For the minimum-shift keying signal, where
1
2
h = and { 1,1}
k
I with a
rectangular pulse shape, the phase process of the carrier ( , ) t I in the symbol
interval is

1
( , ) , nT t (n+1)T
2 2
, nT t (n+1)T
2
n
k n
k
n n
t nT
t I I I
T
t nT
I
T

=
| |
= +
|
\
| |
= +
|
\
(3.31)
Then, the intercepted MSK signal is

1
( ) cos 2 , nT ( 1)
4 2
c n n n
s t f I t nI t n T
T

| | | |
= + + +
| |
\ \
(3.32)
In [29], the power spectral density of the equivalent low-pass signal of MSK is
given as
30

2
2
2 2 2
cos(2 ( ) ) 16
( )
1 16( )
c
ss
c
f f T A T
S f
f f T
| |
=
|

\
(3.33)
From (3.26) and (3.33) it can be seen that the bandwidth of the CPM signal depends
mainly on the symbol rate, information sequence alphabet size (M) and modulation
index ( ) h . For MSK, since the modulation index and alphabet size is fixed, the
bandwidth depends only on the symbol rate.
Bandwidth information can be used to discriminate analog and digital modulated
signals. However, bandwidth alone is not a feature to classify digital modulation
types.
31
3.3 CYCLOSTATIONARY ANALYSIS
The term cyclostationary is mainly used for a special class of non-stationary
random signals which exhibit periodicity in their statistics. Cyclostationary spectral
analysis gives more information about the signal, compared to the conventional
spectral analysis. Therefore, we investigate the cyclostationary characteristics of the
digitally modulated signals and use the cyclic autocorrelation function to estimate
the symbol rate of the intercepted signal. Also, we tested the performance of the
symbol rate estimator for different modulation types.
3.3.1 LINEARLY MODULATED SIGNALS
The autocorrelation function of a low pass equivalent of a linearly modulated signal
can be expressed as

{ }
{ }
*
* *
( , ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
vv
n m
n m
R t t E v t v t
E I I g t nT g t mT

= =
+ = +
= +

(3.34)
where ( ) g t is the pulse shape and { }
k
I is a wide-sense stationary sequence with an
autocorrelation function ( )
ii
R m given in (3.22). Then, (3.34) can be expressed as

*
*
( , ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
vv ii
n m
ii
m n
R t t R m n g t nT g t mT
R m g t nT g t mT

= =

= =
+ = +
= +

(3.35)
and

32

*
*
( , ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ( 1) ) ( ( 1) )
vv ii
m n
ii
m n
R t T t T R m g t nT T g t mT T
R m g t n T g t m T

= =

= =
+ + + = + + +
= +

(3.36)
Since summation in (3.36) is from to ;

*
*
( , ) ( ) ( ( 1) ) ( ( 1) )
( ) ( ) ( )
( , )
vv ii
m n
ii
m n
vv
R t T t T R m g t n T g t m T
R m g t nT g t mT
R t t

= =

= =
+ + + = +
= +
= +

(3.37)
Also, in a similar way { } ( ) E v t can be obtained as follows

{ } { }
{ }
{ }
( ) ( )
( ( 1) )
( )
k
k
k
k
E v t T E I g t kT T
E I g t k T
E v t
=
+ = +
=
=
(3.38)
From (3.37) and (3.38), it is seen that both the autocorrelation function and the
mean of ( ) v t is periodic with a period T; that is low pass equivalent of a linearly
modulated signal ( ( ) v t ) is a cyclostationary process.
3.3.2 CPM SIGNALS
From (3.24) and (3.25), the autocorrelation function of a low pass equivalent of a
CPM signal can be expressed as [29]

| |
| |
2 ( ) ( )
2 ( ) ( )
( , )

k
k
k
j h I q t kT q t kT
vv
j hI q t kT q t kT
k
R t t E e
E e

=
| |
| +
|
\
+
=

+ =
`

)

=
`
)
(3.39)
33
Since { }
k
I is a statistically independent sequence with equally likely symbols,

1
2 [ ( ) ( )]
( 1),
1
( ; )
M
j hn q t kT q t kT
vv
n M odd k
R t t e
M

+
= =
| |
+ =
|
\

(3.40)
and

| |
| |
1
2 ( ) ( )
( 1),
1
2 ( ( 1) ) ( ( 1) )
( 1),
1
( , )
1

M
j hn q t kT T q t kT T
vv
n M odd k
M
j hn q t k T q t k T
n M odd k
R t T t T e
M
e
M

+ + +
= =

+
= =
| |
+ + + =
|
\
| |
=
|
\

(3.41)
Since, the product in (3.41) is from to

| |
1
2 ( ) ( )
( 1),
1
( , )
( , )
M
j hn q t kT q t kT
vv
n M odd k
vv
R t T t T e
M
R t t

+
= =
| |
+ + + =
|
\
= +

(3.42)
In a similar way { } ( ) E v t can be obtained as follows

{ }
{ }
2 ( )
2 ( ( 1) )
1
2 ( ( 1) )
( 1),
( )

( )
k
k
k
k
j h I q t kT T
j hI q t k T
k
M
j hI q t k T
n M odd k
E v t T E e
E e
e
E v t
=
+

=

= =

+ =
`

)

=
`
)
| |
=
|
\
=

(3.43)
Therefore, similar to linearly modulated signals, we can conclude that low pass
equivalent of a CPM signal is a cyclostationary process.
34
3.3.3 CYCLOSTATIONARITY IN MODULATION
RECOGNITION
Since autocorrelation function of low pass equivalent of digital signal is generally a
periodic function of t then it will have a Fourier series representation

2
( / 2, / 2) ( )
j t
vv x
R t t R e

+ =
(3.44)
where ( )
vv
R
is the cyclic autocorrelation function and can be expressed as

/ 2
2
/ 2
1
( ) lim ( / 2, / 2)
z
j t
vv vv
z
z
R R t t e dt
z

= +
(3.45)
Where is an integer multiple of fundamental frequencies such as carrier
frequency, symbol rate, hop rate and their sums and differences. If there is only one
period, say T, and then (3.45) can be written as [30]

/ 2
2
/ 2
1
( ) ( / 2, / 2)
T
j t
vv vv
T
R R t t e dt
T

= +
(3.46)
If ( ) 0
vv
R
= for all 0 and ( ) 0

vv
R then v(t) is said to be purely
stationary.
If ( ) 0
vv
R
only for
0
integer/T = for some period
0
T then v(t) is said to
be purely cyclostationary.
If ( ) 0
vv
R
for values of that are not all integer multiples of some

fundamental frequency
0
1/ T then v(t) is said to exhibit cyclostationarity.
Also, cyclic spectral density function is defined in [30] as

2
( ) ( )
j f
vv vv
S f R e d

=

(3.47)
35
In the case of 0 = (3.47) turns out to be conventional power spectral density
function; but for 0 , ( )
vv
S f
can be considered as the density of correlation

between spectral components at the frequencies
2
f

+ and
2
f

.
Cyclic spectral function for analog modulated signals is given in [31] and for digital
modulated signals is given in [32]. It is claimed that the signals with the same
power spectral density but with different modulations may have distinct cyclic
spectrum, stationary noise and interference have no cyclic correlation, phase and
frequency information in the intercepted signal can be extracted by the usage of
spectral correlation function. Hence spectral correlation function can be used for
classification of different modulation types and extraction of different signal
parameters.
Symbol rate is one of the important parameters in digital modulated signals.
Estimated symbol rate gives information about the presence of a digital modulation
and the bandwidth of the intercepted signal. Therefore, the estimated symbol rate
can be used as a key feature in a digital modulation recognition system. Moreover,
cyclostationarity property of the digital modulated signals can be used to estimate
the symbol rate.
In Section 3.4.1 it is shown that low pass equivalent of a linearly modulated signal
( ( ) v t ) is cyclostationary with cyclic frequencies , int
k
k eger
T

=
`
)
, then from
(3.46) the cyclic autocorrelation function corresponding to cyclic frequency is

/ 2
2
/ 2
/ 2
* 2
/ 2
/ 2
* 2
/ 2
1
( ) ( / 2, / 2)
1
( ) ( / 2 ) ( / 2 )
1
( ) ( / 2 ) ( / 2 )
T
j t
vv vv
T
T
j t
ii
m n
T
T
j t
ii
m n
T
R R t t e dt
T
R m g t nT g t mT e dt
T
R m g t nT g t mT e dt
T

= =
= =
= +
= +
= +
(3.48)
36
Assuming { }
k
I is white with zero mean, that is ( ) 0; 0
ii
R m m = , then (3.48) turns
out to be

/ 2
* 2 ( )
/ 2
* 2
1
( ) (0) ( / 2) ( / 2)
1
(0) ( / 2) ( / 2)
T nT
j t nT
vv ii
n
T nT
j t
ii
R R g t g t e dt
T
R g t g t e dt
T

+
=

= +
= +
(3.49)
From (3.18), (3.48) and (3.49), the cyclic autocorrelation function of the intercepted
signal ( ) s t can be obtained as

( )
( )
( )
/ 2
2
/ 2
/ 2
2
/ 2
2 * 2
/ 2
2 2
/ 2
1
( ) ( / 2, / 2)
1
( ( / 2, / 2)
2
( / 2, / 2) )
1
( / 2, / 2)
2

c
c
vv
c
T
j t
ss ss
T
T
j f
vv
T
j f j t
T
j f j t
vv
T
R R t t e dt
T
R t t e
T
R t t e e dt
R t t e dt e
T

= +
= +
+ +
| |
= +
|
\
( )
( )
{ }
/ 2
2 * 2
/ 2
*
2 2
2
1
( / 2, / 2)
2
1 1
( ) ( )
2 2
Re ( )
c
vv
c c
c
T
j f j t
T
j f j f
vv vv
j f
vv
R t t e dt e
T
R e R e
R e

| |
+ +
|
\
= +
=
(3.50)
Hence, the intercepted signal and the low pass equivalent signal have the same
cyclic frequencies.
Cyclostationary analysis involves too much calculation; however, in [33] a fast and
simple algorithm was proposed to estimate the symbol rate of linear digital
modulated signals. In that work, both the rectangular pulse shape and pulse shape
which is obtained from the response of the linear time invariant (LTI) low pass filter
excited by the square wave are considered and it is found out that ( )
ss
R
is
37
maximum when
1
2 2
T
= = . Therefore in [33], the following method was

proposed to estimate the symbol rate

| |
1 2
0
,
1 1
arg max
2
ss
R
T

| |
= =
|
\
(3.51)
We tested the performance of the proposed method, which is given in [33], for
ASK2, ASK4, ASK8, PSK4, PSK8, QAM8, CW, and AWGN signals. In the case
of AWGN, indicated SNR value is taken as the noise power. For 2500 symbols, the
estimated absolute average error normalized to symbol rate
b
b
mean F
e
F
= is given
in Figure 3-3 where
1
1
t
N
b
n
t
mean F
N
=
=

,
b
F is the symbol rate,
b
F is the estimated
symbol rate and
t
N is the number of trials.
During trials if
b
F is found to be less than 100 Hz, then
0
b
F = is taken.
From Figure 3-3, it can be seen that the proposed symbol rate estimation method
gives satisfactory results even at low SNR values. Moreover, the proposed method
can be used to discriminate linearly modulated signals from continuous wave
signals and noise.
The proposed method can also be used for CPFSK signals. Also, we tested the
performance of the proposed method applied to the instantaneous frequency of the
CPFSK signal and the results are given in Figure 3-4.
38
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
SNR (dB)
A
b
s
o
l
u
t
e

E
s
t
i
m
a
t
i
o
n

A
v
e
r
a
g
e

E
r
r
o
r

N
o
r
.

F
b
Absolute Estimation Average Error Nor. Fb vs. SNR

ASK2
ASK4
ASK8
QAM8
PSK4
PSK8
CW
NOISE

Figure 3-3 Absolute Estimation Average Error Normalized to Symbol Rate (Fb) for
Linear Modulation Signals vs. SNR
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
Absolute Estimation Average Error Nor. Fb vs. SNR
SNR (dB)
A
b
s
o
l
u
t
e

E
s
t
i
m
a
t
i
o
n

A
v
e
r
a
g
e

E
r
r
o
r

N
o
r
.

F
b

FSK2
FSK4
FSK8

Figure 3-4: Absolute Estimation Average Error Normalized to Symbol Rate (Fb) for
CPFSK (h=0.5; Fb=2kHz) vs. SNR
39
3.4 ENVELOPE FEATURES
The envelope of low pass equivalent of MASK, MQAM signals are time varying
and cyclostationary; noise envelope is also time varying but not periodic. If MPSK
signals are bandlimited, then amplitude variations at the transitions between
successive symbols can be observable. CW, CPM signals have constant envelope.
Therefore envelope information of the intercepted signal is one of the key features
that can be used to discriminate digitally modulated signals.
In the literature, there are different methods that use envelope information to extract
features for classification of digitally modulated signals. However, most of these
methods require some of the signal parameters such as carrier frequency, pulse
shape, time of arrival, initial phase, symbol rate, signal to noise ratio, to be known
or to be extracted.
In [14], an ML classification method was proposed and the matched filter output is
used in the analysis. In [1] instantaneous amplitude information is used to extract a
feature; but the carrier frequency offset is assumed to be known. In [21] a blind
classification method was proposed based on the envelope function ( ) J of the
signal

( )
2
4 2
2
4 2
2 2
[ ] 2 [ ]
2( )
4 4
s s
v n v n
m m
J
P P
< > < >
= = (3.52)
where { }
1
[ ]
N
n
v n
=
is the sample sequence of the equivalent low-pass signal envelope.
Then
4
[ ] v n < > can be found by time averaging the samples of the equivalent low-
pass of the intercepted signal:
40

4
4
1
4
4
1
/ ( / ) /
4
4
1 1
/ ( / )
4
4
_
1
4 4
_
1
[ ] [ ]
1
( )
/
( )
/

[ ]
s s
s
N
n
N
k s
n k
N T T T T
s s
k s
k n
N T T
s
k g av
k
g av
v n v n
N
I g nT kT
N
T T T
I g nT kT
N T
T T
I P
N
I k P
=
=
= =
=
< >=

=
`
)

=
`
)
=
=< >
(3.53)
where g(t) is a pulse shape with g(t)=0 for t<0 and for t>T, T is the symbol period
and
s
T is the sampling period. Also,
2
[ ] v n < > can be found as

2
2
1
2
2
1
/ ( / ) /
2
2
1 1
/ ( / )
2
2
_
1
2 2
_
1
[ ] [ ]
1
( )
/
( )
/

[ ]
s s
s
N
n
N
k s
n k
N T T T T
s s
k s
k n
N T T
s
k g av
k
g av
v n v n
N
I g nT kT
N
T T T
I g nT kT
N T
T T
I P
N
I k P
=
=
= =
=
< >=

=
`
)

=
`
)
=
=< >
(3.54)
Then, the envelope function J is obtained as follows:

( )
( )
( )
2
4 2
2
2
4 4 2 4
_ _
2
2 2
_
4 4
_
2
2 2
_
2( )
4
[ ] 2 [ ]

4 [ ]
[ ]
1

2
4 [ ]
s
g av g av
g av
g av
g av
m m
J
P
I k P I k P
I k P
I k P
I k P
=
< > < >
=
< >
< >
=
< >
(3.55)
41
Since the ratio
( )
4
_
2
2
_
g av
g av
P
P
is not equal to 1 for every pulse shaping, the envelope
function J depends on the pulse shape of the intercepted signal. Hence by using J ,
a fixed threshold can not be defined to classify the signals.
Histogram based methods require no prior knowledge about the signal parameters
and are able to classify MASK signals at high SNR. However, at low SNR
histogram based methods fail to discriminate constant envelope and varying
envelope signals. Therefore, extra features are needed to classify ASK signals.

42
3.5 SPECTRAL ANALYSIS OF MOMENTS
Spectral analysis of moments of the intercepted signal gives important information
about the modulation type. In [5], [10], [19] and [20] higher order moments of the
signal are used to classify digitally modulated signals. In [3], the signal squared and
the signal quadrupled are used to classify BPSK and QPSK signals. By increasing
the order of the signal, modulation can be removed from the signal and this
information can be used to classify signals. However, as the order increases the
corrupted noise power increases also.
Let define the following Fourier Transforms;
[ ] { [ ]}
v
F k DFT v n = (3.56)

2
2
[ ] { [ ]}
v
F k DFT v n = (3.57)

4
4
[ ] { [ ]}
v
F k DFT v n = (3.58)

8
8
[ ] { [ ]}
v
F k DFT v n = (3.59)
where { }
1
[ ]
N
n
v n
=
is the sample sequence of the equivalent low-pass signal. Then the
following features, obtained from higher orders of the low-pass equivalent signal
v[n], can be defined to be used in the classification process;

0
k =0 if the difference between the successive DFT bins satisfying
{ }
2
2
[ ]
max [ ]
v
v
k
F k
F k
> is lower than a predefined value
'
d
F , otherwise
0
k =1.

2
{ }
2
2
2
2
[ ]
max [ ]
v
v
k
F k
F k
'
d
F ; otherwise
2
k =1.
43

4
{ }
4
4
2
2
[ ]
max [ ]
v
v
k
F k
F k
'
d
F ; otherwise
4
k =1.

8
{ }
8
8
2
2
[ ]
max [ ]
v
v
k
F k
F k
'
d
F ; otherwise
8
k =1.
where is a pre-defined threshold, which can be determined according to the
simulation results. Hence, 1
i
k = means modulation is removed from the carrier and
0
i
k = is the indication of an existing modulation on the carrier.

3.6 INSTANTANEOUS FREQUENCY FEATURES
The instantaneous frequency information of the intercepted signal is another key
feature in the classification of signals. Instantaneous frequency of CPM signals is
time varying and cyclostationary; for MPSK, frequency variations at the transitions
between successive symbols can be observable. CW and MASK signals have
constant instantaneous frequency. Moreover, the carrier frequency offset (CFO) can
be extracted from the instantaneous frequency information. Therefore, we proposed
a method to extract the instantaneous frequency information and use this method to
estimate the CFO. The performance of the proposed method in estimating the CFO
is also tested.
The instantaneous frequencies of a low pass equivalent of a signal can be found as:

44
( )
( )
( )
' '
2 2
' '
2 2
( ) ( )
Im( ( ))
arctan
Re( ( ))
( ) 1 1
( ) ( ) arctan
2 2 ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 1

2 ( )
( )
1
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1

2 ( ) (
j t
v t
I
i
R
I R R I
R
I
R
I R R I
R I
v t A t e
v t
v t
v t d d
f t t
dt dt v t
v t v t v t v t
v t
v t
v t
v t v t v t v t
v t v t
=
| |
=
|
\
(
= =
(

=
| |
+
|
\
=
+ )
(3.60)
where ( ) Im( ( ))
I
v t v t = , ( ) Re( ( ))
R
v t v t = . ( ) ( )
k
k
A t I g t kT =
, ( ) 2 t ft = for
linearly modulated signals, and ( ) A t is a random amplitude variation,
( ) 2 2 ( )
k
k
t ft h I g kT d
= +

for CPM signals. f is the CFO, g(t) is a
pulse shape with g(t)=0 for t<0 and for t>T and T is the symbol period.
For discrete time differentiation, the following formula is used [47]:

'
[ 3] 9 [ 2] 45 [ 1] 45 [ 1] 9 [ 2] [ 3]
[ ]
60
x i x i x i x i x i x i
x i
+ + + +
= (3.61)
To estimate the CFO, firstly the received signal is down-converted to IF and filtered
such that the signal is in the passband of the filter and then moved to baseband. The
baseband signal has a CFO of f . The baseband signal is sampled at a rate equals
to the IF bandwidth to make noise samples independent. Then, the instantaneous
frequency of the low-pass equivalent signal is extracted by using (3.60) and (3.61).
A simple smoothing filter is used to remove abrupt changes in the obtained
instantaneous frequency waveform and the CFO is estimated by averaging the
filtered instantaneous frequency samples.
For CW signal, the performance of the proposed instantaneous carrier frequency
offset estimation method is given in Figure 3-5. Sampling frequency is f
s
=50kHz,
second order Chebychev type-II filter with a cut-off 20kHz is used as a smoothing
45
filter, SNR is 20dB and estimated absolute average error is defined as
c
e mean F = . Where
1
1
t
N
c
n
t
mean F
N
=
=

and
t
N is the number of trials.

Figure 3-5: Absolute Estimation Average Error for CW (f
s
=50kHz, SNR=20 dB) vs.
Carrier Frequency Offset

From Figure 3-5, it is seen that the estimation error increases as the carrier
frequency offset increases due to the parabolic noise power spectral shape at the
output of limiter discriminator [48] and the filter effect of the differentiation given
in (3.61). It can be concluded that, the estimation error is increased dramatically for
10
s
c
f
F > .
46
3.7 CARRIER FREQUENCY OFFSET ESTIMATION
3.7.1 INTRODUCTION
In digital modulation recognition, in general, we do not have a priori information on
the center frequencies of the signals. Even if the center frequency is known
nominally, by the published standards or by intelligence, carrier frequency offset
estimation should be performed to compensate the local oscillator drifts and
Doppler shifts induced by the relative motion of mobile systems and channel
effects. Channel estimation and synchronization can be made by the usage of set of
known data symbols. However, data-aided or timing-aided techniques reduce the
effective transmission rate and may not be feasible in many applications.
In the literature, there are many frequency offset estimation techniques for digitally
modulated signals; some of them are given in [34], [35],[36], [43], [44], [45], [46].
In this thesis work, since our scope is limited, only MSK frequency offset and
symbol rate estimation are investigated. However, the symbol rate and the coarse
carrier frequency offset of digitally modulated signals can be estimated as described
in section 3.3 and 3.6 respectively.
Minimum-shift keying (MSK) is very attractive for transmission in a mobile radio
environment, because of three major properties [40]:
99.5% of the signal energy is contained within a bandwidth of 1.5 times the
data rate.
The envelope of the signal is constant, therefore power efficient nonlinear
amplifiers can be used.
MSK may be interpreted as linear modulation. Hence, simple MLSE
receiver structures exist in this case
47
In electronic warfare (EW) applications, automatic modulation recognition systems
should be able to classify the modulation type of the intercepted signal and also be
able to extract some of the signal parameters for burst-type transmission. In the
literature, there are blind carrier frequency offset estimators for MSK signals based
on the frequency difference detector (FDD) technique [38], [39]. The acquisition
range of these types of estimators is limited to the symbol rate and they require
longer acquisition time. In [40], feedforward demodulator structure with decimation
for timing control was proposed. Although, the proposed method requires shorter
acquisition time compared to FDDs, its performance is also limited to the symbol
rate and the acquisition time.
48
3.7.2 THE PROPOSED METHOD
Sundes FSK is a special form of CPFSK with modulation index 1 h = . In this FSK,
two tones appear whose difference equals to the symbol rate and this information
helps in the demodulation of the signal without external timing information. In [37],
Sundes FSK was obtained from MSK signal and it is shown that the carrier
frequency offset and the symbol rate of a MSK signal can be extracted by using a
frequency doubler and two phase-locked loops (PLL) as follows:

( )
1 2
1 2
4
1
c
f f
f
f f
T
+
=
=
(3.62)
where
1 2
, f f are the output frequencies of the PLLs.
The block diagram of the proposed MSK frequency offset and symbol rate
estimator is illustrated in Figure 3-6.
Firstly, the low-pass equivalent of the Sundes FSK, y[n], is obtained by squaring
the low-pass equivalent of MSK signal, v[n]. Then, Discrete Fourier Transform
(DFT) is carried out to find the tones in the Sundes FSK. From the squared signal,
another sequence x[n], whose length is an integer multiple of the length of the
sequence y[n], is constructed to improve the performance of the phase-lock loops.
The new sequence x[n] and the tones found by DFT are the inputs of the phase-lock
loops. Finally, outputs of these phase-lock loops are used to estimate the carrier
frequency offset, f , and the symbol rate,
b
f , of the MSK signal.

49

Figure 3-6: Block Diagram of The Frequency and Symbol Rate Estimator

3.7.2.1 DFT BLOCK
Let | | Y k be the DFT of the squared signal [ ] y n and it is given as

2 ( 1)( 1)
1
1
[ ] [ ]
n k
N
j
N
n
Y k y n e
| |

|
\
=
=
(3.63)
Then, the two frequency components with largest energy are selected as the tones
(
1 2
,
o o
f f ) in Sundes FSK. By using DFT block false-locking of the PLLs can be
prevented.

3.7.2.2 ACCUMULATOR BLOCK
In the case of burst-type transmission, the duration of the signal is so short that PLL
may not lock to the signal; hence, it is required to feed the squared signal to PLL
more than once. Thus, larger sequence [ ] [ (mod N)] x n y n = is constructed from the
sequence y[n].
fb
fc
x[n]
fo1, fo2 y[n]
v[n]

DFT

Accumulator

PLL-I

PLL-II
D
E
C
I
S
I
O
N
( )
2
50

3.7.2.3 PLL BLOCK
The phase-lock loop (PLL) is used to improve the performance of the estimator. A
basic PLL block diagram is shown in Figure 3-7 [48]. A phase detector is used to
generate a signal that is proportional to the phase difference between the reference
input and the feedback from the voltage controlled oscillator (VCO). Hence, a
simple multiplier can be used as a phase detector. The output of the phase detector
is low pass filtered and used as a control signal to drive VCO.

Figure 3-7: Basic PLL Block Diagram

The bandpass input signal is

1
( ) sin(2 ( ))
s c
s t A f t t = + (3.64)
and the VCO output signal is

2
( ) sin(2 ( ))
r c
r t A f t t = + (3.65)

VCO
s(t)
Phase
Detector
Loop
Filter
r(t)
p(t)
51
where

2
( ) ( )
t
v
t K v d
=

(3.66)
and
v
K is the VCO gain constant. Then phase detector output is

'
1 2
1 2 1 2
( ) sin(2 ( )) cos(2 ( ))
sin( ( ) ( )) sin(4 ( ) ( ))
2 2
m s r c c
m s r m s r
c
e t K A A f t t f t t
K A A K A A
t t f t t t

= + +
= + + +
(3.67)
where
m
K is the gain of the multiplier circuit. Since the high frequency term will be
filtered by the loop filter, the loop filter output is
( ) sin( ( )) * ( )
d e
p t K t h t = (3.68)
where
1 2
( ) ( ) ( )
e
t t t = is the phase error,
2
m s r
d
K A A
K = is the equivalent phase
detector constant, for the multiplier-type phase detector, and h(t) is the impulse
response of the loop filter. The describing equation for the baseband PLL model can
be derived by taking the derivative of the phase error:

1
0
( ) ( ) sin( ( )) ( )
t
e d v e
d d
t t K K h t d
dt dt
=
(3.69)
Then, the baseband PLL block diagram is given in Figure 3-8.

52

Figure 3-8: The baseband equivalent PLL Block Diagram

The discrete low-pass equivalent of the PLL can be obtained by sampling the
equivalent low-pass signal at a rate larger than the nyquist sampling rate and
replacing all the blocks in the PLL with their discrete equivalent models. The block
diagram of the discrete low-pass equivalent PLL including the decision block,
which is used to decide whether the PLL is in the lock stare or not, is given in
Figure 3-9. The equivalence of the system blocks are explained in each subsections
below.

Figure 3-9: PLL Block Diagram
p[n]
e[n]
KO
d
d[n]
Q[n]
e1[n]
r[n]
x[n]
x
Im() LPF-L
VCO exp()
LPF
var{}
Decision
Conj()
LPF
f
0

Phase
Detector
1
( ) j t
e

Im(.)
LPF
(h(t))
p(t)
sin(.)

(.)dt

exp(j.)
2
( ) j t
e

( )
e
j t
e

( )
e
t
2
( )
d
t
dt

+
53
Loop Low Pass Filter (LPF-L)
The transfer function of the low-pass filter is [41]

2 2 2
1 1
1
1
( )
s
s
H s
s s

+
+
= = (3.70)
By using Bilinear Transformation [49]
1
1
1
2
1
s
z
s F
z
| |
=
|
+
\
, z transform of the filter
can be obtained as follows

1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
2 2 2
1
1
1
1
2
1
( )
1
2
1
1 1
2 2
( )
2 1
s
s
s s
s
z
F
z
H z
z
F
z
F F z
H z
F z
| |
+
|
+
\
=
| |
|
+
\
| | | |
+ +
| |
\ \
=
(3.71)

Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
VCO angular frequency, , can be expressed as

0
( ) ( )
v
t K p t = + (3.72)
Where
0
w is the free running (angular) frequency of the VCO and
v
K is the VCO
gain constant [41].
The phase of the VCO is

2
0
0
0 0
( ) ( )
( )
t
t t
v
t d
d K p d

=
= +

(3.73)
54
By using the trapezoidal rule, the integral ( )
0
( )
t
v
K t K p d =

can be expressed as
( ) [ ] [ 1] [ ] [ 1]
2
v
s
K
K n K n p n p n
F
= + + (3.74)
Hence, the phase in (3.73) becomes

2 2 0
0
[ ] ( ) [ ]
2 [ ]
s s
s
n nT nT K n
f
n K n
F

= = +
= +
(3.75)
In [41], the natural frequency (
n
) and damping factor ( ) of the PLL, for
multiplier type phase detector and the selected loop filter, is given as

1
v m
n
K K
= (3.76)

2
2
n

= (3.77)
where
v
K is the VCO gain and
m
K is the multiplier type phase detector gain.
PLL Decision Block:
When the PLL is in locked state; then the bandwidth of the loop filter can be
reduced, by reducing
v
K , to improve the estimator performance. To decide whether
the PLL is in locked state or not following thresholds are defined:

'
1
2 '
1
[ ] [ 1]
1
[ ]
d d
N
n
T n n
T d n
N

=
=
=

(3.78)
where d[n] is the filtered error signal, [ ]
d
n is the filtered variance of the sequence
{ }
1
1
[ ]
n
m
d m

=
and
'
N is the length of the sequence d[n]. If
1
is larger than a
55
predefined value (
1
) then the VCO gain will be reduced to
v
K
K
, and if
2
is larger
than a predefined value (
2
) it is decided that PLL is in lock state hence the
estimated frequency and symbol rate are reliable. The threshold values v
1
and v
2
can
be determined according to simulation results.
If the PLL is in the lock state; that is, if
2 2
> , then the PLL output frequency
(
PLL
f ) is

| | | | | | ( )
| |
_
1
2
1
_
s
PLL
L
PLL PLL
n PLL Lock
F
f n Q n Q n
f f n
L PLL Lock
=
= +
=

(3.79)
where L is the length of the accumulated sequence | | x n , and _ PLL Lock is the
index of the sequence when
1 1
> is satisfied.
3.7.2.4 ESTIMATOR DECISION BLOCK
Output of each PLL Blocks
_1 PLL
f and
_ 2 PLL
f are used to estimate the carrier
frequency offset and symbol rate by using eqn (3.62).
3.7.3 SIMULATIONS
To determine the performance of the proposed estimator, computer simulations
were carried out by using the MATLAB package.
3.7.4 SELECTION OF BLOCK PARAMETERS
Selection of the block parameters in Figure 3-9 depends on the acquisition time of
symbols, maximum available symbol rate and the maximum available carrier
frequency offset. Therefore, it is assumed that
56
Available maximum symbol rate is 10 kHz;
Available maximum carrier frequency offset equals to the symbol rate, that
is 10 kHz;
n=50 symbols are available.
Then, the selection of block parameters is given as follows:
Squared MSK signal with symbol rate 10kHz and carrier frequency offset
10kHz can have tones at 2 / 2 25
c b
f f kHz + = and 2 / 2 25
c b
f f kHz = .
Hence IF bandwidth of the filter is selected as 50kHz and baseband signal is
sampled with the IF bandwidth to make noise samples independent, that is,
50
s
F kHz = .
Since 50
s
F kHz = and n=50 symbols are available then the length of the
analytical signal [ ] v n will be 250
s
b
F
xn
f
= samples. Therefore the length of
the DFT is taken as 512.
Length of the accumulated sequence [ ] x n is taken as 40 times the
intercepted signal, that is, the length of [ ] x n is taken as 10000.
To determine the natural frequency
n
w of the PLL block, average absolute
frequency error
2 / 2
c b PLL
e f f f = + for different
n
w values, in the case of
0
100
c
f f Hz = are given in Figure 3-10, Figure 3-11. During simulations
0
1;
d s
K K F = = are assumed and when PLL is in the lock state, which is determined
by eqn. (3.78), VCO gain
v
K is reduced by a factor K .
o
f is the free running frequency of the PLL and
PLL
f is the PLL output frequency.
Since 50
s
F kHz = and the length of the DFT is 512, then the maximum frequency
57
error at the output of DFT block will be
50
98
512
kHz
Hz . Therefore
0
100
c
f f Hz = is a reasonable assumption.
From these figures, it can be seen that for 900, 5
n
w K = = , logarithm of the average
absolute error (e) is low even at low SNR. Damping factor is taken as 0.7 = . In
these figures, the plots b) are the focused versions of the plots a).
When the natural frequency
n
w and the damping factor are obtained, then the
filter coefficients can be determined by using eqns. (3.71), (3.76), and (3.77).

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
-20
0
20
40
60
a) wn (Hz)
1
0
l
o
g
1
0
(
e
)
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
-10
-5
0
5
10
b) wn (Hz
1
0
l
o
g
1
0
(
e
)

K=1
K=2
K=3
K=4
K=5
K=6
K=7
K=8
K=9
K=10

Figure 3-10: Logarithm of the Estimation Error at SNR=-5dB
58
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
-20
0
20
40
60
a) wn (Hz)
1
0
l
o
g
1
0
(
e
)
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
b) wn (Hz))
1
0
l
o
g
1
0
(
e
)

K=1
K=2
K=3
K=4
K=5
K=6
K=7
K=8
K=9
K=10

Figure 3-11: Logarithm of the Estimation Error at SNR=0dB

59
3.7.5 SIMULATION RESULTS
Absolute carrier frequency estimation error
c c
e f f = and absolute symbol rate
estimation error at
b b
e f f = at / 15
b o
E N dB = is given in Figure 3-12 and Figure
3-13 respectively.
To determine the effect of the estimated frequency error on the demodulated
signals, MSK signals are coherently demodulated by the estimated carrier
frequency. For each carrier frequency estimation 100 independent MSK signals are
generated with n=50 symbols and demodulated by using the estimated carrier
frequency offset. The average number of bit errors are given in Figure 3-14. In these
figures, the plots b) are the focused versions of the plots a).

-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
x 10
4
0
5
10
15
x 10
4
a) Carrier Frequency Offset (Hz)
C
F
O

E
s
t
i
m
a
t
i
o
n

E
r
r
o
r
CFO Estimation Error vs CFO
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
x 10
4
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
b) Carrier Frequency Offset (Hz)
C
F
O

E
s
t
i
m
a
t
i
o
n

E
r
r
o
r
CFO Estimation Error vs CFO

Figure 3-12: Absolute Carrier Frequency Estimation Error at / 15
b o
E N dB =
60
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
x 10
4
0
5
10
15
x 10
4
Carrier Frequency Offset (Hz)
S
y
m
b
o
l

R
a
t
e

E
s
t
i
m
a
t
i
o
n

E
r
r
o
r
Symbol Rate Estimation Error vs CFO
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
x 10
4
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
Carrier Frequency Offset (Hz)
S
y
m
b
o
l

R
a
t
e

E
s
t
i
m
a
t
i
o
n

E
r
r
o
r
Symbol Rate Estimation Error vs CFO

Figure 3-13: Absolute Symbol Rate Estimation Error at / 15
b o
E N dB =

-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
x 10
4
0
10
20
30
a) Carrier Frequency Offset (Hz)
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

B
i
t

E
r
r
o
r
s
Average Number of Bit Errors vs CFO
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
x 10
4
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
b) Carrier Frequency Offset (Hz)
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

B
i
t

E
r
r
o
r
s
Average Number of Bit Errors vs CFO

Figure 3-14: Average Number of Bit Errors at / 15
b o
E N dB =
61
3.7.6 CONCLUSION
A blind method is investigated to estimate the carrier frequency offset and symbol
rate of a short duration MSK signal. The design procedure of the proposed method
has also been given.
The estimator is able to estimate the carrier frequency offset and the symbol rate of
the short duration MSK signals. As can be seen from Figure 3-14, probability of bit
error is about 0.002 when 50 bits are transmitted. Carrier frequency estimation limit
of the proposed estimator depends on the IF bandwidth and the sampling frequency
of the receiver, whereas it does not directly related to symbol rate of the signal.
The large error in Figure 3-12 and Figure 3-13 at 5 kHz is caused by the incorrect
output of the DFT block. Performance of the proposed estimator can be improved
by using a block which has a better frequency estimation performance than a DFT
block and by increasing the length of the accumulated sequence.

62
CHAPTER 4

SPECIFIC MODULATION RECOGNITION TOOLS
In Chapter 3, basic feature extraction blocks were introduced and in this chapter
selection of these blocks according to the modulation type is discussed. Also, we
tested the performances of the features, which are extracted from these blocks, for
ASK2, ASK4, ASK8, PSK2, PSK4, PSK8, QAM2, QAM4, QAM8, Noise, FSK2,
FSK4, FSK8 and CW signals.
4.1 OUTPUTS OF THE FEATURE EXTRACTION BLOCKS
SNR Estimation Block
SNR ( snr ) and the average signal power ( )
s
P

estimation are carried out using the
method reviewed in section 3.1.
Symbol Rate Estimation Block
By using cyclostationarity detection block, described in section 3.3, the symbol rate
( )
0
of the signal is estimated.
Envelope Feature Extraction Block
The average signal power of the received signal is

2 2
_ s g av
P A P = for ASK2, MPSK, MFSK, CW, QAM2, QAM4
63

2 2
_
5
s g av
P A P = for ASK4

2 2
_
5.5
s g av
P A P = for QAM8

2 2
_
21
s g av
P A P = for ASK8
where A is the amplitude of the received signal, ( ) g t is the pulse shape and
2
_ g av
P is
the average power of the pulse. Therefore, following four envelope histograms are
constructed:
In the 1
st
histogram, the width of each bin is
s
P and the centers of the bins
are located at integer multiples of
s
P
In the 2
nd
histogram, the width of each bin is / 5
s
P and the centers of the
bins are located at integer multiples of / 5
s
P
In the 3
rd
s
s
P
In the 4
th
s
s
P
where
s
P is the estimated average signal power.
Then, the number of peaks
1 2 3 4
( ), ( ), ( ), ( ) in each histogram is obtained
according to the following rule:

max
i
env
F
F
> (4.1)
64
Where
i
F is the frequency count of the i
th
peak,
max
F is the maximum frequency
count of the histogram and env
is a predefined threshold, which can be determined

according to simulation results.
The location of each peak in the 1
st
, 2
nd
, 3
rd
histogram is normalized to
s
P ,
/ 5
s
P , / 21
s
P respectively and then these normalized peak locations are stored
as a vector for the decision process.
In Figure 4-1, four histograms for ASK8 with SNR=20dB, A=1 and g(t) is a square
pulse shape is shown.

0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0
5000
10000
15000
sqrt(Ps)
a)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
sqrt(Ps/5)
b)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
sqrt(Ps/21)
c)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0
1000
2000
3000
sqrt(Ps/50)
d)

Figure 4-1: Envelope Histograms for ASK8

65
In Figure 4-1, red line in each histogram shows the threshold value.
Plot a) shows the 1
st
envelope histogram of ASK8 signal. The centers of the
bins are located at 0, 21 4.6 , 2 21 9.2 and the width of each bin is
21 4.6 . In the 1
st
histogram, only one peak at the bin location 21 4.6
is found. Hence, the 1
st
peak vector is v
p1
=[1 0 0 0] and
1
1 = .
Plot b) shows the 2
nd
bins are located at integer multiples of 21/ 5 2 and the width of each bin
is 21/ 5 2 . In the 2
nd
histogram, only one peak at the bin location
21/ 5 2 is found. Hence, the 2
nd
peak vector is v
p2
=[1 0 0 0] and
2
1 = .
Plot c) shows the 3
rd
bins are located at integer multiples of 21/ 21 1 and the width of each
bin is 21/ 21 1 . In the 3
rd
histogram, four peaks are found; hence, the 3
rd

peak vector is v
p3
= [1 3 5 7] and
3
4 = .
Plot d) shows the 4
th
bins are located at integer multiples of 21/ 50 0.65 and the width of each
bin is 21/ 50 0.65 . In the 4
th
histogram, four peaks are found; hence, the
4
th
peak vector is v
p4
= [2 5 8 11] and
4
4 = .
Since the intercepted signal is 8 level ASK, the peak locations in the 3
rd
histogram
coincides with the envelope information of the ASK signal as expected.
Spectral Analysis of Moments Block
By using spectral analysis of moments block
0 2 4 8
, , , k k k k are calculated as
described in section 3.5.

66
Instantaneous Frequency Extraction Block
The instantaneous frequency of the intercepted signal is obtained as described in
section 3.6. Then, the following three frequency histograms are constructed:
In the 1
st
histogram the width of each bin is / 4 and the centers of the bins
are located at integer multiples of / 4 .
In the 2
nd
histogram the width of each bin is / 8 and the centers of the
bins are located at integer multiples of / 8 .
In the 3
rd
histogram the width of each bin is / 100 and the centers of the
bins are located at integer multiples of / 100 .
is the standard deviation of the filtered instantaneous frequency and is defined
as

( )
1
2
2
1
1
( )
N
i i
n
f n f
N
=
| |
=
|
|
\
(4.2)
where
1
1
( )
N
i i
n
f f n
N
=
=

is the mean value of the instantaneous frequency.
Number of peaks
5 6 7
, , n n n in each histogram is determined according to following
rule:

max
i
freq
F
F
> (4.3)
where
i
F is the frequency count of the i
th
peak,
max
F is the maximum frequency
count of the histogram and freq
is a predefined threshold, which can be determined

according to simulation results.

67
4.2 MASK RECOGNITION
MASK signal can be expressed as [29]
( ) ( ) cos(2 )
k c i
k
s t A I g t kT f t
=

= +
`
)
(4.4)
where ( ) { }
1, 3,..., 1
k
I M is a wide-sense stationary symbol sequence, ( ) g t
is a pulse shape with g(t)=0 for t>T and t<0, T is the symbol rate,
c
f is the carrier
frequency,
i
is the initial phase and A is the amplitude of the received signal.
Then, the sampled equivalent low-pass signal | | ( )
s
v n v nT = with a CFO, f , is

2
[ ] ( )
i
s
f
j n
F
k
k
v n A I g t kT e

+
=

=
`
)
(4.5)

SNR Estimation Block:
The average power of the low pass equivalent signal is
| | { }
{ }
2
2 2 2
_ s k g av
P E v n A E I P = = (4.6)
For ASK2;
2 2
_ s g av
P A P = , for { } 1,1
k
I
For ASK4;
2 2
_
5
s g av
P A P = , for { } 3, 1,1, 3
k
I
For ASK8;
2 2
_
21
s g av
P A P = , for { } 7, 5, 3, 1,1, 3, 5, 7
k
I
Then, the average signal power (
s
P ) can be estimated as described in section 3.1.

68
Symbol Rate Estimation Block:
( )
0
of a MASK signal can be estimated even for SNR>-9dB as seen from Figure
3-3.
Envelope Feature Extraction Block:
The envelope of the low-pass equivalent signal is

,
{ [ ]} [ ]
( )

k s
k
k n k
env v n v n
A I g nT kT
A I g
=
=
=
=
(4.7)
where
,
( )
n k s
g g nT kT =
Then, at high SNR, the peak vectors for ASK2, ASK4 and ASK8 are given in Table
4-1. As seen in Table 4-1, the peak vector v
p3
, obtained from the 3
rd
histogram, can
be used to classify ASK2, ASK4 and ASK8 signals.

Table 4-1: Peak Vectors for ASK2, ASK4 and ASK8 Signals
Peak Vector
\Modulation
ASK2 ASK4 ASK8
v
p1
[1 0 0 0] [1 0 0 0] [1 0 0 0]
v
p2
[2 0 0 0] [1 3 0 0] [1 3 0 0]
v
p3
[5 0 0 0] [2 6 0 0] [1 3 5 7]

69
Number of peaks
1 2 3 4
, , , n n n n , defined in section 4.1, for ASK2, ASK4 and ASK8
as a function of a SNR are given in Figure 4-2, Figure 4-3 and Figure 4-4
respectively. The
1 2 3 4
, , , n n n n values in the figures are the average values obtained
from simulations.

Figure 4-2: Histogram Output for ASK2
70


71
As seen from Figure 4-2, Figure 4-3, Figure 4-4;
4
, which is defined as the
number of peaks obtained from the 4
th
histogram, can be selected to be used in the
classification of ASK2, ASK4 and ASK8 signals.
Therefore, the values
4
and
3 p
v are one of the key features that can be used in the
classification process.
Spectral Analysis of Moments Block:
The square of the low-pass equivalent signal is

4 2
2
4 2
2 2
[ ] ( ) ( )
( )
i
s
i
s
f
j n
F
k s l s
k l
f
j n
F
k s
k
v n I g nT kT I g nT lT e
I g nT kT e

+
= =
+
=

=
` `
) )

=
`
)

(4.8)
and the expected value is

{ }
4 2
2 2 2
4 2
[ ] ( )

i
s
i
s
f
j n
F
k s
k
f
j n
F
s
E v n E I g nT kT e
Pe

+
=
+

=
`
)
=
(4.9)
Hence from eqn. (4.8) and (4.9), it can be seen that there is a power at the twice of
the carrier frequency offset 2 f [29]. Therefore, the value
2
k for ASK signals,
defined in Section 3.5, is expected to be equal to 1 for a suitable threshold
selection.
Spectral analysis of moments block output (
0
k ,
2
k ) for ASK2, ASK4, and ASK8 as
a function of a SNR is given in Figure 4-5. Values of
0
k and
2
k in the figures are
the average values obtained from the simulations and threshold values 0.5 = and
'
d b
F F = are taken during simulations.
72
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
SNR (dB)
k
0

&

k
2
k0 & k2 for MASK vs. SNR

k0, ASK2
k2, ASK2
k0, ASK4
k2, ASK4
k0, ASK8
k2, ASK8

Figure 4-5: Spectral Analysis of Moments Block Output for MASK vs. SNR

From Figure 4-5, it can be seen that
2
1 k = for all SNR values, whereas
0
0 k = for
SNR larger than -3dB. Therefore, information obtained from
0
k and
2
k can be used
as a key feature to classify MASK signals even at low SNR.
The instantaneous frequency extraction block output can be used to estimate the
carrier frequency offset of MASK signals and to discriminate frequency modulated
signals from MASK. For ASK8, ASK4 and ASK2, instantaneous frequency
extraction block outputs ( )
5 6
, n n , defined in section 4.2, are given in Figure 4-6.
Since there is no frequency modulation in a MASK signal, ( )
5 6
1, 1 n n = = is
obtained as expected.
73
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
Frequency Histogram Output for MASK vs. SNR
SNR (dB)
n
5
,
n
6

ASK2,n5
ASK4,n5
ASK8,n5
ASK2,n6
ASK4,n6
ASK8,n6

5 6
, n n for MASK vs. SNR
74
4.3 MPSK RECOGNITION
MPSK signal can be expressed as [29]
( ) ( ) cos(2 )
c k i
k
s t A g t kT f t
=

= + +
`
)
(4.10)
where
1
0
2
M
k
m
m
M
`
)
are the M possible equally likely phases of the carrier, ( ) g t
is a pulse shape with g(t)=0 for t>T and t<0, T is the symbol rate,
c
f is the carrier
frequency;
i
is the initial phase and A is the amplitude of the received signal.
Then, the sampled equivalent low-pass signal | | ( )
s
given as

2
2
[ ] ( )
( )
i
k s
i
s
f
j n
j F
k
f
j n
F
k
k
v n A g t kT e e
A g t kT I e

+
=
+
=

=
`
)

=
`
)
(4.11)
where
k
j
k
I e

= is a wide-sense stationary symbol sequence.
The average power of the low-pass equivalent signal is

2
2 2 2 2 2
_ _
{ [ ]} { }
s k g av g av
P E v n A E I P A P = = = (4.12)
s
( )
0
of a MPSK signal can be estimated even for SNR>-9dB as seen from Figure
3-3.
75

The envelope of the low-pass equivalent signal is

,
{ [ ]} [ ]
( )

k s
k
n k
env v n v n
A I g nT kT
A g
=
=
=
=
(4.13)
where
,
( )
n k s
g g nT kT = .
Then, at high SNR, the peak vectors for PSK2, PSK4 and PSK8 are given in Table
4-2.

Table 4-2: Peak Vectors for PSK2, PSK4 and PSK8 Signals
Peak Vector
\Modulation
PSK2 PSK4 PSK8
v
p1
[1 0 0 0] [1 0 0 0] [1 0 0 0]
v
p2
[2 0 0 0] [2 0 0 0] [2 0 0 0]
v
p3
[5 0 0 0] [5 0 0 0] [5 0 0 0]

Number of peaks
1 2 3 4
, , , n n n n , defined in section 4.1, for PSK4 and PSK8 as a
function of a SNR are given in Figure 4-7 and Figure 4-8 respectively. Since PSK2
and ASK2 have the same constellation diagram and the simulation results for ASK2
76
are given in Section 4.2, PSK2 is not mentioned here.
1 2 3 4
( ), ( ), ( ), ( ) n n n n values in
the figures are the average values obtained from the simulations.
From these figures, it can be seen that for SNR<0
4
value becomes irrelevant due
to high noise power.
Since every communication system has a definite bandwidth, there will be a minor
amplitude variations at the transitions between successive symbols [1]; however,
these variations can be eliminated by adjusting the threshold value
env
given in
eqn. (4.1). During simulations 0.5
env
= is taken.

Figure 4-7: Histogram Output For PSK4
77

Figure 4-8: Histogram Output For PSK8

For MPSK signal, Mth power of the low-pass equivalent signal is

2
[ ] ( )
i
s
f
M n
F M M j M
k
v n A g t kT e e

| |
+ |
\
=

=
`
)
(4.14)
Since { }
1
1
0
0
2
2
M
M
k
m
m
M mM m
M
=
=

= =
`
)
then,

2
[ ] ( )
i
s
f
M n
F M M
k
v n A g t kT e

| |
+ |
\
=

=
`
)
(4.15)
From (4.15), it can be seen that the information is removed from the signal and a
carrier at M f is obtained.
78
For MPSK signal;
'
M th power, where
'
, int
M
M k even eger
k

`
)
and
'
M M
, of the low-pass equivalent signal is

'
' ' '
2
[ ] ( )
i
s
f
M n
F M M j M
k
v n A g t kT e e

| |
+ |
\
=

=
`
)
(4.16)
Since
1
1 1
' ' '
' 0 0
0
2 2 2
M
M k
k k
m m
m
M mM m m
M
M k
M

= =
=

= = = =
` ` `
) )

)
then

'
' ' '
2
[ ] ( )
i
s
f
M n
F M M j
k
v n A g t kT e e

| |
+ |
\
=

=
`
)
(4.17)
From (4.17), it can be seen that
'
M th power of the low-pass equivalent signal is
another PSK signal with level
'
M
k
M
= .
From (4.15) and (4.17); it can be concluded that higher orders of the intercepted
signal can be used to discriminate MPSK signals. Therefore,
For PSK2 signal, it is expected to get
0 2 4 8
1; k k k k = = =1 at high SNR
0 2 4 8
1; 1; 1 k k k k = = at high SNR
0 2 4 8
1; 1; 1; 1 k k k k = at high SNR
Output of the spectral analysis of moments block
0 2 4 8
( ; ; ; ) k k k k

for PSK2, PSK4,
and PSK8 as a function of a SNR is given in Figure 4-9, Figure 4-10 Figure 4-11.
Values of
0 2 4 8
( ; ; ; ) k k k k in the figures are the average values obtained from the
simulations and threshold values 0.5 = and
'
d b
F F = are taken during simulations.
79
From the figures it can be concluded that output of the spectral analysis of moments
block is a feature that does not require any prior knowledge about the signal
parameters and gives satisfactory result for SNR>9 dB.

-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
SNR (dB)
k
0
,

k
2
,

k
4
,

k
8

k0
k2
k4
k8

Figure 4-9: Spectral Analysis of Moments Block Output for PSK2 vs. SNR

80
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
SNR (dB)
k
0
,

k
2
,

k
4
,

k
8

k0
k2
k4
k8


-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
SNR (dB)
k
0
,

k
2
,

k
4
,

k
8

k0
k2
k4
k8


81
Instantaneous Frequency Extraction Block:
carrier frequency offset of MPSK signals and to discriminate frequency modulated
signals from MPSK. For PSK4 and PSK8 instantaneous frequency extraction block
output ( )
5 6
, n n , defined in section 4.2, are given in Figure 4-12. There are
frequency variations at the transitions between successive symbols [1]; however
these frequency variations are eliminated by the usage of a low pass filter and by
selecting 0.5
freq
= . Therefore ( )
5 6
1, 1 n n = = is obtained and from Figure 4-12 it
can be seen that
5
n is sufficient for a classification process.

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.4
2.6
Frequency Histogram Output for MPSK vs. SNR
SNR (dB)
n
5
,
n
6

PSK4, n5
PSK8, n5
PSK4, n6
PSK8, n6

5 6
, n n for MPSK vs. SNR

82
4.4 MQAM RECOGNITION
MQAM signal can be expressed as [29]
( ) ( ) cos(2 )
k c k i
k
s t A A g t kT f t
=

= + +
`
)
(4.18)
And the equivalent low-pass signal ( ) v t with a CFO, f , is

2
( ) ( )
i
j ft
k
k
v t A I g t kT e

+
=

=
`
)
(4.19)
where { } { }
k
j
k k
I A e

= is a wide-sense stationary information sequence,
k k
A I = ,
1
Im( )
tan
Re( )
k
k
k
I
I

| |
=
|
\
, ( ) g t is a pulse shape with g(t)=0 for t>T and t<0, T is the
symbol rate,
c
f is the carrier frequency,
i
is the initial phase and A is the
amplitude of the received signal. Then, the sampled equivalent low-pass signal
| | ( )
s
v n v nT = is given by

2
[ ] ( )
i
s
f
j n
F
k
k
v n A I g t kT e

+
=

=
`
)
(4.20)
The average power of the low-pass equivalent signal is
| | { }
{ }
2
2 2 2
_ s k g av
P E v n A E I P = = (4.21)
For QAM2;
2 2
_ s g av
P A P = , for { } 1,1
k
I
For QAM4;
2 2
_ s g av
P A P = , for
3 3
4 4 4 4
, , ,
j j j j
k
I e e e e

`
)

83
For QAM8;
2 2
_
5, 5
s g av
P A P = , for
3 3
4 4 4 4
, , , ,3 ,3 , 3 , 3
j j j j
k
I e e e e j j j j

+ +
`
)

Constellation diagrams for QAM2, QAM4 and QAM8 are given in Figure 4-13,
Figure 4-14 and Figure 4-15 respectively.

Figure 4-13: Constellation Diagram of QAM2

Figure 4-14: Constellation Diagram of QAM4
84

Figure 4-15: Constellation Diagram for QAM8

s

( )
0
of a MASK signal can be estimated even for SNR>-9dB as seen from Figure
3-3.
For MQAM, the envelope of the low-pass equivalent signal is

,
{ [ ]} [ ]
( )

k s
k
k n k
env v n v n
A I g nT kT
A I g
=
=
=
=
(4.22)
where
,
( )
n k s
g g nT kT =
85
Then, at high SNR, the peak vectors for QAM2, QAM4 and QAM8 are given in
Table 4-3. As seen in Table 4-3, the peak vector v
p3
, obtained from the 3
th

histogram, can be used to discriminate QAM8 from QAM2 and QAM4.

Table 4-3: Peak Vectors for QAM2, QAM4 and QAM8 Signals
Peak Vector
\Modulation
QAM2 QAM4 QAM8
v
p1
[1 0 0 0] [1 0 0 0] [1 0 0 0]
v
p2
[2 0 0 0] [2 0 0 0] [1 3 0 0]
v
p3
[5 0 0 0] [5 0 0 0] [3 6 0 0]

Number of peaks
1 2 3 4
, , , n n n n , defined in section 4.1, for QAM4 and QAM8 as a
function of a SNR are given in Figure 4-16 and Figure 4-17 respectively. Since
QAM2 and ASK2 have the same constellation diagram and the simulation results
for ASK2 are given in Section 4.1, QAM2 is not mentioned in here.
1 2 3 4
, , ,
values in the figures are the average values obtained from simulations.
From these figures, it can be seen that for SNR<0 dB
4
value becomes irrelevant
due to high noise power. However, for QAM8
4
=2 for SNR > 9dB and
4
=1 for
QAM2 and QAM4 for SNR > 0dB. Hence
4
is another key feature to be used to
discriminate QAM8 signals from QAM4 and QAM2.
86

Figure 4-16: Histogram Output for QAM4 vs. SNR

Figure 4-17: Histogram Output for QAM8 vs. SNR

87
For MQAM signal, the square of the low-pass equivalent signal is

4 2
2
4 2
2 2
[ ] ( ) ( )
( )
i
s
i
s
f
j n
F
k s l s
k l
f
j n
F
k s
k
v n I g nT kT I g nT lT e
I g nT kT e

+
= =
+
=

=
` `
) )

=
`
)

(4.23)
and the expected value is

{ }
4 2
2 2 2
[ ] ( )
i
s
f
j n
F
k s
k
E v n E I g nT kT e

+
=

=
`
)
(4.24)
For QAM2;

{ }
2
1
k
E I = , since { }
2
1
k
I

{ }
4
1
k
E I = , since { }
4
1
k
I

{ }
8
1
k
E I = , since { }
8
1
k
I
For QAM4;

{ }
2
0
k
E I = , since
2
2 2
2 , 2
j j
k
I e e

`
)

{ }
4
4
k
E I = , since
{ }
4
4 , 4
j j
k
I e e

{ }
8
16
k
E I = , since { }
8
16
k
I
For QAM8

{ }
2
4
k
E I = , since
2
2 2
2 , 2 , 8 6,8 6
j j
k
I e e j j

+
`
)

88

{ }
4
12
k
E I = , since
{ }
4
4 , 4 , 28 96, 28 96
j j
k
I e e j j

+

{ }
8
4208
k
E I = , since { }
8
16, 8432 5376, 8432 5376
k
I j j +

Hence, for QAM2 and QAM8, there is a power at 2 f , 4 f , 8 f ; whereas for
QAM4 at 4 f , 8 f . Therefore, the value
2
k for QAM2 and QAM8 is expected to
be equal to 1 and for QAM4
2
1 k at high SNR for a suitable threshold, ,
selection.
Output of the spectral analysis of moments block (
2
k ) for QAM2, QAM4, and
QAM8 as a function of a SNR is given in Figure 4-18.
2
k in the figure is the
average value obtained from simulations and threshold values 0.5 = and
'
d b
F F =
are taken during simulations.
From Figure 4-18, it can be seen that
2
k can be used as a feature to discriminate
4QAM signals from 8QAM and 2QAM.

89
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
SNR (dB)
k
2

QAM2
QAM4
QAM8

Figure 4-18: k2 for QAM2, QAM4 and QAM8 vs. SNR

carrier frequency offset of MQAM signals and to discriminate frequency modulated
signals from MQAM. For QAM8 instantaneous frequency extraction block output
( )
5 6
, n n , defined in section 4.2, are given in Figure 4-19. Threshold value
0.5
freq
= is taken during simulations. From Figure 4-19, it can be seen that
5
n is
sufficient for a classification process.

90
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
Frequency Histogram Output for QAM8 vs. SNR
SNR (dB)
n
5
,
n
6

n5
n6

5 6
, n n for QAM8 vs. SNR

91
4.5 CW RECOGNITION
CW signal can be expressed as [29]
( ) cos(2 )
c i
s t A f t = + (4.25)
Where
c
f is the carrier frequency;
i
is the initial phase and A is the amplitude of
the received signal. Then, the equivalent low-pass signal | | ( )
s
v n v nT = with a CFO,
f , is given as

2
[ ]
i
s
f
j n
F
v n Ae

+
= (4.26)

| | { }
2 2
s
P E v n A = = (4.27)
s
Except the carrier frequency there is no cyclostationary component in CW signal.
Hence the symbol rate ( )
0
;
estimated by (3.51)), is expected to be 0 as given in
Figure 3-3.
For CW; the envelope of the analytical signal is;

| | { } | | { }
env v n abs v n A = = (4.28)
Hence for CW it is expected to get
1 2 3 4
1 = = = = and the peak vectors at high
SNR:
92
o v
p1
= [1 0 0 0]
o v
p2
= [2 0 0 0]
o v
p3
= [5 0 0 0]
Since there is no modulation induced on continuous wave signal, it is expected to
get
0 2 4 8
1 k k k k = = = = at high SNR.
The envelope feature extraction block output and output of spectral analysis of
moments block for CW as a function of a SNR is given in Figure 4-20 and Figure
4-21 respectively.

Figure 4-20: Histogram output for CW vs. SNR
93
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
SNR (dB)
k
0
,

k
2
,

k
4
,

k
8

k0
k2
k4
k8

Figure 4-21:
0 2 4 8
, , , k k k k for CW vs. SNR

carrier frequency offset of CW signals and to discriminate frequency modulated
signals from CW signals. For CW signal, the instantaneous frequency extraction
block outputs ( )
5 6
, n n are given in Figure 4-22. Since there is no frequency
modulation on a CW signal, ( )
5 6
1, 1 n n = = is obtained. Moreover, from Figure 4-22
it can be seen that
5
n is sufficient for classification process.

94
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
Frequency Histogram Output for CW vs. SNR
SNR (dB)
n
5
,
n
6

n5
n6

5 6
, n n for CW vs. SNR

95
4.6 CPFSK RECOGNITION
CPFSK signal can be expressed as [29]
( ) cos 2 4 ( )
c d k i
k
t
s t A f t Tf I g t T d

=
=
| |
= + +
|
\
(4.29)
Then the sampled equivalent low-pass signal | | ( )
s

2 2 ( )
[ ] ( )
k i
s
k
t
f
j n h I g t T d
F
s
v n v nT Ae

=
=
| |
|
+ +
|
\

= = (4.30)
where ( ) { }
1, 3,..., 1
k
I M is a wide-sense stationary symbol sequence,
2
d
h f T = is the modulation index,
c
f is the carrier frequency,
i
is the initial
phase, ( ) g t is a pulse shape with g(t)=0 for t>T and t<0 and a peak value
2
b
F
and
A is the amplitude of the received signal.

| | { }
2 2
s
P E v n A = = (4.31)
s
By using the cyclostationarity detection block, described in section 3.3, the symbol
rate ( )
0
of a CPFSK signal can be estimated for SNR>-8dB as given in Figure
3-4.
For CPFSK; the envelope of the low-pass equivalent signal is
96

| | { } | | { }
env v n abs v n A = = (4.32)
Hence for the CPFSK signal, it is expected to get
1 2 3 4
1 = = = = and the peak
vectors at high SNR:
o v
p1
= [1 0 0 0]
o v
p2
= [2 0 0 0]
o v
p3
= [5 0 0 0]
N
th
power of the CPFSK signal is another CPFSK signal with a different
modulation index (h); hence the output of the spectral analysis of moments block
can give misleading information for CPFSK signals.
carrier frequency offset, the level of the modulation and the modulation index of the
CPFSK signal.
Carrier Frequency Offset Estimation
Carrier frequency offset of the CPFSK signal can be estimated from the mean value
of the instantaneous frequency
1
1
( )
N
i i
n
f f n
N
=
=

as described in section 3.6.
Level of the Modulation
By using the histogram output,; obtained from the instantaneous frequency of the
intercepted signal, the level of the CPFSK signal can be determined at high SNR. It
is expected to get
5 6
2 = = for 2FSK;
5 6
4 = = for 4FSK and
5 6
6; 8 n n = = for
8FSK at high SNR.
97
The instantaneous frequency extraction block outputs,
5 6
, , for 2CPFSK, 4CPFSK
and 8CPFSK are given in Figure 4-23. CPFSK signals are generated by frequency
modulating the MASK signals. During simulations, the carrier frequency offset is
assumed to be 10kHz for a sampling frequency of f
s
=50kHz, symbol rate is 2kHz,
modulation index is 0.5 and 2
nd
order Chebychev-II filter with a cut-off frequency
20kHz is used as a smoothing LPF.
5 6
, in the figure are the average values
obtained from multiple simulations. From Figure 4-23; it can be seen that both
5
n
and
6
can be used for a classification process. Therefore, it is sufficient to use only
one of
5
n and
6
.

0 5 10 15 20 25
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
SNR (dB)
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

H
i
s
t
o
g
r
a
m

O
u
t
p
u
t

n
5
,
n
6
Frequency Histogram Output for CPFSK vs. SNR

FSK2,n5
FSK2,n6
FSK4,n5
FSK4,n6
FSK8,n5
FSK8,n6

Figure 4-23: Frequency Histogram Output (
5 6
, ) for M-level CPFSK vs. SNR

98
Modulation Index (h):
The modulation index of a CPFSK signal can be estimated by using the symbol rate
and the cluster centers in the frequency histogram. Then, the estimated modulation
index ( h ) is
( )
1
1
1 1
N
i i
i
b p
h L L
F N
+
=
| |
=
|
|
\
(4.33)
where
i
L is the i
th
cluster center,
p
N is the level of the modulation,
b
F is the
symbol rate and h is the estimated modulation index.
To find the cluster centers; firstly an instantaneous frequency histogram, with bin
centers / 100 , is constructed and then the bins, whose frequency count is larger
than a predefined threshold, are used in a k-means clustering method.
In Figure 4-24, estimated absolute average error normalized to modulation index (h)
and in Figure 4-25, a plot of the estimated modulation index ( h ) and the true
modulation index (h) is given for 2, 4 and 8 level CPFSK signals.
99
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
SNR (dB)
E
s
t
i
m
a
t
e
d

A
b
s
o
l
u
t
e

A
v
e
r
a
g
e

E
r
r
o
r

N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

t
o

h
Modulation Index Estimation Performance

FSK2
FSK4
FSK8

Figure 4-24: Modulation Index (h) Estimation Performance for CPFSK Signals
(h=0.5)
100

Figure 4-25: A Plot of the Estimated Modulation Index ( h ) vs. True Modulation
Index (h) at SNR=20dB.

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
Estimated Modulation Index vs. True Modulation Index at SNR=20dB
True Modulation Index
E
s
t
i
m
a
t
e
d

M
o
d
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

I
n
d
e
x

FSK2
FSK4
FSK8
101
4.7 AWGN RECOGNITION
In this work, the channel is assumed be simply an AWGN channel. Therefore, all
we need to do is to estimate the noise variance which is
2
and it is defined as

{ }
{ }
{ } { } { }
{ } { } { }
{ } { } { }
* 2
,
2
,
2
,
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) 0;
Re ( ) Re ( )
2
Im ( ) Im ( )
2
Re ( ) Im ( ) 0
t s
t s
t s
E n t n s
E n t n s
E n t n s
E n t n s
E n t n s

=
=
=
=
=
(4.34)
Since there is no signal then, the average power of the low-pass equivalent signal is
0
s
P (4.35)
s

There is no cyclostationary component in AWGN signal. Hence the symbol rate
( )
0
;
estimated by (3.51)), is expected to be 0 as given in Figure 3-3.

From (4.35) histogram output is expected to be
1 2 3 4
0 = = = = .

102
Since the Nth power of white Gaussian noise is still another noise signal, the
outputs of the spectral analysis of moments block are expected to be
0 2 4 8
0 k k k k = = = = .
Since there is no deterministic frequency component on noise signal, the output of
the instantaneous frequency extraction block will be noisy.

103
4.8 CONCLUSION
The outputs of the SNR estimation block, the symbol rate estimation block, the
envelope feature extraction block, the spectral analysis of moments block, the
instantaneous frequency extraction block were introduced and investigated for
different types of digitally modulated signals. Some of the outputs of these blocks
were selected as features. Also, the performances of the features extracted from
these blocks were tested for ASK2, ASK4, ASK8, PSK2, PSK4, PSK8, QAM2,
QAM4, QAM8, Noise, FSK2, FSK4, FSK8 and CW signals. In Table 4-4, the
outputs of each block and in Table 4-5, the expected values of the selected features
for each modulation type is given.
As it can be seen in Table 4-5, each of the ASK2, ASK4, ASK8, PSK4, PSK8,
QAM8, FSK2, FSK4, FSK8 and CW signals has different combinations and thus, it
is possible to distinguish them from each other. Moreover, noise and information
carrying signals can be discriminated by using the estimated average signal power,
s
P . In Table 4-5, the term X is used for a feature, which may be misleading for
the specified modulation type.

Table 4-4: The Outputs of Each Block
Blocks The Outputs of The Blocks
SNR Estimation Block SNR ,
s
P
Symbol Rate Estimation Block
0

Envelope Feature Extraction Block
v
p3,
4

Spectral Analysis of Moments Block k
0
, k
2
, k
4
, k
8

Instantaneous Frequency Extraction
Block
f , h ,
5

104
Table 4-5: Features and Modulation Type Relation
Blocks
Mod.
Types
Features
ASK2
PSK2
QAM2
ASK4 ASK8
PSK4
QAM4
PSK8 QAM8 FSK2 FSK4 FSK8 CW NOISE
v
p3

[5 0
0 0]
[2 6
0 0]
[1 3
5 7]
[5 0
0 0]
[5 0
0 0]
[3 6
0 0]
[5 0
0 0]
[5 0
0 0]
[5 0
0 0]
[5 0
0 0]
X
Envelope
Feature
Extraction Block
4

1 2 4 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 X
k
0
0 0 0 0 0 0 X X X 1 X
k
2
1 1 1 0 0 1 X X X 1 X
k
4
1 1 1 1 0 1 X X X 1 X
Spectral
Analysis of
Moments Block
k
8
1 1 1 1 1 1 X X X 1 X
Instantaneous
Frequency
Extraction Block
5

1 1 1 1 1 1 2 4 6 1 X
105
CHAPTER 5

THE RECOGNITION SYSTEM
In this chapter, a modulation recognition system based on the selected features,
described in Chapter-3 and 4, is introduced. Firstly, a basic decision tree based
method, then a classification method based on a Bayesian probability model is
described. Finally, the two methods are compared.
5.1 THE DECISION TREE METHOD
Decision tree methods are one of the basic classification procedures in which
decision at each stage is made according to predefined threshold values. In these
methods, time-order of the features and predefined threshold values are the main
parameters affecting the performance of the classifier. Therefore, threshold values
and time ordering of the selected features must be chosen carefully in order to
reduce the probability of wrong decision. Moreover, sequence order of the features
and the threshold values should be updated to recognize a modulation type, which is
not included in the classification list of that recognizer.
The proposed decision tree is given in Figure 5-1. In this classification method,
firstly, the estimated average signal power,
s
P , is compared with a threshold,
1
,
and the decision will be Noise if the condition
1 s
P < is satisfied. Otherwise, the
decision will be made by using the remaining features.
106
If the intercepted signal is not a noise, then k
0
value is used to decide whether there
is a modulation on the signal or not. Then, the number of peaks in the envelope
histogram is used to discriminate ASK4, ASK8 and QAM8, whose classification is
made by using the peak vector obtained from the 3
rd
envelope histogram, from other
modulation types. The classification of CPFSK signals is made by using the number
of peaks in the frequency histogram and the determination of the level of the
modulation on the MPSK signal is made by using the k
2
, k
4
, k
8
values. At the last
stage of the tree, if the intercepted signal does not match any of the modulation type
in the classification list, the output of the recognizer will be Unknown (UN).

107

Figure 5-1: The Proposed Decision Tree for Modulation Classification
ASK2,
MPSK
MFSK
NOISE
PSK4
no yes
yes
no
yes
no
no yes
no
yes
no
yes
yes
no
no
yes
no
yes
yes
no
yes
v[n]
1 s
P <
0
1 k =
4 2
n <
3
3
5
or
7
p
p
v
v
n <
5 4
n <
5 5
n <
5 6
n <
2
1 k =
8
1 k =
no
noise
CW QAM8
ASK8
FSK8
FSK4
FSK2
ASK2
UN
PSK8
3
3
3
6
p
p
v
v
and
ASK4
4
1 k =
CW
ASK4, ASK8, QAM8
MFSK
MPSK, ASK2
108
5.2 THE BAYESIAN BASED RECOGNITION SYSTEM
We used the following features in the proposed recognition system:
1. Estimated SNR, snr
2. Estimated signal power,
s
P
3. Number of peaks in the envelope histogram,
4
n and the peak vector v
p3

4. Spectral analysis of moments output for the signal,
0
k
5. Spectral analysis of moments output for the second power of the signal,
2
k
6. Spectral analysis of moments output for the fourth power of the signal,
4
k
7. Spectral analysis of moments output for the eight power of the signal,
8
k
8. Number of peaks in the instantaneous frequency histogram,
5
n
Bayesian based classifier is used in the decision block. The block diagram of the
proposed recognition system is given in Figure 5-2.
The following formula is used for classification process [42]

1 1 2 1 1 1
( , ,..., ) ( ) ( ) ( , ) ( ,..., , )
j n j j j n n j
P c x x P c P x c P x x c P x x x c
= (6.1)
For our recognition procedure, assuming features
i
x , conditioned on a given
modulation
j
c , are independent of each other,
( , ) ( )
i j k i j
P x c x P x c = (6.2)
Hence eqn. (6.1) becomes

1
1
( , ,..., ) ( ) ( )
n
j n j i j
i
P c x x P c P x c
=
=

(6.3)
and
109

1 1 1
( , ,..., ) ( ,..., ) ( ,..., )
j n n j n
P c x x P x x P c x x = (6.4)
From eqns. (6.3) and (6.4):

1
1 1
( )
( ,..., ) ( )
( ,..., )
n
j
j n i j
i n
P c
P c x x P x c
P x x
=
=

(6.5)
Specifically, we use
{ } ASK2,ASK4,ASK8,QAM8,PSK4,PSK8,CW,FSK2,FSK4,FSK8,NOISE
j
c
and
{ }
4 3 0 2 4 8 5
, , , , , , ,
i p s
x n v P k k k k n .

Figure 5-2: The Functional Block Diagram of the Bayesian Based Recognition
System for Modulation Classification
,
s
snr P
v[n]
SNR Estimation
Block
Envelope Feature
Extraction Block
Spectral Analysis of
Moments Block
Instantaneous
Frequency
Extraction Block
D
E
C
I
S
I
O
N

B
L
O
C
K
4 3
,
p
n v
0 2 4 8
, , , k k k k
5
n
110
In the decision block, the following steps are executed to decide the modulation
type
1. If the estimated average signal power
s
P is lower than a threshold
1
, then
the decision will be noise.
2. If the estimated average signal power
s
P is higher than the threshold, then
the decision is made according to eqn. (6.5) by selecting the modulation type
with maximum probability, for the estimated SNR value.
3. If the result of eqn. (6.5) equals to 0, then the decision will be Unknown
(UN).

5.3 SIMULATION RESULTS
To determine the performance of the proposed recognition system, computer
simulations were carried out by using the MATLAB package.
5.3.1 FEATURES OF SIMULATIONS
Test Data Signals
Linearly modulated signals were generated at baseband and then shifted to give
them a carrier frequency and phase offset. CPFSK signals are generated by
frequency modulating the MASK signals. In Figure 5-3, the block diagram of the
transmitter is given, where { }
k
a is the data sequence, { }
k
I is the sequence of
symbols that results from mapping the data sequence into corresponding signal
points selected from the appropriate signal space diagram.
111
Signals with raised cosine pulse shape are obtained by filtering the generated
baseband signals. A 4
th
order lowpass linear-phase filter with a cut-off frequency,
equals to four times of the symbol rate of the signal, is used for filtering.

Figure 5-3: Block Diagram of the Transmitter

SNR
The channel SNR value, which is defined as the ratio of the average power of the
modulated signal to the average power of noise at the output of the IF bandwidth of
the receiver, is used for performance evaluation.

The Receiver Model
It is assumed that the receiver consists of a set of fixed frequency receivers with
their passbands set contiguously. In these fixed tuned receivers, the received signal
is down-converted to IF and filtered such that the signal is in the passband of the
filter and then moved to baseband with a possible offset. The baseband signal is
sampled at a rate equals to the IF bandwidth to make noise samples independent;
hence, the in-phase and quadrature components of the down-converted signal are
obtained. Then, the signal from each of the fixed tuned receivers is analyzed by the
Data Converter Pulse Shaping
LO (
c
f f + )
IQ Modulator
{ }
k
a { }
k
I
( ) v t
( ) s t
112
recognition system. In Figure 5-4, basic block diagram of the receiver and in Figure
5-5, a block diagram of the fixed tuned receiver is given.

Figure 5-4: Block Diagram of the Receiver

Figure 5-5: Block Diagram of the Fixed Tuned Receiver

5.3.2 TUNING OF THE RECOGNITION SYSTEM
The probability of each feature for the given modulation type (
( )
i j
P x c ) at
different SNR levels should be determined prior to tests. For this reason, following
test signals were generated for training at SNR of 0dB, 3dB, 6dB, 9dB, 12dB, 15dB,
18dB, 21dB.

M
u
l
t
i
p
l
e
x
e
r

Fixed Tuned Receiver, f
c1

Fixed Tuned Receiver, f
cN

s(t)
v
1
[n]
v
N
[n]

The
Recognition
System
v[n]
Fs=BW
IF

RF Stage Mixer
LO
1

IF Stage, BW
IF
IQ Detector
s(t)
113
Linearly Modulated Signal Parameters
Square pulse with symbol rate F
b
=5kHz, carrier frequency offset CFO=0.
Raised-cosine spectrum pulse with a roll of r=0.25, F
b
=2kHz, CFO=0.1 kHz.
Raised-cosine spectrum pulse with r=0.75, F
b
=5kHz, CFO=0.5kHz.
CW Signal Parameters
No carrier frequency offset.
CFO=0.1 kHz.
CFO=0.5 kHz.
CPFSK Signal Parameters
Square pulse with F
b
=5kHz, CFO=0Hz and modulation index h=0.5
b
=2kHz, CFO=0.1kHz and
h=0.75
b
=5kHz, CFO= 0.5kHz and
h=0.4

In Tables 5.1 5.27, the computed probabilities of each feature parameter for each
modulation type at different SNR levels are given.

114
4
1.5 n
( )
4
1.5
j
P n c
SNR ASK2 ASK4 ASK8 PSK4 PSK8 QAM8 CW FSK2 FSK4 FSK8
0
0,95 0,73 0,70 0,95 0,95 0,73 0,95 0,98 0,95 0,95
3
0,98 0,81 0,87 0,98 0,98 0,81 0,98 0,99 0,98 0,98
6
0,99 0,25 0,81 1,00 1,00 0,25 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
9
1,00 0,05 0,55 1,00 1,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
12
1,00 0,01 0,10 1,00 1,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
15
1,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
18
1,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
21
1,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00

4
1.5 3 n <

( )
4
1.5 3
j
P n c <
0
0,05 0,27 0,28 0,05 0,05 0,27 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05
3
0,02 0,19 0,10 0,02 0,02 0,19 0,02 0,02 0,02 0,02
6
0,01 0,75 0,15 0,01 0,01 0,25 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,01
9
0,00 0,95 0,40 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
12
0,00 0,99 0,72 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
15
0,00 1,00 0,16 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
18
0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
21
0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00

115
4
3 n <

( ) 4
3
j
P n c <

0
0,00 0,00 0,02 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
3
0,00 0,00 0,03 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
6
0,00 0,00 0,04 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
9
0,00 0,00 0,05 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
12
0,00 0,00 0,18 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
15
0,00 0,00 0,84 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
18
0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
21
0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00

In Table 5-1, Table 5-2 and Table 5-3, probabilities of the feature
4
n , which is
defined as the number of the peaks in the 4
th
envelope histogram, are given. From
these tables, we can conclude that
Probabilities of the feature
4
n are similar for MPSK, MFSK, CW and
ASK2.
The probability
( )
4
1.5
j
P n c for ASK8 is higher than the ASK4 at low
SNR, hence this information can be used to discriminate ASK4 from ASK8
at low SNR values.
The probability
4
(3 )
j
P n c < equals to 1 for ASK8 at high SNR, whereas
this quantity is zero for other modulation types, as expected.
The probability
4
(1.5 3 )
j
P n c < equals to 1 for ASK4 at high SNR,
whereas this quantity is zero for other modulation types, as expected.
116
3
(1) 1
p
v =
3
( (1) 1 )
p j
P v c =

0
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
3
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
6
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
9
0,00 0,02 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
12
0,00 0,01 0,35 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
15
0,00 0,00 0,94 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
18
0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
21
0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00

3
(1) 2
p
v =

3
( (1) 2 )
p j
P v c =

0
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
3
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
6
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
9
0,00 0,93 0,86 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
12
0,00 0,96 0,48 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
15
0,00 1,00 0,05 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
18
0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
21
0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00

117
3
(1) 3
p
v =
3
( (1) 3 )
p j
P v c =

0
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
3
0,00 0,07 0,10 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
6
0,00 0,99 0,93 0,00 0,00 0,31 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
9
0,00 0,02 0,14 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
12
0,00 0,01 0,17 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
15
0,00 0,00 0,01 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
18
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
21
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00

3
(1) 4
p
v =

3
( (1) 4 )
p j
P v c =

0
0,00 0,21 0,35 0,00 0,00 0,05 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
3
0,00 0,89 0,90 0,00 0,00 0,66 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
6
0,00 0,00 0,07 0,00 0,00 0,65 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
9
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
12
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
15
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
18
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
21
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00

118
3
(1) 5
p
v =
3
( (1) 5 )
p j
P v c =

0
0,60 0,80 0,65 0,43 0,57 0,90 0,70 0,69 0,59 0,70
3
1,00 0,02 0,00 1,00 1,00 0,34 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
6
1,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 0,04 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
9
1,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
12
1,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
15
1,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
18
1,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
21
1,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00

3
(1) 6
p
v =

3
( (1) 6 )
p j
P v c =

0
0,40 0,01 0,00 0,53 0,43 0,05 0,25 0,31 0,41 0,30
3
0,00 0,01 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
6
0,00 0,01 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
9
0,00 0,03 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
12
0,00 0,02 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
15
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
18
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
21
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00

119
3
(2) 0
p
v =

3
( (2) 0 )
p j
P v c =

0
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
3
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
6
1,00 0,51 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
9
1,00 0,00 0,93 1,00 1,00 0,15 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
12
1,00 0,00 0,42 1,00 1,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
15
1,00 0,00 0,01 1,00 1,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
18
1,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
21
1,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00

3
(2) 3
p
v =
3
( (2) 3 )
p j
P v c =

0
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
3
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
6
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
9
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
12
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
15
0,00 0,00 0,90 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
18
0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
21
0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,17 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00

120
3
(2) 5
p
v =

3
( (2) 5 )
p j
P v c =

0
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
3
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
6
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
9
0,00 0,00 0,05 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
12
0,00 0,00 0,55 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
15
0,00 0,00 0,02 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
18
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
21
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00

3
(2) 6
p
v =

3
( (2) 6 )
p j
P v c =

0
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
3
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
6
0,00 0,49 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
9
0,00 0,98 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,84 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
12
0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,91 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
15
0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,98 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
18
0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,99 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
21
0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,81 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00

121
3
(2) 7
p
v =

3
( (2) 7 )
p j
P v c =

0
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
3
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
6
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
9
0,00 0,02 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,01 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
12
0,00 0,00 0,03 0,00 0,00 0,09 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
15
0,00 0,00 0,07 0,00 0,00 0,02 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
18
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,01 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
21
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00

3
(3) 0
p
v =

3
( (3) 0 )
p j
P v c =

0
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
3
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
6
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
9
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
12
1,00 1,00 0,93 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
15
1,00 1,00 0,05 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
18
1,00 1,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
21
1,00 1,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00

122
3
(3) 5
p
v =

3
( (3) 5 )
p j
P v c =

0
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
3
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
6
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
9
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
12
0,00 0,00 0,01 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
15
0,00 0,00 0,90 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
18
0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
21
0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00

3
(3) 7
p
v =

3
( (3) 7 )
p j
P v c =

0
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
3
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
6
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
9
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
12
0,00 0,00 0,06 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
15
0,00 0,00 0,05 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
18
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
21
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00

123
3
(4) 0
p
v =

3
( (4) 0 )
p j
P v c =

0
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
3
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
6
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
9
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
12
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
15
1,00 1,00 0,21 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
18
1,00 1,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
21
1,00 1,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00

3
(4) 7
p
v =

3
( (4) 7 )
p j
P v c =

0
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
3
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
6
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
9
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
12
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
15
0,00 0,00 0,79 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
18
0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
21
0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00

124
In Tables 5-4 5-19, probabilities of the feature
3 p
v , which is defined as the peak
vector obtained from the 3
rd
envelope histogram, are given. The following
probabilities are equal to zero for all modulation types:
3
( (1) 0 )
p j
P v c = ,
3
( (1) 7 )
p j
P v c = ,
3
( (1) 8 )
p j
P v c = ,
3
( (2) 1 )
p j
P v c = ,
3
( (2) 2 )
p j
P v c = ,
3
( (2) 4 )
p j
P v c = ,
3
( (2) 8 )
p j
P v c = ,
3
( (3) 1 )
p j
P v c = ,
3
( (3) 2 )
p j
P v c = ,
3
( (3) 3 )
p j
P v c = ,
3
( (3) 4 )
p j
P v c = ,
3
( (3) 6 )
p j
P v c = ,
3
( (3) 8 )
p j
P v c = ,
3
( (4) 1 )
p j
P v c = ,
3
( (4) 2 )
p j
P v c = ,
3
( (4) 3 )
p j
P v c = ,
3
( (4) 4 )
p j
P v c = ,
3
( (4) 5 )
p j
P v c = ,
3
( (4) 6 )
p j
P v c = ,
3
( (4) 8 )
p j
P v c = .
From these tables, we can conclude that:
Probabilities of the feature
3 p
v are consistent with the values given in Table
4-5 at high SNR.
The probabilities
3
( (1) 2 )
p j
P v c = ,
3
( (1) 3 )
p j
P v c = ,
3
( (3) 7 )
p j
P v c = and
3
( (2) 5 )
p j
P v c = for ASK8 do not always equal to zero; hence, this
information can be used to classify ASK8 at low SNR.
The probability
3
( (2) 7 )
p j
P v c = for ASK8 and QAM8 does not always
equal to zero; hence, this information can be used to classify ASK8 and
QAM8 at low SNR.
The probability
3
( (1) 1 )
p j
P v c = ,
3
( (1) 6 )
p j
P v c = for ASK4 does not always
equal to zero; hence, this information can be used to classify ASK4 at low
SNR.

125
0
1 k =

( ) 0
1
j
P k c =

0
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
3
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,01 0,00 0,02
6
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
9
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,02
12
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,02
15
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,02
18
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,03
21
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,01

2
1 k =

( ) 2
1
j
P k c =

0
1,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 0,53 0,50 0,51
3
1,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 0,50 0,50 0,53
6
1,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 0,50 0,51 0,68
9
1,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 0,50 0,50 0,66
12
1,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 0,50 0,51 0,70
15
1,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 0,51 0,51 0,62
18
1,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 0,51 0,50 0,60
21
1,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 0,51 0,55 0,65

126
4
1 k =

( ) 4
1
j
P k c =

0
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 0,09 1,00 0,50 0,00 0,01
3
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 0,88 1,00 0,50 0,50 0,01
6
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 0,61 0,50 0,25
9
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 0,50 0,50 0,41
12
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 0,50 0,50 0,40
15
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 0,50 0,50 0,47
18
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 0,50 0,50 0,58
21
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 1,00 1,00 0,51 0,50 0,58

8
1 k =

( ) 8
1
j
P k c =

0
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,01
3
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,01 0,00
6
0,28 1,00 1,00 0,09 0,06 0,93 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,02
9
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,50 0,11 0,00
12
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,63 0,52 0,02
15
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,50 0,58 0,06
18
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,54 0,56 0,19
21
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,52 0,52 0,17

127
In Tables 5-20 5-23, probabilities of the features k
0
, k
2
, k
4
and k
8
, which are the
outputs of the spectral analysis of moments block, are given. From these tables, we
can conclude that:
Probabilities of the features are consistent with the values given in Table 4-5
at high SNR.
For CPFSK signal, the key features k
0
, k
2
, k
4
, k
8
depends on the modulation
index. Hence, these probabilities can be misleading for CPFSK.
For CW, the key feature k
8
value can be misleading especially at low SNR.

5
1.5 n

( ) 5
1.5
j
P n c

0
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,90 0,80 0,70
3
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,80 0,70 0,60
6
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,70 0,60 0,50
9
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,20 0,05 0,05
12
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
15
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
18
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
21
1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00

128
5
1.5 2.5 n <

( ) 5
1.5 2.5
j
P n c <

0
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,10 0,05 0,02
3
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,20 0,10 0,05
6
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,30 0,15 0,10
9
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,80 0,25 0,20
12
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,01 0,00
15
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00
18
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00
21
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00

5
2.5 4.5 n <
( ) 5
2.5 4.5
j
P n c <

0
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,15 0,03
3
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,20 0,07
6
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,25 0,15
9
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,70 0,25
12
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,99 0,35
15
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,18
18
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,05
21
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00

129
5
4.5 8 n <

( ) 5
4.5 8
j
P n c <

0
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,25
3
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,28
6
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,25
9
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,50
12
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,65
15
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,82
18
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,95
21
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 1,00

In Tables 5-24 5-27, probabilities of the feature
5
n , which is defined as the
number of peaks in the instantaneous frequency histogram, are given. From these
tables, we can conclude that probabilities of this feature are consistent with the
values given in Table 4-5.

130
5.3.3 CONDUCTION OF TESTS
For CPFSK signal, the key features k
0
, k
2
, k
4
, k
8
depends on the modulation index;
hence, probabilities of these features are not considered for CPFSK signals.
Moreover k
8
value for CW can be misleading especially at low SNR, therefore
probability of k
8
is also not considered for CW signal.
To compare the decision tree based classifier and the bayesian based recognition
system the threshold values, given in Figure 5-1, are selected to be equal to the ones
used in the Bayesian based recognition system.
2500 symbols were used for each modulation type, and for each SNR value 100
independent signals were generated and tested. ASK2, ASK4, ASK8, QAM8,
PSK4, PSK8, FSK2, FSK4, FSK8 were generated by using both the square pulse
shaping and the raised cosine pulse shaping.

5.3.4 RESULTS OF SIMULATIONS
In Tables 5-28 5-35, performances of the decision tree method and the Bayesian
based recognition system at SNR of 0dB, 6dB, 9dB, 12dB and 15dB are given by a
confusion matrix, which is a matrix providing information about the output of the
recognition system for the given modulation type. Rows of the matrix are the
expected classification, while the columns are the resulting classification and the
values indicate the success rate of the resulting classification for the given
modulation type. The term Unknown (UN) is used for a modulation type that is
not included in the classification list of the recognizer.
131
SNR=6 dB
MOD.
Type
UN noise ASK2 ASK4 ASK8 PSK4 PSK8 QAM8 CW FSK2 FSK4 FSK8
noise
0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ASK2
0 0 97 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0
ASK4
10 0 0 52 18 0 0 20 0 0 0 0
ASK8
0 0 0 12 66 0 0 22 0 0 0 0
PSK4
0 0 0 0 0 90 0 0 0 10 0 0
PSK8
0 0 0 0 0 11 88 0 0 1 0 0
QAM8
0 0 0 2 20 0 0 78 0 0 0 0
CW
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0
FSK2
0 0 64 0 0 0 0 0 0 36 0 0
FSK4
0 0 15 0 0 0 0 0 1 66 18 0
FSK8
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 26 73 0

Table 5-29: Confusion Matrix of The Decision Tree Method at SNR=6 dB
MOD.
Type
noise
0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ASK2
0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ASK4
0 0 26 44 0 0 0 30 0 0 0 0
ASK8
0 0 80 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
PSK4
0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0
PSK8
88 0 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 0
QAM8
0 0 89 10 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
CW
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0
FSK2
0 0 66 0 0 0 0 0 0 34 0 0
FSK4
0 0 15 0 0 0 0 0 1 66 18 0
FSK8
0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 24 73 0

132
SNR=9 dB
MOD.
Type
noise
0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ASK2
1 0 98 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
ASK4
2 0 0 97 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
ASK8
3 0 0 0 94 0 0 3 0 0 0 0
PSK4
0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0
PSK8
0 0 0 0 0 29 69 0 0 2 0 0
QAM8
0 0 0 1 2 0 0 97 0 0 0 0
CW
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0
FSK2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0
FSK4
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 99 0
FSK8
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 85

MOD.
Type
noise
0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ASK2
0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ASK4
0 0 0 99 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
ASK8
0 0 63 33 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
PSK4
0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0
PSK8
0 0 1 0 0 30 69 0 0 0 0 0
QAM8
0 0 1 2 0 0 0 97 0 0 0 0
CW
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0
FSK2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0
FSK4
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 98 0
FSK8
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 85

133
SNR=12 dB
MOD.
Type
noise
0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ASK2
1 0 99 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ASK4
1 0 0 99 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ASK8
7 0 1 0 92 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
PSK4
0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0
PSK8
0 0 0 0 0 5 95 0 0 0 0 0
QAM8
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0
CW
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0
FSK2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0
FSK4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0
FSK8
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 99

MOD.
Type
noise
0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ASK2
0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ASK4
0 0 1 99 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ASK8
0 0 5 39 56 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
PSK4
0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0
PSK8
0 0 0 0 0 5 95 0 0 0 0 0
QAM8
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0
CW
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0
FSK2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0
FSK4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0
FSK8
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 98

134
SNR=15 dB
MOD.
Type
noise
0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ASK2
0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ASK4
0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ASK8
0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
PSK4
0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0
PSK8
0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0
QAM8
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0
CW
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0
FSK2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0
FSK4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0
FSK8
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100

MOD.
Type
noise
0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ASK2
0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ASK4
0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ASK8
0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
PSK4
0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0
PSK8
0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0
QAM8
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0
CW
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0
FSK2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0
FSK4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0
FSK8
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100

135
From Tables 5-28 5-35, we can conclude that:
At SNR<6 dB, success rate of the proposed Bayesian based recognition
system is superior to the decision tree method in classifying ASK8, PSK8
and QAM8 signals. The decision tree method fails completely for ASK8,
PSK8 and QAM8; whereas the success rate in the Bayesian method is 66%
for ASK8; 88% for PSK8 and 78% for QAM8. However, at SNR>9dB the
performances of both methods are similar in classifying QAM8 and PSK8
signals.
At SNR<13 dB, success rate of the Bayesian method is superior to the
decision tree method in classifying ASK8 signals.
Both of the proposed recognition systems are able to discriminate noise
signals from information carrying signals at SNR>-21dB.
The Bayesian based recognition system fails completely for CW at SNR<-
3dB; whereas the success rate of the decision tree method is %100 at SNR>-
9dB. CW is the only modulation type that the performance of the decision
tree method is superior to the Bayesian based method because the value of
the feature k
0
is consistent even at low SNR as shown in Figure 4-21 and
this feature is used at the second stage of the tree. For CW, the performance
of the Bayesian based method can be improved by calculating the feature
probabilities at SNR<0dB.
The success rate of both methods are similar in classifying CPFSK signals.
At SNR>15 dB, success rate of the Bayesian method and the decision tree
method are similar.
Both of the proposed recognition systems are able to discriminate ASK2,
ASK4, ASK8, PSK4, PSK8, QAM8, FSK2, FSK4, FSK8, CW and NOISE
at SNR>15 dB with a success rate 100%.

136
CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
In this thesis, a recognition system, which does not require prior knowledge of the
signal parameters, has been developed. Moreover, the recognition system is able to
extract some of the signal parameters, such as the modulation index of CPFSK
signals the symbol rate, the carrier frequency offset and SNR value.
First of all, most of the feature extraction techniques found in the literature have
been surveyed, then the selected feature extraction techniques are tested for digitally
modulated signals. Estimated signal power is used to decide whether the intercepted
signal is noise or an information carrying signal, this feature gives satisfactory
results even at very low SNR values (SNR>-21 dB). Higher order moments of the
intercepted signal are used to remove the modulation on the signal, this feature is
used to discriminate MASK signals from MPSK signals and to determine the level
of modulation on MPSK signals. Other key features are extracted from the envelope
and frequency histograms of the intercepted signal. Cyclostationarity is one of the
important properties of the digitally modulated signals that can be used to classify
signals and to extract some of the signal parameters. However, cyclostationary
analysis require excessive calculations; hence, cyclostationarity based feature
extraction has not been used in our classification process; but it is used to estimate
the symbol rate of the intercepted signal and this estimated symbol rate is used in
the spectral analysis of moments block.
137
Classification algorithm is another important part of a modulation recognition
system. Two methods are developed for classification: first one is based on a
proposed decision tree and the second is based on the Bayesian a posteriori
probability computation. In the Bayesian based method, the probability of the each
key feature for each modulation type at different SNR values is obtained. The two
methods were compared and the results show that the performace of the Bayesian
based recognition system is superior to the decision tree based method at low SNR
values. Moreover, both of the proposed recognition systems are able to discriminate
ASK2, ASK4, ASK8, PSK4, PSK8, QAM8, FSK2, FSK4, FSK8, CW and NOISE
at SNR>15 dB with a success rate 100%.
The success of the Bayesian method relies mainly on the feature independence. In
the Bayesian based method, each selected key feature depends on a different
parameter of the signal and all the features are used at the same time.
The recognition system has been designed for the classification of the ASK2,
ASK4, ASK8, PSK4, PSK8, QAM8, FSK2, FSK4, FSK8, CW and NOISE.
However, the system can easily be modified to classify digital signals of other types
or with larger parameter ranges.
In addition to recognizing the modulation type, the system also yields:
Level of the modulation.
Signal to noise ratio at the output of the IF filter.
Coarse estimation of the carrier frequency offset.
Symbol rate of the signal.
Modulation index of the CPFSK signal.
In addition to recognition works, we have also investigated a method to estimate the
symbol rate and the carrier frequency offset of MSK signals. The limit of the
estimated carrier frequency offset does not depend on the symbol rate and the
138
estimator can also be used even for very short duration of pulses. In addition, design
procedure of the proposed estimator is given and the performance of the estimator is
tested for short duration MSK signals.
Some of the topics that remain as future work are noted below:
The effect of the symbol duration on the performance of the recognition.
The effect of ISI.
Pulse shapes with partial response.
Nongaussian noise interference
139
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DIGITAL MODULATION RECOGNITION

is the cyclic autocorrelation function and can be expressed as

= for all 0 and ( ) 0

for values of that are not all integer multiples of some

can be considered as the density of correlation

= = . Therefore in [33], the following method was

is a predefined threshold, which can be determined

is a predefined threshold, which can be determined

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