Microwave Devices At microwave frequencies, the size of electronic devices required for generation of microwave energy becomes smaller

and smaller. This results in lesser power handling capability and increased noise levels. Electronic devices such as tubes and transistors will be required even at microwave frequencies. Conventional devices (tubes or transistors) cannot be used for frequencies greater than 100 MHz because of the following effects : i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) Klystrons : A klystron is a vacuum tube that can be used either as a generator or as an amplifier of power at microwave frequencies. a) Two cavity Klystron Amplifier : A two cavity klystron amplifier is basically a velocity modulated tube. Here a high velocity electron beam is formed, focussed and sent down along a glass tube through an input cavity (buncher) a field free drift space and an output cavity (catcher) to a collector electrode/anode. The anode is kept at a positive potential with respect to cathode. The input and output are taken from the tube via resonant cavities with the aid of coupling loops. Performance Characteristics : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Frequency : 250 MHz to 100 GHz Power : 10kW 500 kW (CW), 30 MW (Pulsed) Power gain : 15 dB 70 dB (60 dB nominal) Bandwidth: 10 60 MHz generally used in fixed frequency applications. Noise figure : 15 -20 dB Theoretical efficiency: 58% (30 40%) Inter electrode capacitance effect Lead inductance effect Transit time effect Gain bandwidth limitation Effect due to RF losses Effect due to radiation losses.

Applications :

1. As power output tubes : a) b) c) d) In UHF TV transmitters. In troposphere scatter transmitters. Satellite communication ground stations. Radars transmitters

2. As power oscillators ( 5 50 GHz) if used as a klystron oscillator. b) Multicavity Klystron : Gains of about 10 to 20 dB are typical with two cavity tubes. A higher overall gain can be achieved by connecting several two cavity tubes in cascade, feeding the output of each of the tubes to the input of the succeeding one. With four cavities, power gains of around 50 dB can be easily achieved. The cavities are tuned to the same frequency. c) Two cavity Klystron Oscillator : A klystron amplifier can be converted into an oscillator by feeding back a part of the catcher output into the buncher in proper phase so as to satisfy Barkhausen criterion. Oscillations can be obtained over a somewhat wide range if the resonators are over coupled. A critically coupled klystron oscillator has almost a linear variation in frequency with accelerating voltage making frequency modulation possible. High frequency stability of oscillator is obtained by controlling the temperature of the resonators and also by use of regulated power supplies. d) Reflex klystron : The Reflex Klystron is a single cavity variable frequency microwave generator of low power and low efficiency. This is widely used in applications where variable frequency is desired as : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. In radar receivers. Local oscillator in microwave receivers. Signal source in microwave generator of variable frequency. Portable microwave links and Pump oscillator in parametric amplifier.

It consists of an electron gun, a filament surrounded by cathode and a focussing electrode cathode potential. The electron beam is accelerated towards the anode cavity. After passing the gap in the cavity, electrons travel towards a repeller electrode which is at a high negative potential. The electrons never reach a repeller because of the negative field and returned back towards the gap. Under suitable condition, the electrons give more energy to the gap than they took from the gap on their forward journey and oscillations are sustained. For oscillations to be sustained, the time taken by the electrons to travel into the repeller space and back to the gap called transit time must have an optimum value and is given by : T=n+ Where n is any integer. This depends on repeller and anode voltages. Performance characteristic of Reflex klystron : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Frequency range : 4 to 200 GHz Output power : 1.0 mW to 2.5 W Theoretical h : 22.78% Practical h : 10% to 20% Tuning range : 5 GHz at 2 watts to 30 GHz at 10mW

Travelling Wave Tube (TWT) : Klystrons are essentially narrow band devices as they utilize cavity resonators to velocity modulate the electron beam over a narrow gap whereas TWTs are broadband devices in which there are no cavity resonators. The interaction space in a TWT is extended and the electron beam exchanges energy with the RF wave over the full length of the tube. TWT consist of an electron gun which is used to produce a narrow constant velocity elector beam. This electron beam is turn passed through the center of a long axial helix. A magnetic focussing field is provided to prevent the beam from spreading and to guide it through the center of the helix. Helix is a loosely wound thin conducting helical wire, which acts as a slow wave structure. The signal to be amplified is applied to the end of the helix adjacent to the electron gun. The amplified signal appears at the output or other end of the helix under appropriate conditions. The axial phase velocity VP is given by : VP = Vc ( )

where r is the radius of the helix and is essentially constant over a range of frequencies.

Performance characteristics of TWT : 1. Frequency of operation 2. Power outputs (Low power TWT) 250 kW (CW) at 3 GHz (High power TWT) 10MW (pulsed) at 3 GHz 1. Efficiency depressed collector). 1. Noise Figure (Low power TWT 0.5 to 16GHz) 25 dB (High power TWT at 40 GHz) Applications of TWT : 1. Low noise RF amplifier in broadband microwave receivers. 2. Repearer amplifier in wide band communication links and coaxial cables. 3. Due to long tube life TWT is used as power output tube in communication satellites. 4. Continuous wave high power TWTs are used in troposcatter links. 5. Airborne and shipborne pulsed high power radars ECM ground based radars uses a TWT. Backward Wave Oscillator : Backward wave oscillator (BWO) is a microwave continous wave oscillator with excellent tuning capability and frequency coverage range. It can be thought of as a short, thick TWT and works on the principle of TWT. The electron beam from the electron gun cathode is focussed by an axial magnetic field. These travel through the helix. Since BWO does not have an attenuator, there will be : 4 6 dB : 5 to 20% (30% with : : 0.5 Ghz to 95 GHz 5mW (10 40 GHz)

oscillations due to reflections from as imperfectly terminated collector end of helix. The reflected wave results in a backward wave. Performance characteristics of BWO : 1. Frequency range : 1 GHz to 1000 GHz 2. Power output : 10mW to 150mW (CW) 20 W (at high frequencies) 250 kW (pulsed) with duty cycle < 1 sec. 1. Tuning range Application of BWO : 1. Signal sources in instruments and transmitters. 2. Broadband noise source (for enemy radar confusion) 3. A noiseless oscillator with good bandwidth in the frequency range 3 9 GHz. Magnetrons : Magnetron is a type of cross field tube, in which the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular each other. Magnetrons provide microwave oscillations of very high peak power. Cavity Magnetrons depend upon the interaction of electrons with a rotating electro magnetic field constant angular velocity. These provide oscillations of very high peak power and hence are very useful in radar applications. Cavity magnetron in a diode usually of cylindrical configuration with a thick cylindrical cathode at the center and a co-axial cylindrical block of copper as anode. In the anode block are cut a number of holes and slots which act as resonant anode cavities. It is a cross field device as the electric field between anode and cathode is radial whereas the magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet is axial. The permanent magnet is placed such that the magnetic lines are parallel to the vertical cathode and perpendicular to the electric field between cathode and anode. Mode jumping in Magnetrons : The resonant mode of magnetron are very close to each other, and there is always a possibility of mode jumping. The weaker modes have frequencies differing very little from the dominant mode and the purity of vibrations may be lost. Hence, mode jumping must be avoided. : upto about 40 GHz.

A magnetron in which no effort is made to separate the dominant mode (mostly the p mode) from other mode is said to be unstrapped. Frequency pushing and pulling : It is possible to change the resonant frequency of magnetron by changing the anode voltage. This process is known as frequency pushing is due to the fact that the change in anode voltage results in a change orbital velocity of electrons. Magnetrons is also susceptible to frequency variation due to changes in load impedance. Magnetron frequency variations are more severe for reactive variations. These frequency variations are known as frequency pulling caused by load impedance variations reflected into cavity resonators. Frequency pushing is prevented by using a circulator which does not allow backward flow of electro magnetic energy. Performance characteristics : 1. Power output : In excess of 250 kW (Pulsed mode)

10 mW (UHF band) 2mW (X band) 8 kW (at 95 GHz) 1. Frequency 2. Duty cycle 3. Efficiency : : : 500 MHz to 12 GHz 0.1 % 40% to 70%

Applications of Magnetron : 1. Pulsed radar is the single most important application with large pulse powers. 2. Voltage tunable magnetrons (VTMs) are used in sweep oscillators in telemetry and in missile applications. (200 MHz to X band with CW, powers upto 500W, Efficiency of 70%) 3. Fixed frequency CW magnetrons are used for industrial heating and microwave ovens. (500 MHz 2.5 GHz frequency range, 300 W to 10kW power outputs, Efficiency of 50%). 1. Varactor Diodes : Varactor diode is a semiconductor device in which the junction capacitance can be varied as a function of reverse voltage of the diode. Losses in this non linear element will be almost negligible.

It is a semiconductor diode which is reversed biased. The capacitance of the depletion layer varies according to the applied reverse bias. Varacter diodes are made of Gallium Arsenide as GaAs has benefits of higher maximum operating frequency (upto 1000 GHz) and capable of operating at the lowest temperature. The VI characteristics of a typical varactor diode is shown below : We know that, Cj a V -hr where, Cj = Junction capacitance, Vr = Reverse bias voltage h = a parameter that decides the type of junction. In general, For, m = 0; abrupt junction.

m = 1; linear graded junction. m = 3/2; hyper abrupt junction. Therefore, Cj a V-2 r (for hyper abrupt junction). Applications of Varacter diode : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Harmonic generation. Microwave frequency multiplication (up conversion) Low noise amplification (Parametric amplifier) Pulse generation and pulse shaping Tuning stage of a radio receiver Active filters Switching circuits and modulation of a microwave signal.

2. Step Recovery Diode : Step recovery diode is represented by the symbol : Following points about step recovery diode should be taken into account : i) ii) It is a special form of Varactor diode. Diode works in Forward biased.

iii) When it is forward biased snap off energy is stored by this and their capacitors. And in reverse biase it releases this energy. iv) v) vi) Diode uses diffusion constant. Used to generate harmonics. Used as a frequency modulator.

3. Parametric Amplifiers : A parametric amplifier is one that uses a non linear rectance (capacitance or inductance) or a time vary8ng reactance for its amplification (rather than resistance as in normal amplifier). Parametric devices basically depend on the possibility of increasing the energy of the signal at one frequency by supplying energy at some other frequency. The voltage V and charge Q on the capacitor is given as : V = Q/C and C = eoerA / d Parametric amplifier is a low noise amplifier because no resistance is involved in the amplifying process. There will be no thermal noise as the active device involved is reactive (capacitive). Applications of Paramps : Due to the advantage of low noise amplification, parametric amplifiers are extensively used in systems such as long range radar, satellite ground stations, radio telescopes, artificial satellites, microwaves, ground wave communications, radio astronomy etc., Manley Rowe Relations : Manley and Rowe have derived a set of general equations relating to power flowing into and out of an ideal non linear reactance. These relations are powerful tool in predicting whether power gain is possible in a parametric amplifier. Signal generator and pump generator with fs and fp, series resistance and bandpass filters are applied to non linear capacitance C(t). The two frequencies fs and fp generate an infinite number of resonant frequencies given by mfp = nfs. The Manley Rowe relations for any single valued, non linear lossless reactance are given by, where, m and n are integers varying from 0 to . Pmn = Average power flowing into the non linear reactance at frequencies (mfp + nfs).

Manley Rowe can be rewritten as : The power gain is defined as the ratio of the power delivered by the capacitor at a frequency of fp = fs to that absorbed by the capacitor at a frequency of fs. It is given by : f p + fs f o Power gain = fs fs where, fp + fs = fo and fp + fs > fp > fs The maximum power gain is the ratio of the output frequency to the input frequency and such a parametric device is called the sum frequency par amp or up convertor. If the sum frequency is the sum of the pump frequency and the output frequency, fs = fp + fo. fs Power gain = f p + fs where, fs = fp and fo = fs fp This type of parametric device is called the parametric down converter and its power gain is actually a loss. 4. Pin Diode : PIN diode consists of heavily doped p and n regions separated by an intrinsic (i.e. undoped) region. Intrinsic region offers high resistance to the current through it. Some important characteristics of a PN diode are : i) ii) It works as an ordinary diode at frequencies upto 100 MHz Used in switching of microwaves. (for demodulator) = (for modulator)

iii) Above 100 MHz it seizes the operation of rectifier and behaves as a switch or resistance. iv) In reverse bias it acts as a capacitor.

There might be three conditions in PIN diode. 1. Unbiased : When the PIN diode is unbiased there is a diffusion of electron across the junction. Due to different concentration of atoms in the PI and N regions. Depletion layer is produced across PI and IN junctions, with less penetration in the intrinsic region. 2. Forward Bias : With forward bias PIN diode works as a variable resistance and resistance decreases with increase in ward bias. 3. Reverse Bias : In Reverse bias PIN diode works as a fixed capacitor because depletion width becomes constant after some voltage, equivalent circuit in reverse bias is shown below : Advantage over normal PN junction diode : i) The capacitance between P and N regions decreases because of increased separation between them therefore it can be used of very high frequencies. ii) Application : i) ii) current. As a.d.c. controlled microwave switch. In attenuator application because its resistance can be controlled by the Even the weak signal can also be process.

1. 4. Point Contact Diode : Important points are : It is a metal semiconductor diode. Figure below shows the construction of a Point contact diode. i) It is called as point contact diode because gold wire is connected only with a point to Silicon. ii) iii) It can have both P and N type material. Material used is Gallium Arsenide (GaAs).

iv) v)

It speed is very high. So, it is used at microwave frequencies. Used as a microwave mixer and detector.

6. SHOTTKY BARRIER DIODE: Important points are: (i) Also known as Hot electron diode because electrons flowing from semiconductor to metal have (ii) (iii) high energy level than the electron and the metal itself. It operates in both forward and reverse bias.

(iv) It has contact in a plane and not at a point as in point contact diode. This is shown below: (v) (vi) It has small resistance. so noise occurs is very less. In it, reverse bias current is equal to zero.

Applications:1. Due their low cast, simplicity and reliability used as load noise mixers. 2. Balanced mixer in a CW radar. 3. Microwave detectors. 7. TUNNEL DIODE: Greater increase in concentration of impurity will change the complete characteristic of PN junction and give rise to tunnel diode. Some important characteristics of a tunnel diode (i) ii are:diodes.

Doping is very high normally 1000 times of normal It has Zero breakdown voltage.

iii It has Dynamic negative resistance region. Because increase its voltage decreases. iv v For ideal tunnel diode vb or Ip should be very Behaves as an amplifier and as an oscillator.

when we large.

vi

In reverse bias. it behaves as a good conductor.

v-l characteristic of tunnel diode is shown below; Important points of characteristic: I Between point A and B diode offers negative resistance.

ii For current whose values are between Iv and Ip the curve is triple valued. It means that each current can be obtained at there different points. Therefore it is very useful in pulse and digital circuits. iii iv Shaded region indicate the tunneling currents region. In reverse bias diode acts as an excellent conductor.

Applications: i ii iii iv As ultra high speed switching device. Logic memory storage device. As a microwave oscillator. In relaxation oscillator.

TUNNEL PECTIFIER: This is just like a zener diode in which doping level is increased to such an extent that its zener effect reverse breakdown occurs near to o V.Some importants points are: 1. It conducts better in reverse direction than in forward direction. 2. It is generally used to rectify weak signals whose peak amplitude are between 0.1V to 0.7V. 3. Tunnel rectifier is a special type of tunnel diode in which negative resistance region is removed. 4. In Tunnel rectifier, forward current is smaller than reverse current, so it is known as backward diode. Applications: 1. As a ultra high speed switching device. 2. Logic memory storage device. 3. As a microwave oscillator.

4. In relaxation oscillator. Performance Characteristics:1. 2. 3. 4. Power: 750 watts Frequency range: upto 100 GHz Tuning range: 1to 4.3 GHz Stability: 1 in 10 (with x band tunnel diode oscillator).

9. GUNN DIODE :-M Following points about Gunn Diode are considered: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. It is a wide band amplifier. Properties of diode not depend upon junction. properties of this diode depends upon the Bulk of Materials Gunn Diode cannot be used as a diode. Materials used for construction of Gunn Diode is GaAs. Gap Inp, CdTe etc. The v1 characteristics of Gunn diode is shown below :

1. Due to negative resistance region in Gunn diode. Population inversion occurs. 2. In population inversion electron jumps from completely filled band to the partially filled band. 3. Population inversion starts 2.3kv/m. 4. Population inversion depends upon the length of the crystal. 5. Population inversion also depends upon the gradient of the electric field intensity. 6. Population inversion is observed only in n-type materials. 7. Gunn diode is used as an amplifier and oscillator. AVALANCHE TRANAIT TIME DEVICES:It is possible to make a microwave diode exhibit negative by having a delay between voltage and current in an avalanche together with transit time though the material, Such devices are calkd Avalanche transit time devices. There are there distinct modes of Avalanche oscillators. 10. IMPATTDIODE: Impattdiode points are : 1. 2. 3. 4. It is abbreviated as Impact Avalanche Transit Time diode. It operates in reverse bias. Impact avalanche and transit time results in negative resistance region. Voltage and current have 180 phase difference in which 90 is contributed by avalanche and 90 by transit time.

5. 6. 7. 8.

Avalanche is possible at 400.kV/cm. IMPATT diode is a (p-n-n) junction as shown below : Maximum difference between maximum current and maximum voltage is 180 It is a narrow band amplifier.

Applications: 1. 2. 3. 4. In Microwave generators. In modulated output oscillators. In receiver local oscillators. In par amp pumps.

11. TRAPATT Diode :It is abbreviated as Trapped Plasma Avalanche Triggered Transit Device. It is derived from the IMPATT diode and is closely related to it. It is a high efficiency microwave generator capable of operating from several MH2 The basic operation of the oscillator is a semiconductor pn junction diode averse biased to current densities well in excess of those encountered in normal avalanche operation. It is typically p+ -n n + Si or GaAs structure shown below: The avalanche zone velocity V2 is given by: V = j qN whee j = Current density q = electron charge 1.610/19 Na = doping concentration. And the transit time of the carriers is: L/Vs where, Vs = saturated carrier drift velocity. L = length of the specimen. Since noise figure is greater than 30 dB TRAPATT is also very noisy. TRAPATT pulse is also rich in harmonics. Applications:

TRAPATT devices find applications in low power doppler radars or as local oscillators for those of IMPATT diodes. The carrier traversing the drift region of BARITT diodes however are generated by minority carrier injection from forward biased junctions instead to being extracted from the plasma of as avalanche region. Such diode are much less noisy than IMPATTs with noise figures as low as 15 dB. The major disadvantage of BARITT being narrow band width and power output limitations (a few milliwatts). As essential requirement for the BARITT device is there fore that the intermediate drift region is entirely depleted to cause punch through to the emitter base junction without causing available breakdown of the base collector junction. The critical voltage V/c depends on the doping constant N. length of the semiconductor L and the semiconductor dielectric permittivity given by: Vc = qNL2/2es The breakdown voltage V is given by: V = 2Vc = qNL2/es The breakdown electric E is given by: E = V/L = qNL/es Applications: BARITTs are primarily used for amplifiers rather efficiencies. 1. 13. PLANER TRANSMISSION LINES: Planer transmission lines are those in which the entire transmission lines components can be fabricated some step by thin film or photolithographic techniques similar to a printed circuit board. Plane transmissions are available in various configurations such as strip lines, micro strip liness, slot lines, coplaner lines etc. Strip Lines :Strip lines are essentially modifications of the two wire lines and co-axial lines. It is basically a three conductor TEM mode transmission line consisting of a thin conductor supported on a dielectric sheet with an metallic backing. than oscillators because of lower

The width (w) of the strip is normally greater than its thickness (t) as shown n figure below. with two ground planes and the space between ground planes is the dielectric medium. The thickness is normally 1.4 2.8 mils. The phase velocity and characteristic impedance are given by the following relations. Vp = and Zo = I/VpC

where. Vp = phase velocity of the wave along the stripline. Vc = velocity of electromagnetic waves in free space. e1 = relative permittivity of the dielectric medium. Z = characteristic impedance. C = shunt capacitance of a unit length of the line. Micro strip line:Micro strip line is an unsymmetrical stripline that is nothing but a parallel plate transmission line having dielectric substrate. The one face of which of metallized ground and the other (top) face has a thin conducting strip of certain width w and thickness this is shown in figure below: The top ground plane is not present in a microstrip as compared to a strip line. Sometimes a is used for shielding purposes but it is kept much farther away to the ground plane so as not to effect microstrip field lines. There are certain advantages of microstrip lines over stiriplines, coaxial lines and waveguides. 1. Fabrication cost is substantially lower than stripline coaxial or waveguide circuits. 2. Due to planer nature of microstrip structure, both packaged and unpackaged semiconductor chips be conveniently attached to the microstrip element. 3. Open top surface makes it easy to mount passive and active discrete devices and also for making minor adjustments after the circuit has been fabricated. Disadvantages of microstrip lines :1. Due to openness of the microstrip structure they have higher radiation losses or interference due nearby conductors. 2. At the interface the air dielectric interface creates discontinuities in the electric and magnetic fiekk 3. Higher attenuation compared to waveguides.

4. Low resonant impedance is inherent in microstrip structures which limit the magnitude of the obtain able Q. Antennas Definition:An antenna is a system of elevated conductors which couples or matches the transmitter or receiver to free space. A transmitting antenna connected to a transmitter by a transmission line which forces electromagnetic waves into free space which travels in space with the velocity of light. Similarly, a receiving antenna connected to a radio receiver. receives or intercepts a portion of electromagnetic waves travelling through space. Isotropic Radiators:An isotropic radiator is a fictitious radiator and is defined as a radiator which radiator uniformly in all directions. It is also called as isotropic source or Omnidirectional radiator or simply Unipole. An isotropic radiator is a hypothetical lossless radiator or antenna. with which the practical antennas are compared. The power radiated by an isotropic radiator is given by: w1 = p where. w = Total power radiated in watts. p = Radial component of average power density pointing vector inw/m r = radius of sphere i meters. Radiation Pattern Lobes:Different parts of radiation pattern are referred to as Lobes. The radiation pattern in shown in figure Major Lobe: It is also called as main beam and is defined as the radiation lobe containing the direction of maximum radiation In some antenna, the number of major lobes will k be more than one. Minor Lobe: It is any lobe except major i.e. all the lobes except the major lobes are called minor lobes. Side Lobes: It is a radiation lobe on any direction other than the intended lobe. Normally a side lobe is adjacent to the main lobe and occupies the hemisphere in direction of the main lobe.

Back lobe: Normally refers to a minor lobe that occupies the hemisphere in a direction opposite to that of the major lobe. Gain is defined as the ratio of maximum radiation intensity in a given direction to the maximum radiation intensity from a reference antenna produced in the same direction with same power input. Gain (G) = Maximum radiation intensity from test antenna /Radiation intensity from isotropic with same power input where = maximum radiation from test antenna, and = radiation intensity from a lossless isotropic antenna. Directive Gain:Directive gain (G) is defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity in that direction in that direction to the average radiated power. The directive gain is a function of angles. Directive Gain (G) = Radiation Intensity /Average Radiated power where = radiation intensity in a particular direction. fav = average radiation intensity in that direction, i.e. fav = Wr/ 4p. Power gain : Power gain is defined as the ratio of two powers and the total power input is taken instead of simply radiated power, where, WT = Wr + WP Total power = Radiated power + Power loss in ohmic resistance. Directivity (D) : The maximum directive gain is called as directivity of an antenna and is denoted by D. In a particular direction the directivity D is a constant. Directivity is defined by different definitions which are as follows : Directivity of an antenna is defined as the ratio of Maximum radiation intensity to its average radiation intensity i.e. Maximum radiation intensity of test antenna

Directivity, D = Average radiation intensity of test antenna or, Key points : For a lossless istropic antenna, directive gain and directivity is same. The numerical value of directive gain may lie between 0 and whereas that of directivity between 1 and and in case of directivity it cannot be less than 1. Both directive gain and directivity are independent of power input to the antenna and antenna losses. The numerical value of directivity of current element and half wave dipole is respectively 1.5 (or 1.76 dB) and 1.64 (or 2.15 dB). Directive gain of half wave dipole over current element = dB. Antenna Efficiency : The efficiency of an antenna is defined as the ratio of power radiated to the total input power supplied antenna and is denoted by h. Thus, Power radiated Antenna Efficiency, h = Total input power where, Wt = power radiated, Wt = Ohmic losses If current flowing in the antenna is I, then, where, Rr = radiation resistance, RI = Ohmic loss resistance of antenna conductor and Rr = Total effective resistance. It is desirable to have a better radiation characteristics from the antenna and for this loss resistances should be as small as possible. The loss resistances may consist of the following in general. Ohmic loss in the antenna conductor (2.15 1.76) dB = 0.39

Dielectric loss I2R loss in antenna and ground system. Loss in earth connections Leakage loss in insulation Thus antenna efficiency represents the fraction of total energy supplied to the antenna which is converted into electromagnetic waves. Front to Back ratio : It is defined as the ratio of the power radiated in desired direction to the power radiated in the opposite direction. i.e. Power radiated in desired direction FBR = Power radiated in opposite direction Obviously higher the front to back ratio better it is. Antenna Beamwidth : Antenna beamwidth is an angular width in degrees, measured on the radiation pattern between points where the radiated power has fallen to half its maximum value. This is called Half Power Beamwidth (HPBW) because the power at half power point is just half. It is also known as 3-dB beamwidth because at half power point, the power is 3 dB down of the maximum power value of major lobe. Sometimes, radiation pattern is also described in terms of angular width between first nulls or first side lobes, known as beamwidth between first nulls and is abbreviated as BWFN or beamwidth 10dB down from the pattern maximum. The directivity D is related as : where, B = (HPBW) in horizontal plane x (HPBW) in vertical plane (radian)2 or, B = qE x qH (radian)2

The factors affecting the beamwidth of an antenna are :

The shape of radiation pattern. The wave length. Dimensions (eg. radius of aperture etc., specially in case of horn antenna) etc., Antenna Arrays : An antenna array is a system, of similar antennas oriented similarly to get greater directivity in a desired direction. It may also be defined as, A radiating system consisting of several equally spaced and properly phased radiators. Following are the various types of antenna arrays used in practice : 1. Broadside Array : Broadside array is one in which a number of identical parallel antennas are set up along a line drawn perpendicular to their respective axes shown in figure. In broadside array, individual antenna are equally spaced along a line and each element is fed with current of equal magnitude, all in the same phase. This arrangement fires in broadside direction (i.e. perpendicular to the line of array axis) where there are maximum radiations and relatively a little radiations in other directions and hence the radiation pattern is bidirectional. Broadside array may be defined as, An arrangement in which the principal direction radiation is perpendicular to the array axis and also to the plane containing the array element. 2. End Fire Arrays : The end fire array is nothing but a broadside array except that individual elements are fed with a current of equal magnitude and out of phase usually 180. In end fire array, a number of identical antennas are spaced equally along a line and individual elements are fed with currents of equal magnitude but their phases varies progressively along the line in order to make the arrangement substantially unidirectional. It is also defined as. The arrangement in which the principle direction of radiation coincides with the direction of the array axis. 3. Collinear Arrays : The individual elements are fed with equal in phase currents as is the case in the broadside arrays. A collinear array is a broadside radiators, in which the direction of maximum radiation is perpendicular to the line of antenna. It is also sometimes called as broadcast or omnidirectional arrays. Arrays of point source :

The two point sources are separated by a distance d and have the same polarisation. The following cases will be dealt with arrays of two isotropic point sources : a) b) Equal amplitude and phase Equal amplitude and opposite phase.

a) Arrays of two point sources with equal amplitude and phase : Two isotropic point sources symmetrically situated w.r.t. the origin in the cartesian coordinate system shown in figure. The equation of normalized field pattern of two isotropic point sources of same amplitude and phase is given as : In order to draw the field pattern, the direction of maxima, minima and half power points must be known. Maxima direction : qmax = 90 and 270 Minima direction : qmin = 90 and 180 Half Power point : At half power point power is or voltage current is 1 / 2 times the maximum value of voltage or current. qHPPD = 60 and 120. c) Arrays of two point sources with equal amplitude and opposite

phase : It is similar to above, except that point source I is opposite phase (180) to source 2. i.e. if there is maximum at point 2 then there is minimum at point I and vice versa. The equation of normalized field pattern of two isotropic point sources of same amplitude and opposite phase is given as : Maxima direction : qmax = 0 and 180

Minima direction : qmin = 90 and 90 Half Power point : At half power point power is 12 or voltage current is 1 / 2 times the maximum value of voltage or current. qHPPD = 60 120. Multiplication of pattern : It can be stated as, The total field pattern of an array of non-isotropic but similar sources is the multiplication of the individual source patterns and the pattern of an array of isotropic point sources each located at the phase center of individual source and having the relative amplitude and phase, whereas the total phase pattern, is the addition of the phase pattern of the individual sources and that of the array of isotropic point sources. Let, E = Total field

Et(q, f) = Field pattern of individual source. Ea(q, f) = Field pattern of array of isotropic point sources. Ept(q, f) = Phase pattern of individual source. Epa(q, f) = Phase pattern of array of isotropic point sources. Then total field pattern of an array of non-isotropic but similar sources is given by : E = [Et(q, f) x Ea(q, f)] x [Ept(q, f) + Epa(q, f)] Linear Array with n Isotropic point sources of equal amplitude and spacing : An array is said to be linear, if the individual elements of the array are spaced equally along a line and uniform, if the same are fed with currents of equal amplitude and having an uniform progressive phase along the line. Now, calculate the pattern of a linear array of h isotropic point sources in which point sources are spaced equally by d and are fed with phase current of equal amplitude shown in figure above.

The total far field pattern at a distant point P is obtained by adding vectorially the fields of individual sources, i.e. Resolving above equation, the total far field pattern is obtained as : And normalized field is : Case I : Broadside array : An array is said to be broadside, if phase angle is such that it makes maximum radiation perpendicular to the line of array i.e. 90 and 270. Now, Y = bd cosq + a or a = -bd = -2pd /l

0 = bdcosq + a

Direction of pattern maxima : Directions of pattern minima : Beamwidth of Major lobes : Tapering of Arrays : The technique used in reduction of side lobes are called as Tapering. Two types of tapering techniques are used. These are : a) b) Binomial arrays Tchebycheff polynomial

a) Binomial arrays : In this the amplitudes of the radiating sources are arranged according to the co efficients of successive terms of the following binomial series : where n = number of radiating source in the array. The secondary lobes can be eliminated entirely, if the following two conditions are satisfied. i) Spacing between the two consecutive radiating sources does not exceed l/2

ii) The current amplitudes in radiating sources (from outer, towards center source) are proportional to the coefficients of the successive terms of the binomial series. Emax = cos Disadvantages of Binomial array : i) ii) HPBW increases and hence the directivity decreased. For design of large array larger amplitude ratio of sources is required.

b) Tchebyshev Arrays : Antenna arrays of non-uniform amplitudes are designed using Tchebyshev array method. Dolph Chebyshev arrays produces narrowest beamwidth for given side lobe level and vice versa. Advantages : i) It provides minimum beamwidth for a specified degree side iobe reduction.

ii) Tapering if not extreme i.e. ratio of current between center element and end element is small which provides easy feeding design. iii) It results in side lobes that are all of the same amplitudes unlike uniform distribution, in which side lobes near adjacent to the main lobe is largest and other progressively decreases as angle decreases from main lobe. High Frequency Antennas : High frequency antennas are those antennas which are operating between frequency range of 3MHz to 30 MHz. Rhombic Antenna : The rhombic antenna is based on the travelling wave radiator. By application of return conductors two wires are pulled apart at one point so that diamond or rhombic shape is formed as shown if figure. Rhombic antenna is horizontally installed over the ground at a height h. In the design of rhombic antenna three independent parameters are considered : i) ii) The tilt angle (q) The leg length (L)

iii)

The height above the ground (h)

The relative field intensity E in the vertical plane is given by the formula : where, b = Angle and elevation w.r.t. ground. q = Half apex angle or tilt angle. h = height of rhombic above ground L = Length of each leg l = Wavelength. and, Advantages : i) The input impedance and radiation pattern do not change rapidly over a considerable frequency range. ii) It is a highly directional broadband antennas with greatest radiated power along the main axis or longer diagonal. iii) iv) v) It is very efficient and widely employed antenna for radio communication. Simple and cheap to erect. Short wave antennas of this kind require only a low height.

Disadvantages : i) It requires larger space of its installation.

ii) A single rhombic antenna produces fairly large number of minor lobes of radiation which reduces the transmission efficiency. Loop Antenna : To obtain a radiation pattern in the horizontal plane which is circular and horizontally polarized, we make use of the loop antenna. It is a coil carrying RF current, having several turns according to the frequency. The field distribution of the loop remote from ground is proportional to cosq where q is the angle made by the point with the plane of loop.

No energy is radiated in a direction perpendicular to the loop, because radiation in this direction from any action of the loop is always cancelled by radiation from corresponding section of the diametrically opposite side of the loop, carrying current in the opposite direction. To obtain good antenna efficiency, loop parameters should be of the order of a wavelength. Loop antennas operate best for short waves. Turnstile Antenna : Turnstile is actually a set of two half wave resonant antennas placed at right angles to each other in the same phase and fed with RF from source 90 degree out of phase with each other. Total radiation in any direction from the system is the square root of the sum of the squares of the radiations from the individual antenna in that direction. We obtain thereby an almost circular pattern in the plane of the turnstile. This is useful where we want uniform radiation in all directions as in TV broadcast in VHF UHF band. Folded Dipole Antenna : In this two half wave dipoles, one continous and the other split at the center have been folded and joined together in parallel at the ends. The split dipole is fed at the center by a balanced transmission line. The two dipoles, therefore have the same voltages at their ends. If the radii of two conditions are equal, then equal currents flow in both the conductors, in the same direction i.e. currents are equal in magnitude and phase in the two dipoles. Since the total power developed in folded dipole is equal to that developed in the conventional dipole, therefore, the input or terminal impedance of folded dipole is greater than that of the conventional dipole. It can be proved that the input impedance at the terminals of a folded dipole antenna is equal to the square of number of conductors comprising the antenna times the impedance at the terminals of a conventional dipole. Equation of Input impedance ; Input impedance when radii are equal Z = n2 x 73 where, n is the number of half wave dipoles.

Input impedance when radii are different, Z = 73 (r + r2 /r1)2 Applications ; i) Advantage : i) ii) iii) High input impedance Wide band in frequency Acts as built in reactance compensation network. In wide band operations such as Television.

Yagi Uda Antenna : Yagi uda antennas are the most high gain antennas. It consists of a driven element, a reflector and one or more directors i.e. Yagi uda antenna is an array of a driven element (or active element where the power from the transmitter is fed) and one or more parasitic elements (i.e. passive elements which are not connected directly to the transmission line but electrically coupled). The driven element is a resonant half wave usually of metallic rod at the frequency of operation. The parasitic elements of continous metallic rods are arranged parallel to the driven element and at the same line of sight level. General characteristics : 1. If three elements array (i.e. one reflector, one driven and one director) is used, then such type of Yagi uda antenna is generally referred to as beam antenna. 2. It has unidirectional beam of moderate directivity with light weight, low cost and simplicity in feed system design. 3. With spacing of 0.1l to 0.15l, a frequency bandwidth of the order of 2% is obtained. 4. It provides gain of the order of 8 dB or front to back ratio of about 20 dB. 5. It is also known as super directive or super gain antenna (as sometimes called) due to its high gain and beamwidth per unit area of the area. 6. If greater directivity is desired, further elements may be used. Normally 5 or six elements are used with ease. An array of upto 40 can be constructed. 7. It is essentially a fixed frequency device i.e. frequency sensitive and a bandwidth of about 3% is obtainable. This much bandwidth is sufficient for television reception. Helical Antenna : It is the simplest antenna to provide circularly polarized waves and used in extraterrestrial communication in which satellite relays etc are involved. It is a broadband VHF and UHF

antenna. It consist of a helix of thick copper wire or tubing wound in the shape of a screw thread. The parameters on which the mode of radiation depends are the diameter of helix D and turn spacing S (center to center). The dimensions of the helix are as : C = Circumference of helix (pD) a = Pitch angle = tan -1 (S/pD) d = Diameter of helix conductor A = Axial length = NS N = Number of turns L = Length of one turn I = Spacing of helix from ground plane. The spacing S, turn length L and pitch angle a are related as : L = S2 + (pD)2 a = tan-1 (S/pD) Uses : 1. Single or an array of helical antenna is used to transmit or receive the VHF signal through ionosphere. Its main applications are in space communication, telemetry link with ballistic missiles, satellites etc., 2. The wide bandwidth, simplicity, highest directivity and circular polarisation of the helical beam an tenna have made it indispensible for space communication applications. 3. Because of circular polarisation, helical antenna is capable of receiving signals of arbitrary polarisation. Horn Antenna : This is an open ended waveguide in which the open end is flared so that it looks like a horn as shown in figure below : Horn being an open ended waveguide system under no load condition, there will be maximum reflection and hence high VSWR. Thus it is not an efficient radiation device.

If the flare angle q is small, the horn becomes shallow and radiates spherical waves rather than plane waves. Directivity is reduced. Due to diffraction around the edges, directivity and hence the gain of the antenna is reduced. It may be noted that flaring has the effect of increased directivity, improved efficiency and reduced VSWR. Sectorial horn can be produced if flaring is done in one direction. If flaring is done in the direction of electric field vector then it is termed as sectoral E plane antenna. If the flaring is in the direction of magnetic and vector then a sectoral H plane horn is produced. where, d = permissible phase angle variation A = Aperture L = Axial length q = Half flare angle and, L = h2 / 8d The formula for approximate beamwidth of horn antenna are given by : qE and qH are half power beamwidths in E and H directions. where, A = h, w = area of horn mouth (aperture) Directivity of horn antenna is given by : Power gain of horn antenna is given by : The horn antennas are extensively used at microwave frequencies where moderate power gains are efficient. For large power gains the horn dimensions becomes large so that lens or parabolic reflectors would be preferred. Babinets principle : Babinets principle states that, When the field behind a screen with an opening is added to the field of a complementary structure, the sum is equal to the field when there is no screen. Let us consider an example to understand the Babinets principle :

Case 1 : Let a perfectly absorbing screen be placed in plane S1, then in plane S2, there is a region of shadow. Let the field behind this screen be a function of f1(x y z) i.e. F1 = f1(xyz) Case II : Let the first screen SI be replaced by its complementary screen and the field behind it be given by : F2 = fx (xyz) Case III : Let there is no screen present, then the field is given by : F3 = f3 (xyz) Babinets principle states that at the same point (xyz) F3(xyz) = F1(xyz) + F2(xyz) F3 = F1 + F2 If the field in the above three cases are E1, E2 and E3 respectively, Then according to Babintes principle, E1 + E2 = E3 or E1 / E3 + E2 / E3 = 1

Using Bookers extension, if a screen and its complement are immersed in a medium with an intrinsic impedance h and have a terminal impedances of Zs (screen) and Zc (complementary) respectively, then impedances are related as : ZsZc = h2 / 4 Slot Antenna : Slot antenna makes use of the fact that energy is radiated when a high frequency field exist across a narrow slot in a conduction plane. According to Bookers theory, ZsZc = h2 / 4 The only differences in the slot antenna and its complementary antenna are : 1. Polarisation are different i.e. electric fields associated with the slot antenna are identical with the magnetic field of the complementary wire antenna.

2. Radiation from the back side of the conducting plane has the opposite polarity from that of the complementary antenna, because of the way in which the fields are directed. Log periodic Antennas : The antenna for which the impedance and pattern (and hence the directivity) remains constant as function of the frequency. General Characteristics : 1. Log periodic antenna or array is excited from the shorter lenth side or high frequency side for one active region log periodic antenna and the center for two active region log periodic antenna. They are fed by balanced two wire transmission line. 2. For unidirectional log periodic antenna the structure fires in backward direction (towards shorter element) and forward radiation is very small or zero (towards right) 3. For bidirectional LP antenna the maximum radiation is in broadside direction i.e. normal to the surface of antenna. Parabolic reflector : A parabolic reflector produces a parallel beam of circular cross section, because the mouth of the parabolid is circular. The radiation pattern of parabolic reflector has a very sharp major lobe accompanied by a number of minor lobes which are of smaller in size. A parabolic reflector is shown below : Assuming the circular aperture is large, the beamwidth between first null is given by : where l = free space wavelength, D = diameter of aperture in m. The beamwidth between first nulls for a large uniformly illuminated rectangular aperture is given by : where L = length of aperture. Also width between half power points for a large circular aperture is given by : Further the directivity of a large uniformly illuminated aperture is : And for a circular aperture, D = diameter of the aperture. The power gain of circular aperture paraboloid w.r.t. half wave dipole is given by :

Key points :

The gain of antenna is independent of its wavelength. Front to back ratio is desired to be as high as possible, for better performance of an antenna. The range of directivity is 1 D Field pattern of broadside array is bi-directional. In broadside array, the direction of maximum radiation is parallel to the array axis. Field pattern of endfire array is uni-directional. In endfire array, the direction of maximum radiation is perpendicular to the array axis. In collinear array, the direction of maximum radiation is perpendicular to the array axis. When we use binomial array HPBW increases and hence directivity decreases. A parabolic reflector produces a parallel beam of circular cross section. Helical antenna provides circularly polarised waves. Yagi Uda antennas are the most high gain antennas. Parabolic antennas are highly directional. A loop antenna is commonly used for direction finding. The polarisation of electromagnetic wave is in the direction of electric field. The gain of parabolic antenna increases with increase in antenna diameter. The frequency range for satellite communication is 3GHz to 30GHz. For low frequencies (below 500kHz), the transmission antenna is vertical grounded type. A vertical earthed antenna is resonant when its physical height is equal to l/4. In log periodic antennas, input impedance varies periodically with the logarithm of frequency. Side lobes of an antenna causes reduction in gain of an antenna. Cassegrain feed is used with a parabolic reflector in order to allow the feed to be placed at convenient point. Antenna arrays are used to obtain the desired radiation pattern. The current distribution of half wave dipole is sinusoidal. At very high frequencies earth acts as a dielectric. Antenna is synonymous to a transformer. Yagi antenna is used mainly for Television reception. Top loading in an antenna will increase the antenna radiation efficiency. Wave velocity in antenna is less than that of free space. Therefore the effective height of antenna is greater that that of physical height. Antenna used in RADAR is parabolic dishes. Helical antenna gives circular polarisation. A unipole is also known as unidirectional radiator. In case of grounded antenna the effective size of the actual antenna is just double. Resonant antennas are bidirectional due to incident and reflected waves. Non resonant antennas are unidirectional and are called as travelling wave antennas.

Rhombic antenna is based on travelling wave radiator. Rhombic antenna is non-resonant antenna. The electron density N increases as we move up in the atmosphere. The temperature decreases as we move up in the atmosphere at the rate of 6.5 C per km. Refractive index decreases as we move up in the atmosphere. Maximum usable frequency is dependent on the electron density of ionospheric layer. The polarisation for ground wave propagation is always vertical because horizontal component of electric field is absorbed or short circuited by he earths surface. Ground waves are used for medium wave broadcasting. Virtual height is always greater than actual height. MUF of a layer is greater than critical frequency by a factor of sec i. Optimum working frequency (OWF) is always 85% of the Maximum Usable frequency (MUF). Diplexer : It is a two way microwave gate that permits received carrier signals from the antenna and transmitted carrier signals of the antenna to be independently coupled into and out of the antenna cabling. Apogee : Highest point attained by the satellite while moving round the earth in elliptical orbit. Perigee : It is the lowest point of the satellite on its path round the earth. Magneto ionic splitting : The phenomena of splitting of wave into two components : i.e. ordinary waves and extraordinary waves by the earths magnetic field. The two waves have elliptical polarisation and rotates in opposite direction.