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Chapter 4.

Microbial Cells
Major Differences between Prokaryotic
and Eukaryotic Cells
Prokaryote Eukaryote
Nucleus Absent Present
Membrane- Absent Present (e.g., mitochondria, chloroplasts,
enclosed endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi Complex,
organelles lysosome)
Cell wall Present; Chemically Absent in animal; Chemically simple
complex (peptidoglycan) (cellulose/chitin) in plants & fungi
Cell division Binary fission Mitosis and Meiosis
Ribosome Smaller (70S) Larger (80S) (mitochondria has 70S)

Prokaryotic Cells
• Morphology:
o Three basic shapes of bacteria: coccus (spherical), baccilus (rods) and
spirochete (spiral)
o Cell arrangements: chains (strepto-); grape-like (staphylo-)
• Structures external to the cell wall and their functions: glycocalyx (sugar coat,
forming a protective layer called "biofilm"), flagella and axial filament (for
motility, e.g., chemotaxis and phototaxis), fimbrea (for host attachment), and pili
(for DNA transfer)
• Cell wall (see table below)
• Plasma membrane: structure (phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins);
function (selective permeability: prevents unwanted molecules from entering and
nutrients from leaking out)
• Cytoplasm: area inside cell membrane
• Nuclear area: Most bacteria have a single circular chromosome.
• Plasmids: Small, usually circular DNA molecules; easily transferable between
bacterial cells
• Ribosomes: function (site of protein synthesis); bacterial ribosomes are called 70S
ribosomes; target of some antibiotics (e.g. streptomycin) since eukaryotic
ribosomes are different (80S)
• Endospores:"resting cells", formed when nutrients are depleted ("sporulation");
resistant to high heat, lack of water and exposure to harmful chemicals; non-
metabolizing; return to growing state when nutrients/water available
("germination"); Examples: Bacillus spp. and Clostridium spp. (all Gram-
positives).
Bacterial Cell Wall
• Physiological function: prevent bacterial cells from rupturing when the water
pressure inside the cell is greater than that of outside the cell (i.e., protect from
osmotic lysis)
• Composition: contains peptidoglycan, which is made of a carbohydrate backbone
(NAG-NAM polymers) linked together with peptide cross-bridges; the peptide
cross-bridge is the target of penicillin action
• Clinical importance 1: since human (eukaryote) cells do not have cell walls,
antibiotics that target bacterial cell walls can kill bacteria without harming the
human host
• Clinical importance 2: major types of bacteria can be distinguished and classified
based on cell wall structures (e.g. Gram staining)
• Key structural differences between Gram-positive and Gram-negative cell walls:

Gram-positive Gram-negative Wall


Wall
Peptidoglycan layer Thick Thin
Outer membrane/Periplasm space/LPS Absent Present
(endotoxin)
Susceptibility to penicillin and lysozyme High Low
Representative species Bacillus subtilus E.coli

Eukaryotic Cells
• External structures: Flagella and cilia (for movement)
• Cell wall: Absent in animal cells; chemically simple if present (in plants and
fungi), do not contain peptidoglycan;
• Plasma membrane: similar structure (phospholipid bilayer)
• Cytoplasm: area inside cell membrane, outside nucleus
• Organelles: Nucleus (membrane enclosed; multiple chromosomes); ER
(endoplasmic reticulum, site of protein synthesis, where ribosomes attach);
ribosomes (80S); Golgi complex (protein secretion and modification); lysosomes
(contain digestive enzymes); mitochonria (site of ATP production, "power plant"
of the cell); chloroplasts (site of photosynthesis in algae and green plants)
• Evolution by endosymbiosis: Mitochondria and chlorophasts were originally free-
living bacteria that have entered an ancestral eukaryotic cell. Eventually, they lost
the ability to live by themselves and become symbionts. The most conclusive
evidence include:
o Mitochondria and chloroplast have their own DNA that are similar (in
sequence) to the DNA of existing bacteria species
o They have prokaryotic cell-structure, including 70S ribosomes
Membrane Transport
• Passive Transport: Transport following a concentration gradient; no ATP
expenditure to the cell
o Simple diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide
o Facilitated diffusion: diffusion through a protein carrier molecule
o Osmosis: diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane;
isotonic (equal solute concentration inside and outside a cell), hypotonic
(solute concentrations lower outside than inside) and hypertonic (solute
concentrations higher outside than inside)
• Active Transport: Transport against a concentration gradient; with ATP
expenditure; for update of nutrients from the environment
• Endocytosis and Exocytosis: Transport through the formation of membrane-
enclosed vesicles within a cell, e.g., macrophages (a type of white-blood cell) use
phagocytosis to kill and digest invading bacteria.

Summary
• Effective antimicrobial drugs target features present in the pathogen and absent in
the human cells.
• Evolutionary insight: It's easier to control prokaryotic pathogens (bacteria) than
eukaryotic pathogens (e.g., malaria) or acellular pathogens (e.g., viruses).

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