ECE 550 Nanoelectronic Devices: Ahmed@siu - Edu

ECE 550 Nanoelectronic Devices Introduction
Shaikh S. Ahmed, PhD Associate Professor Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Southern Illinois University at Carbondale 1230 Lincoln Drive MC 6603 Carbondale, IL 62901 Office: E-222 Email: ahmed@siu.edu
ECE 550/Nanoelectronic Devices Shaikh Ahmed 2011
SEMICONDUCTOR INDUSTRY
By the most fundamental definition, a civilization is a complex society. According to the World Systems Theorists, the characteristics of evolution of most civilizations has been summarized as follows:
All civilizations start small, establishing their genesis with the creation of state systems for maintaining the elite. Successful civilizations then flourish and grow, becoming larger in an accelerating fashion. They then reach a limiting maximum extent, perhaps managing to hold a degree of stability for a length of time. Competition between states may result in one achieving predominance over the others. Dominance may be indirect, or may formalize into the structure of single multi-ethnic empires. Over the long term, civilizations either collapse or get replaced by a larger, more dynamic civilization.
Currently, world civilization is in a stage that has created what may be characterized as an industrial society, superseding the agrarian society that preceded it. The Kardashev scale classifies civilizations based on their level of technological advancement, specifically measured by the amount of energy a civilization is able to harness. Many futurists believe that civilization is undergoing another transformation, and that world society will become an informational society. This is supported by the fact that the new industrial age and the new economy are driven in large measure by unprecedented advances in information technology.
Information Society is a term for a society in which the creation, distribution, diffusion, use, and manipulation of information has ECE 550/Nanoelectronic Devices Shaikh Ahmed 2011 become the most significant economic and cultural activity
Electronics industry has been the largest industry in the world with global sales of over one trillion dollars since 1998. The current sales volume is ~ three trillion dollars and account for about 10% of gross world product (GWP). It is now driving almost all other parts of the economy. STRUCTURE
OF THE
ELECTRONIC
INDUSTRY:
WORLD
PRODUCTION/APPLICATION SECTOR
2009
sia-online.org
Basic to the electronic industry and the new information age are the semiconductor devices that implement in all needed information processing operations.
We have come to rely on semiconductor devices and increasingly have come to expect higher performance at lower cost
sia-online.org
World 2009 Sales ~ $250B U.S. 2009 Sales ~ $127B 2009 World Market Share = 51% U.S. Jobs = 207,500 % of Sales Outside U.S. Market = 81%
Capital Equipment = $13B, 11% of Sales

R&D Investment = $20B, 17% of Sales In 2010, the semiconductor industry made over 1B transistors for every man!
sia-online.org
Semiconductor devices such as diodes, transistors and integrated circuits can be found everywhere in our daily lives, in Walkman, televisions, automobiles, washing machines and computers. We have come to rely on them and increasingly have come to expect higher performance at lower cost. Personal computers clearly illustrate this trend. Anyone who wants to replace a three to five year old computer finds that the trade-in value of his or her computer is surprising low. On the bright side, one finds that the complexity and performance of the todays personal computers vastly exceeds that of their old computer and that for about the same purchase price, adjusted for inflation. While this economic reality reflects the massive growth of the industry, it is hard to even imagine a similar growth in any other industry. For instance, in the automobile industry, no one would even expect a five times faster car with a five times larger capacity at the same price when comparing to what was offered five years ago. Nevertheless, when it comes to personal computers, such expectations are very realistic. Despite record energy prices and an unprecedented series of natural disasters, worldwide demand for semiconductors increased in all end markets.
sia-online.org
From its inception, the semiconductor industry has been cyclical. Cycles typically included two strong years of 20 percent growth, one year of slow Worldwide growth, and one year of flat or declining growth.
Billion Dollars
350 300 250 200 150 100
Sales
This growth rate began to slow gradually. The severity of the 2001 downturn then prompted a reevaluation of the industry's long-term growth rate.
50 0 1970
Sales fell from an estimated $261.2 billion in 2008 to $246.7 billion in 2009, or some 5.6 percent (with PC sales falling five percent and cell phone sales down 6.4 percent)!
1980
1990
2000
2010
Overriding these cyclical waves, however, was prodigious growth: 16.1% CAGR from 1975-2000.
Year
Device performance degradation? How can we sustain the growth in device industry?
sia-online.org
MARKET SECTORS
In the 1960's, when the semiconductor industry first emerged from anonymity, the key driver of the industry was the government and aerospace sector. Major applications were the Apollo space program and weapons systems such as the Minute Man intercontinental ballistic missile. With the end of the Apollo program and the cuts in the defense budget after the Vietnam War, the key driver of the industry shifted in the early 1970's to the corporate Information Technology (IT) sector. The introduction of the IBM 360 (the first use of integrated circuits in a computer) and the mini-computer initiated the first IT boom in the late 1960's and early 1970's. Corporate IT continued to dominate spending in the 1980's. With the introduction of the PC and Local Area Networks (LAN's), corporate IT grew to 60 percent of demand, while the government/aerospace sector declined to less than 10 percent of demand. In the 1990's, consumers emerged as the primary force driving semiconductor sales. Consumers now drive roughly half of all semiconductor sales. With the Internet boom and declining PC prices, individuals now consume more than 30 percent of units sold in the PC marketplace. Consumers dominate the cell phone market. The automotive segment is similar.
EVOLUTION
IN SEMICONDUCTOR
DEVICES
1947 The revolution in semiconductor industry was initiated in 1947 with the invention and fabrication of point-contact bipolar devices on slabs of polycrystalline germanium (Ge) used as the basic semiconductor element. 1955 The successive introduction of single-crystalline materials made possible the realization of grown junction transistors.
CZOCHRALSKI SILICON CRYSTAL GROWTH
Seed Single Crystal Si Quartz Crucible Water Cooled Chamber Heat Shield Carbon Heater Graphite Crucible Crucible Support Spill Tray Electrode
EVOLUTION
IN
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
1959 Later the development of reliable and high-quality oxide growth on silicon wafers and the demonstration of the planar process, with the silicon dioxide (SiO2) layer acting as an excellent barrier for the selective diffusion steps, led to the invention of the silicon-based bipolar integrated circuits (ICs) in 1959.
2000 Nobel Laureate
EVOLUTION
BJTs subject to power dissipation! Addition of Si/SiO2 materials system and further refinements in the understanding of surface effects eventually inspired migration from BJTs to field-effect transistors (FETs). 1960 Metaloxidesemiconductor fieldeffect transistor (MOSFET), the most important device for advanced integrated circuits constituting the foundation of todays semiconductor industry, was reported by Kahng and Atalla in 1960. 1968 CMOS and polysilicon gate technology had been developed. These innovations resulted in a significant reduction in power dissipation.
IN SEMICONDUCTOR
DEVICES
In the beginning, MOSFET offered lower power dissipation than BJTs!

EVOLUTION
IN SEMICONDUCTOR
DEVICES
Although, the basic concepts underlying the MOS transistor were described in 1933 in a patent by Lilienfeld. As far as is known these concepts were not put into practice at that time
EVOLUTION
IN SEMICONDUCTOR
DEVICES: MOSFET
nanoHUB.org
EVOLUTION
IN SEMICONDUCTOR
DEVICES
Since the invention of the point-contact bipolar transistor in 1947, the number and variety of semiconductor devices have grown tremendously as advanced technology, new materials with their unique properties, and broadened comprehension of the underlying physical processes have been applied to the creation and innovation of new devices that have literally changed the world. Dr. William Shockley suggested in the fifties the use of semiconductors of different bandgap for the fabrication of heterostructure devices. Professor Herbert Kroemers invaluable contributions to heterostructuresfrom heterostructures bipolar transistors to lasersculminated in a Nobel Prize in Physics in 2000.
Herbert Kroemer 2000 Nobel Physics Laureate
EVOLUTION
IN SEMICONDUCTOR
DEVICES
To date, there are about 60 major devices, with over 100 device variations related to them.
SI VALLEY
MOSFET and related integrated circuits now constitute about 90% of the semiconductor device market.
AND
HISTORY
NOBEL
PRIZES IN SEMICONDUCTOR
DEVICES
William Shockley 1956
Leo Esaki 1973
Richard Smalley 1996
Peter Grnberg 2007 Jack Kilby 2000

Boyle and Smith 2009
IC MARKET DRIVER
Indeed, the single and most important factor driving the continuous device improvement has been the semiconductor industry's relentless effort to reduce the cost per function on a chip.
The driver
Reduced cost/function
I. Transistor scaling
II. Circuit cleverness III. Larger die
Technology Enhancement
Cheaper systems
More cash to invest
New products/ markets
METHODS
OF
REDUCING COST/FUNCTION
Three methods of reducing the cost per function. (1) The first is transistor scaling, which involves reducing the transistor size in accordance with some goal, i.e. keeping the electric field constant from one generation to the next. With smaller transistors, more can fit into a given area than in previous generations. (2) The second method is circuit cleverness, which is associated with the physical layout of the transistors with respect to each other. If the transistors can be packed into a tighter space, then more devices can fit into a given area than before. (3) The third method is to make a larger die where more devices can be fabricated.
10
SCALING MOORES LAW
Transistors/Chip
10 10 10 8 10 6 10 4 10 2
16 G E n cyclo p ed ia B ook 2 56 K P a g e 16 K 1 K
D o u b le /1 Y r
P roduct S IA R oadm ap
D RA M
64 M 4 M
1 G
D o u b le /1 .5 Y rs
Do u b le /2 Y rs
10 0 19 60 19 70 1980 1990 20 00 20 10
Y ear
CIRCUIT COMPLEXITY (3-D INTERCONNECTS/ICS)

Connecting chips at the interconnect level is a relatively new wrinkle in the idea of building ICs in three dimensions. 3D ICs offer higher performance in smaller form factors. It also holds the promise of stacking dissimilar ICs in the same device or stacked chipnot just logic and memory, but optical ICs and CMOS, for example. Furthermore, by shortening the distance that electrical signals have to travel, 3D interconnect technology could provide the performance gains promised by Moore's Law while obviating the need for exotic materials potentially required in the deep sub-micron era, and the attendant integration headaches.
11
WAFER
200 mm
450 mm
WAFER
Die Size (mm2)
Year
(http://www.icknowledge.com)
12
PRODUCT PRICING
nanoHUB.org
PRODUCT PRICING
Cost ($)
Year Product pricing has declined 35% per year while maintaining gross margin.
13
PRODUCT PRICING
FACTORY COST
Facility Cost ($ millions)
Year
Normalized Cost/Unit
14
SCALING CONTINUES
The device size is scaled in all dimensions Scaling will continue at least until the year 2016, when devices with a physical gate length of 9 nm should become commercially available! Intel demonstrated 10 nm device in 2003. ICs containing one trillion (1012) devices are possible!
Intel.com
HOW
SMALL IS A NANOMETER?
While the Greek root nano just means dwarf, the nanoscale has become a giant focus of contemporary science and technology.
(Prof. Mildred Dresselhaus, MIT)

15
SCALING IMPACT ON CIRCUIT PARAMETERS
SCALING CHALLENGES
Scaling is finally facing its limits! Processing issues: Photolithography becomes difficult. Difficult to control the oxide thickness, dopant placements. Processes will be required approaching atomic-layer precision. Device physics issues: Power dissipation (quantum-mechanical tunneling). Classical Short-Channel Effects (SCEs): CLM, DIBL, GIDL, Punchthrough, hot carriers, S/D series resistance (big issue!) DRAM: storage capacitance; Flash: floating gate charge For analog/RF applications, the challenges additionally include sustaining linearity, low noise figure, power-added-efficiency, and transistor matching.
A recent analysis based on fundamental quantum mechanical principles, restated by George Bourianoff of the Intel Corporation, reveals that heat dissipation will ultimately limit any logic device using an electronic charge.
16
SCALING BOGS DOWN!

Scaling is finally facing its limits! Processing issues: Photolithography becomes difficult Difficult to control the oxide thickness, dopant placements Processes will be required approaching atomic-layer precision Device physics issues: Power dissipation (quantum-mechanical tunneling) Classical Short-Channel Effects (SCEs): CLM, DIBL, GIDL, Punchthrough, hot carriers, S/D series resistance (big issue!) DRAM: storage capacitance Flash: floating gate charge For analog/RF applications, the challenges additionally include sustaining linearity, low noise figure, power-added-efficiency, and transistor matching. A recent analysis based on fundamental quantum mechanical principles, restated by George Bourianoff of the Intel Corporation, reveals that heat dissipation will ultimately limit any logic device using an electronic charge.
SCALING CHALLENGES
17
HOW
CAN WE SUSTAIN THE GROWTH?
- SMART DEVICES
Tdelay
CV sec onds I W 2 I ~ COX VG VT Amps L q ~ * m2 /V / s m

OX
Contact Polysilicon
COX
tOX
F / m2
SOI Film
BOX Film
IBM
(VT, OX, strain) structure
2020
(, m*) material
2050?
(spin, ) non-charge: new state
HOW
- SMART DEVICES
Tdelay

OX
COX
tOX
F / m2
2020
(, m*) material
2050?
18
HOW
- SMART DEVICES
Tdelay

OX
COX
tOX
F / m2
2020
(, m*) material
2050?
SMART DEVICES: INAS
InAs NW p-MOSFETs with ION/IOFF > 103 and hole field-effect mobility 60 cm2/V/s Highly promising for the future low power tunneling field-effect transistors
A. C. Ford et al. Nano Lett. 2010, 10, 509-513
19
SMART DEVICES: GRAPHENE

3-D Graphite 2-D Graphene 1-D CNTs 0-D Buckyball
3M sheets 1mm thick 2-D Graphene Nanoribbon (GNR)
GRAPHITE conducts electricity due to the vast electron delocalization within the carbon layers. mechanical exfoliation
MWCNT
1985 (Smalley)
http://graphenetimes.com/

+ - + sp2 hybrid
+ + *
Ethylene (C2H4)
The E-k relation is linear for low energies near the six corners of the two-dimensional hexagonal Brillouin zone, leading to zero effective mass for electrons and holes! e/h behave like relativistic particles described by the Dirac equation:
20

UCLA Builds Fastest Graphene Transistor Yet: 300 gigahertz in a device with a channel length of 140 nanometers
Co2SiAl2O3 coreshell nanowire defines the channel length, with the 5-nm Al2O3 shell functioning as the gate dielectrics, the metallic Co2Si core functioning as the self-integrated local gate and the self-aligned platinum thin-film pads functioning as the source and drain electrodes.
Lei Liao, Yung-Chen Lin, Mingqiang Bao, Rui Cheng, Jingwei Bai, Yuan Liu, Yongquan Qu, Kang L. Wang, Yu Huang, & Xiangfeng Duan, High-speed graphene transistors with a self-aligned nanowire gate, Nature, 2010, 467, 305-8.
fT = 300 GHz!
21
GRAPHENE ELECTRONIC DEVICES:
HIGH-K
Room temperature electrical properties of the top-gated graphene device using Al2O3 nanoribbon as the gate dielectric. (A) Ids-Vds output characteristics, the channel width and length of the device is 2.1 m and 4.1 m. (B) Transfer characteristics at Vds = 1 V for the device using top and back gate (Inset). (C) Transconductance gm as a function of top-gate voltage VTG, the inset shows the gm vs. VBG. The plots indicate the top gate gm is about 15 times higher than the back-gate gm. (D) Two-dimensional plot of the device conductance at varying VBG and VTG bias. The unit in the color scale is S. (E) The top-gate Dirac point VTG_Dirac at different VBG. (F) Experimental plot (Black Line) and modeling fitting (Red Line) of Rtot vs. VTG-VTG_Dirac relation to derive the contact resistance and carrier mobility. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010 April 13; 107(15): 67116715.
SMART DEVICES: QUANTUM TUNNEL FETS
Source
Gate N+
Drain ID [A/ m]
1.E-07
1.E-09
P+
Ge
Si SiO2
Si
1.E-11
Experiment
1.E-13
Model
1.E-15 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4
VD=0.5V LG=5 m W=0.33 m
VGS [V]
S [mV/dec]
ID
AE s exp( B / Es )
Es = |VGS+Vtunnel|/(Tox ge/ ox)

Vtunnel ~ 0.6V
ID [A/ m]
S. Kim et al., VLSI Tech Symp., 2009
22
SPIN FET
A version of the spin valve has been proposed in which electrons are injected into a narrow bandgap semiconductor and a GATE on top of the semiconductor is used to realize TRANSISTOR operation In such a SPIN FET the channel conductance is modulated by CHANGING the spin orientation of electrons arriving at the drain contact A CHALLENGE for the actual realization of this device arises in trying to realize EFFICIENT contacts for the injection of spin-polarized carriers into the semiconductor
2
BRashba v
Rashba
2 m* a46 E y v [RASHBA FIELD] q 2 2m*a46 E y L [SPIN PRECESSION] 2
A SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM SHOWING THE SPIN TRANSISTOR ORIGINALLY PROPOSED BY DATTA AND DAS IN THIS DEVICE MAGNETIC CONTACTS WITH THEIR MAGNETIZATIONS ALIGNED ALONG THE x-AXIS ARE USED TO SOURCE AND SINK SPIN-POLARIZED CARRIERS ELECTRONS INJECTED INTO THE ELECTRON CHANNEL OF THE SEMICONDUCTOR PROPAGATE THROUGH IT WHILE THEIR SPINS PRECESS AROUND THE z-AXIS DUE TO THE RASHBA EFFECT ELECTRONS ARRIVING AT THE DRAIN THEREFORE HAVE THEIR SPINS ALIGNED AT A FIXED ANGLE () WITH RESPECT TO THE MAGNETIZATION OF THE x-AXIS THAT DEPENDS ON THE PATH LENGTH BETWEEN THE TWO CONTACTS BY CHANGING THE GATE VOLTAGE AND SO MODULATING THE RASHBA EFFECT IN THE WELL THE ANGLE BETWEEN THE ELECTRON SPIN AND THE CONTACT MAGNETIZATION CAN THEREFORE BE MODULATED
S. Datta & B. Das, Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 665 (1990)
SMART MEMORY
Nanocrystal Flash ZRAM
CBM
PCM
23
DMS MEMORY
HOW
- DIVERSIFICATIONS
More than Moore SoC/SoP
24
MORE THAN MOORE
HOW

New Application Areas
- DIVERSIFICATIONS
25
MORE THAN MOORE
ADDRESS THE CHALLENGE
OF A SUSTAINABLE
ENERGY RESOURCE
26
SOURCE (SOLAR) ENGINEERING
biomass
Bio-inspired artificial water splitting
think big, go small
NANOSTRUCTURED SOLAR CELL
27
H2 ECONOMY
H2 CELL
28
H2 CELL
ELECTRICITY SAVING (SSL)
29

Lighting accounts for 22% of electric power usage. 33% reduction in energy consumed for lighting by 2025, saving consumers $128 B+.
TABLE I. DOE GOALS FOR SSL CHARACTERISTICS Luminous efficacy > 160 lumens/watt Overall system efficiency > 50% Color temp between 3000K and 6000K Color Rendering Index (CRI) > 85 Lifetime > 50,000 h A cost substantially lower than $0.01/lm
nanoHUB.org
30
HOW
- DIVERSIFICATIONS
Applied intelligence example: all in the pocket
HOW
- DIVERSIFICATIONS
Society needs : Transport and mobility
31
HOW
- DIVERSIFICATIONS
Sensors and actuators are everywhere
MODELING APPROACHES
Drudes Model:
Idrift
dQ dt
Aqnv
Aqn E
Aqn
q E m*
Electron transport in a semiconductor is described fundamentally by its wave function which is obtained from the solution of the Schrdinger equation:
(r, t ) t
2 2m0
(r, t )
EC0 (r, t ) U C (r) U S (r, t ) (r, t )

Effect from atomic nuclei and other electrons Scattering potential
Potentials that are built-in or applied
Boltzmann Transport Equation (BTE): Multiscale-Multiphysics Domain decomposition
f dr r f G ( E ) t [( Edt i0 ) I
dk dt H
QM
f t 1 2 ] scat
F F f k f f r k f * m t scat To simulate atnanowire containing 30,000 atoms using

the NEGF method, the memory requirement becomes
~100GB and method to solve the BTE stochastically The Monte Carlo method is the most popularneeds 60,000+ hours of computational time! and without any approximation to the distribution function.
32
SIUC APPROACH: QUADS 3-D
Employ a multiscale and modular approach Basic module is an object-oriented and extendable nanomaterial library Atomistic ETB approach benchmarked against ab initio and experiments The material library is integrated with different kernels: nonequilibrium Greens functionMonte CarloParticle Interaction (NEGF-MC-GEANT4)
COMPUTING PLATFORMS
ORNL
33
PLATFORMS FOR MODELING
Strong scaling of a constant problem size (8 million atoms) on 6 different HPC platforms. Solid / dashed lines correspond to a stored / recomputed Hamiltonian matrix. The largest number of cores available were 8,192 on Cray XT3/4 and IBM BlueGene.
34

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ECE 550 Nanoelectronic Devices Introduction

ECE 550/Nanoelectronic Devices Shaikh Ahmed 2011

ECE 550/Nanoelectronic Devices Shaikh Ahmed 2011

Capital Equipment = $13B, 11% of Sales

ECE 550/Nanoelectronic Devices Shaikh Ahmed 2011

ECE 550/Nanoelectronic Devices Shaikh Ahmed 2011

350 300 250 200 150 100

ECE 550/Nanoelectronic Devices Shaikh Ahmed 2011

ECE 550/Nanoelectronic Devices Shaikh Ahmed 2011

CZOCHRALSKI SILICON CRYSTAL GROWTH

ECE 550/Nanoelectronic Devices Shaikh Ahmed 2011

2000 Nobel Laureate

ECE 550/Nanoelectronic Devices Shaikh Ahmed 2011

In the beginning, MOSFET offered lower power dissipation than BJTs!

ECE 550/Nanoelectronic Devices Shaikh Ahmed 2011

ECE 550/Nanoelectronic Devices Shaikh Ahmed 2011

Herbert Kroemer 2000 Nobel Physics Laureate

ECE 550/Nanoelectronic Devices Shaikh Ahmed 2011

ECE 550/Nanoelectronic Devices Shaikh Ahmed 2011

ECE 550/Nanoelectronic Devices Shaikh Ahmed 2011

William Shockley 1956

Leo Esaki 1973

Richard Smalley 1996

Peter Grnberg 2007 Jack Kilby 2000

Boyle and Smith 2009

More cash to invest

New products/ markets

ECE 550/Nanoelectronic Devices Shaikh Ahmed 2011

ECE 550/Nanoelectronic Devices Shaikh Ahmed 2011

SCALING MOORES LAW

CIRCUIT COMPLEXITY (3-D INTERCONNECTS/ICS)

ECE 550/Nanoelectronic Devices Shaikh Ahmed 2011

ECE 550/Nanoelectronic Devices Shaikh Ahmed 2011

Die Size (mm2)

ECE 550/Nanoelectronic Devices Shaikh Ahmed 2011

ECE 550/Nanoelectronic Devices Shaikh Ahmed 2011

Facility Cost ($ millions)

ECE 550/Nanoelectronic Devices Shaikh Ahmed 2011

(Prof. Mildred Dresselhaus, MIT)

SCALING IMPACT ON CIRCUIT PARAMETERS

ECE 550/Nanoelectronic Devices Shaikh Ahmed 2011

SCALING BOGS DOWN!

ECE 550/Nanoelectronic Devices Shaikh Ahmed 2011

CAN WE SUSTAIN THE GROWTH?

CV sec onds I W 2 I ~ COX VG VT Amps L q ~ * m2 /V / s m

(VT, OX, strain) structure

(spin, ) non-charge: new state

ECE 550/Nanoelectronic Devices Shaikh Ahmed 2011

CAN WE SUSTAIN THE GROWTH?

CV sec onds I W 2 I ~ COX VG VT Amps L q ~ * m2 /V / s m

(VT, OX, strain) structure

(spin, ) non-charge: new state

ECE 550/Nanoelectronic Devices Shaikh Ahmed 2011

CAN WE SUSTAIN THE GROWTH?

CV sec onds I W 2 I ~ COX VG VT Amps L q ~ * m2 /V / s m

(VT, OX, strain) structure

(spin, ) non-charge: new state

ECE 550/Nanoelectronic Devices Shaikh Ahmed 2011

SMART DEVICES: INAS

SMART DEVICES: GRAPHENE

3M sheets 1mm thick 2-D Graphene Nanoribbon (GNR)

SMART DEVICES: GRAPHENE