14/F Lok's Industrial Building, 204 Tsat Tsz Mui Road, North Point, Hong Kong. Tel.: 2811 2908 Fax: 2565 6626 Website: http://www.aristo.com.hk
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photo-copying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of Aristo Educational Press Ltd.
Part II
Microscopic World I
Chapter 5
Atomic structure
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11
What is an element? Classification of elements based on physical states Classification of elements into metals and non-metals Chemical symbols for elements Atoms Structure of atoms Atomic number and mass number Isotopes Relative masses of atoms Arrangement of electrons Stability of noble gases related to their electronic arrangements
1 1 1 5 7 8 10 13 15 18 21 23 24
Chapter 6
26
Elements with similar chemical properties The Periodic Table Patterns in the Periodic Table Groups similarities and trends Predicting chemical properties of an unfamiliar element
26 27 30 32 35 35 36
Chapter 7
37
Formation of ions from atoms Colours and migration of ions Formulae of ions Elements and ions Chemical bonds Ionic bond and ionic substances Structures of solid ionic compounds Formulae and names of ionic compounds
37 38 41 45 47 47 49 50 55 56
Chapter 8
58
Covalent bonding and covalent substances Prediction of formulae for covalent compounds Particles that make up matter a summary Relative molecular mass and formula mass
58 67 67 69 72 73
Chapter 9
75
9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10
Structure of substances Simple molecular structures Macromolecules Giant ionic structures Giant covalent structures Giant metallic structures Comparison of structures and properties of substances Predicting structure from physical properties Predicting physical properties from bonding and structure Applications of substances according to their structures
75 77 79 80 82 86 88 90 91 93 94 94
5.1
What is an element?
5.1
In Chapter 1, we have defined that an element is a pure substance which cannot be broken down into anything simpler by chemical methods.
5.2
5.2
The simplest way of classifying elements is based on physical states. At room temperature and pressure, 11 elements are gases, 2 are liquids and the rest are solids. 11 2
5.3
5.3
If the element is a gas, it must be a non-metal. If the element is a liquid, we have to look at its colour:
Silvery colour indicates the metal mercury (mercury is the only liquid metal). Dark red colour indicates the non-metal bromine (bromine is the only liquid non-metal).
( ) ( ) ( ( ( ) )
1
) (
) (
Metals are usually shiny when freshly cut. They are silvery white in colour, with only a few exceptions (such as copper and gold). Solid non-metals usually have a dull appearance. Unlike metals, they show a variety of colours (e.g. sulphur is yellow, phosphorus is red or yellow, while carbon is black). Metals and non-metals differ not only in appearance and electrical conductivity. They also differ in other ways. See Table 5.1. 5.1 ) ( ) (
Property
State at room temperature and pressure Appearance
Metals
solids (except mercury a liquid)
Non-metals
gases or solids (except bromine a liquid)
usually high
usually low
brittle i.e. easily broken when hit (when solid); not malleable and not ductile
electrical conductivity
Table 5.1 Some typical differences in physical properties of metals and non-metals.
Note that there are exceptions. Sodium is so soft that it can be easily cut with a knife; so low-melting that it melts below 100C; so light that it floats on water. Another example is the non-metal carbon (in the form of graphite). It is a good electrical conductor, shiny, and has a very high melting point (3730C). (3730C) ( ) 100C
5.1
X X
X ( ( ) )
5.1
All elements can be classified as metals or non-metals. Many, but not all elements, can be classified as metals or nonmetals. A few elements have properties in between those of metals and non-metals they are classified as semi-metals.
5.2
5.2
light bulb
crucible solid piece under test crocodile clip solid powder (or liquid) under test ( )
(a) Figure 5.1 Testing electrical conductivity of substances (a) in form of solid piece and (b) in form of solid powder or liquid.
(b)
(a) (b)
5.4
5.4
5.2
It is useful to give each element a chemical symbol. Chemical symbols of some common metals, non-metals and semi-metals are given in Table 5.2.
Element
Boron ( Silicon (
Element
Argon ( Bromine ( Carbon ( Chlorine (
Chemical Symbol
Ar
)
)( )
) ) )
) Beryllium ( ) Calcium ( ) Chromium ( ) Cobalt ( ) Copper ( ) [Cuprum] Gold ( ) [Aurum] Iron ( ) [Ferrum] Lead ( ) [Plumbum] Lithium ( ) Magnesium ( ) Manganese ( ) Mercury ( ) [Hydrargyrum] Nickel ( ) Platinum ( ) Potassium ( ) [Kalium] Silver ( ) [Argentum] Sodium ( ) [Natrium] Tin ( ) [Stannum] Zinc ( )
Si
Br C Cl F He H I Ne N O P S
Table 5.2 Chemical symbols of some common elements (classified into metals, semi-metals and non-metals). ( )
Each chemical symbol shown in the table consists of one or two letters. The first (or the only) letter is a capital letter; the second one (if any) is a small letter.
5.3
5.2 (a) (b) (c) (i) (i) (ii) (ii) (i) F (ii) Br (iii) (iii) (iii) Hg
5.5
Atoms
5.5
An atom is the smallest part of an element which has the chemical properties of that element.
10 cm 10
23
g.
Different elements have different properties because they consist of different kinds of atoms. Until January 2008, 118 kinds of atoms have been discovered or reported, corresponding to the 118 different elements. 2008 1 118 118
5.4
(a) (b) (c) (d) Cu
7
5.6
Structure of atoms
5.6
Experiments have shown that atoms are in fact made up of even smaller and simpler particles.
Sub-atomic particle
Symbol
Relative mass
Proton Neutron
p n
1.6725 1.6748
10 10
24
1 1 negligible
+1 0
24
Electron
9.109
10
28
1 ( ) 1837
The hydrogen atom is the simplest of all atoms. The commonest type of hydrogen atoms consists of 1 proton and 1 electron (with no neutron). The next simplest one is helium atom, with 2 protons, 2 neutrons and 2 electrons (Figure 5.2). 2 ( 2 ) 2 ( 5.2) 1 1
neutron
electron
}
proton
Figure 5.2 Diagrammatic representations of a hydrogen atom and a helium atom. hydrogen atom helium atom
nucleus
Table 5.4 gives the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in the 20 simplest atoms.
Atom Hydrogen ( Helium ( Lithium ( Beryllium ( Boron ( Carbon ( Nitrogen ( Oxygen ( Fluorine ( Neon ( Sodium ( Symbol protons
5.4
20
) ) )
H He Li Be B C
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) )
N O F Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
) ) ) ) ) )
K Ca
5.5
91 8 8
5.7
5.7
Atomic number
The atomic number of an atom is the number of protons in the atom.
For example, a silver atom contains 47 protons. The atomic number of silver is therefore 47. 47
47
5.6
17
10
Mass number
The mass number of an atom is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the atom. For example, a sodium atom (with 11 protons and 12 neutrons) has a mass number of 11 + 12 = 23.
Learning tip The electrons in an atom have almost no mass. So the mass of an atom is nearly all due to protons and neutrons. For this reason, the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in an atom is called the mass number.
( 12 )
11 11 + 12 = 23
The atomic number (Z) and mass number (A) of an atom are usually shown in a full atomic symbol as follows:
mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
(Z)
(A)
EXAMPLE
mass number atomic number
A Z
Atomic symbol
4 2
He
= =
Example 5.3 Working out the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in an atom
Consider Solution Atomic number (Z) = 17, so number of protons = 17 (by definition) As an atom is electrically neutral, number of electrons = number of protons = 17 Mass number (A) = 35, number of neutrons = mass number number of protons = 35 17 = 18
35 17 Cl.
5.3
35 17
Cl
(Z) = 17 ) = = 17 (A) = 35 = = 35 17 = 18
= 17
11
5.4
is 8.
16 8O 16 8O
8 8
Solution Both statements are true, but the second statement does not explain the first one. A correct explanation would be: An 16 8 O atom contains 8 protons.
16 8O
5.7
(b) 47 47 (c)
= 13)
(c) (iii)
(i)
(ii)
12
5.8
Isotopes
5.8
Let us take hydrogen as an example. Not all of the atoms of hydrogen are identical. Actually, there are three types of hydrogen atoms, as shown in Figure 5.3 and Table 5.5. They all have the same number of protons (same atomic number) and electrons but different numbers of neutrons. Therefore, hydrogen has 3 isotopes:
1 2 1 H, 1 H
5.3 (
3 1H
5.5
)
1 1
2 1
and
3 1 H.
electron proton
neutron
1 1H
2 1H
3 1H
Isotope
p
1 1
Number of
e
n 0 1 2
H H H
1 1 1
1 1 1
Table 5.5 Number of protons, electrons and neutrons in the three isotopes of hydrogen.
2 1 3 1
13
Element
Isotopes
Atomic number
1 1 1
Mass number
1 2 3
1 1 2 1 3 1
H H H
Hydrogen
12 6 13 6 14 6
C C C
6 6 6
12 13 14
Carbon
16 8
O O O Na Cl Cl
8 8 8 11 17 17
16 17 18 23 35 37
Oxygen
17 8 18 8
Sodium Chlorine
23 11 35 17 37 17
5.8
5.6 (a) (b)
14
5.9
5.9
-12
-12 6 a.m.u.) ) 12.000 ( ( 6
C = 12.000 00 1
Learning tip Relative isotopic mass and relative atomic mass are both relative values; they carry no units.
5.9
(b)
35 17 Cl
(c)
He
(d)
238
(e)
19 K?
(a) (d)
37 17 Cl 238
(b) (e)
35 17 Cl 19 K
(c)
He
15
The relative atomic mass of an element is the weighted average of the relative isotopic masses of its natural isotopes on the C = 12.000 00 scale.
12 12
( C = 12.000 00 )
MA + b%
MB + c%
MC
= a% + c%
MA + b% MC
MB
where a%, b%, c% = percentage abundance of isotopes A, B and C respectively MA, MB, MC = relative isotopic masses of isotopes A, B and C respectively
a%
b%
c% =
MA
MB
MC =
16
Example 5.5 Calculating relative atomic mass and percentage abundance of isotopes
(a) Chlorine consists of two natural isotopes, 35Cl and 37Cl, with percentage abundance of 75.4% and 24.6% respectively. Calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine. (b) Naturally occurring bromine (relative atomic mass = 79.9) consists of a mixture of two isotopes: 79Br and 81Br. Calculate the percentage abundance of each of the two isotopes in natural bromine. Solution (a) By approximation, relative isotopic mass of 35Cl isotope = its mass no. = 35 relative isotopic mass of 37Cl isotope = its mass no. = 37 Relative atomic mass of chlorine = average mass of 1 chlorine atom on the 12C = 12.000 00 scale = weighted average of the relative isotopic masses = 75.4 100 35 + 24.6 100 37 = 35.5 (a) (a)
37
5.5
Cl 24.6% (b)
81
Cl 75.4%
35
79
Br
Br ( = 79.9 )
35 35
Cl = 35 Cl = 37
12
= =
Cl
37
37
Cl
=1 = 75.4 100
C = 12.000 00
(Note: The relative atomic mass of 35.5 is not the relative mass of any one chlorine atom, but the weighted average of all the chlorine atoms present.) (b) Let the percentage abundance of and (100 y)% respectively.
79
Br and
81
Br be y%
35 +
24.6 100
37 = 35.5
Relative atomic mass of bromine = weighted average of the relative isotopic masses 79.9 = 79y + 81(100 y) 100 (b)
( 35.5
35.5 Br 81 Br y% (100 y) % =
79
7990 = 79y + 8100 81y y = 55 Thus the percentage abundance of 79Br is 55% and that of 81Br is 45%.
79.9 =
Br 45%
81
17
5.10
1.
23 11 Na
and 10% of
2. 10%
22 10 Ne
90%
20 10
Ne
The accurate relative atomic masses of elements are very seldom whole numbers (why?). ( )
The relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5 g. The relative atomic mass is a relative value. It carries no unit. The relative atomic mass of chlorine should be 35.5.
35.5
35.5 g
5.10
( )
2 (
4 ) ( 5.7)
5.4
Table 5.7 Maximum number of electrons the first four shells can hold.
18
2nd shell
electron
Electrons in an atom are arranged in shells. The distribution of electrons in the various shells is called electronic arrangement (or electronic configuration). ( )
) 2, 8, 1
2, 8, 1
Figure 5.5 Showing the electronic arrangement of a sodium atom by numbering.
1st shell
2nd shell
3rd shell
Na
5.11
(b) (d)
20
Element
Symbol
2nd
3rd
4th
Electronic arrangement
1 2 2, 1 2, 2 2, 3 2, 4 2, 5 2, 6 2, 7 2, 8 2, 8, 1 2, 8, 2 2, 8, 3 2, 8, 4 2, 8, 5 2, 8, 6 2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8 2, 8, 8, 1 2, 8, 8, 2
Hydrogen Helium Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Sulphur Chlorine Argon Potassium Calcium ( ) Phosphorus
H He Li Be B C N O F Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca
Table 5.8 The electronic arrangements (by numbering) of the elements with atomic numbers 1 20. 1 20 ( )
5.12
( (ii)
5.11
0
21
The exceptional stability of noble gases is related to their electronic arrangements: Helium Neon Argon Krypton Xenon Radon (He) (Ne) (Ar) (Kr) (Xe) (Rn) 2 2, 8 2,8, 8 2,8,18, 8 2,8,18,18, 8 2,8,18,32,18, 8 (He) (Ne) (Ar) (Kr) (Xe) (Rn) 2 2, 8 2, 8, 8 2, 8, 18, 8 2, 8, 18, 18, 8 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8 ( 2 ) 8
All noble gases (except helium) have 8 outermost shell electrons in their atoms. Helium atom has 2 electrons in the only one occupied shell. This suggests that a particle has great stability if it has an octet of electrons (i.e. 8 electrons in the outermost shell) or a duplet of electrons (i.e. 2 electrons in the only one occupied shell). Atoms of elements other than noble gases are usually not stable. They will become stable if they attain an octet or a duplet. ) )
( 2
22
Key terms
Page 1. atom 2. atomic number 3. chemical symbol 4. duplet 5. electron diagram 6. electron shell ( ) 7 10 5 22 20 18 19 19 1 13 11 1 1 22 13 16 15 / 4
7. electronic arrangement 8. electronic configuration 9. element 10. isotope 11. mass number 12. metal 13. non-metal 14. octet 15. relative abundance 16. relative atomic mass 17. relative isotopic mass 18. semi-metal/metalloid
23
Summary
5.1 1. What is an element? An chemical methods. is a pure substance which cannot be broken down into anything simpler by
5.2 2.
Classification of elements based on physical states Elements can be classified based on solids, liquids or gases. metal) are the only two liquid elements. states, that is, whether the elements are (a silvery metal) and (a dark red non-
5.3 3. 4.
Classification of elements into metals and non-metals Elements can be classified into , and .
All metals conduct . All non-metals (except carbon in the form of graphite) do not conduct . To tell whether an element is a metal or non-metal, a simple but effective way is to test whether it conducts . (Refer to Table 5.1 on p.2 for some typical differences in physical properties between metals and non-metals.)
5.4 5.
Chemical symbols for elements Chemists use chemical to represent elements. Chemical symbols of most elements come from their English names. (Refer to Table 5.2 on p.6 for chemical symbols of some common metals, non-metals and semimetals.)
5.5 6. 7.
Atoms An element. is the smallest part of an element which has the chemical properties of that
An is a substance that is made up of only one kind of atoms. Different elements have different properties because they consist of different kinds of atoms. Structure of atoms (a) An atom consists of three types of sub-atomic particles and . (b) ,
5.6 8.
Sub-atomic particle
Proton (p) Neutron (n) Electron (e)
Relative mass
1 1 negligible (
1 ) 1837
Relative charge
+1 0 1
24
(c) An atom has an extremely small centre called are in the nucleus. (d) Electrons move around the nucleus in (e) An atom is electrically 5.7 9. Atomic number and mass number . .
of an atom = number of protons in the atom of an element = number of protons in an atom of the element
EXAMPLE
A Z
Atomic symbol
4 2
He
5.8 12.
Isotopes are different atoms of the same element, with the same number of protons (and electrons) but different numbers of neutrons. Different isotopes of the same element have the same chemical properties but slightly different physical properties. Relative masses of atoms mass number of an element = weighted average of the relative isotopic masses 12 of its natural isotopes on the C = 12.000 00 scale.
5.10 Arrangement of electrons 15. The of an atom is the distribution of electrons in the various shells of the atom. (Refer to Table 5.8 on p.21.)
5.11 Stability of noble gases related to their electronic arrangements 16. Noble gases have great stability because their atoms have either an of electrons (8 electrons in the outermost shell), or a of electrons (2 electrons in the only one occupied shell) as in helium.
25
6.1
6.1
Grouping elements
There are 92 naturally occurring elements. If we can find a way to group these elements, we can study them more easily and systematically. 92
A.
B.
C. C. Action of sodium sulphite solution on aqueous chlorine solution, aqueous bromine solution, aqueous iodine solution and sulphur
On adding sodium sulphite solution, aqueous solutions of chlorine, bromine and iodine all turn colourless; sulphur has no reaction. Thus chlorine, bromine and iodine behave similarly.
26
6.2
6.2
GROUPS
atomic number
electronic arrangement
Transition elements
PERIODS
Alkali metals
Keys:
metal
semi-metal
non-metal
gas
liquid
solid
main groups
Table 6.1 Part of the modern Periodic Table. (A complete Periodic Table is shown on the inside front cover.) ( )
Halogens
Noble gases
27
The elements are arranged in periods and groups of the Periodic Table.
Periods
A horizontal row of elements is called a period. Each period has a number: from 1 to 7. Period 1 contains only two elements. Period 2 and Period 3 each contains eight elements. Other periods are longer. We should note that Period 1 elements have one occupied electron shell, Period 2 elements have two occupied electron shells, and so on.
Groups
A vertical column of elements is called a group. There are altogether eight main groups. Each group has a number (I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII or 0). We should note that Group I elements have one outermost shell electron, Group VII elements have seven outermost shell electrons, and so on. I II III IV I VII V VI VII 0
Learning tip There are exceptions to this rule: (1) Hydrogen does not belong to any group. (2) For Group 0 elements, helium has two electrons in the outermost shell, while all the others have eight. (1) (2) 0 8 2
28
Figure 6.1 illustrates the above two rules for period number and group number. Some of the groups have special names: Group I Group II Group VII Group 0 : : : : Alkali metals Alkaline earth metals Halogens Noble gases
6.1
I II VII 0
2, 8, 7
Figure 6.1 The relation among electronic arrangement, period number and group number.
no. of occupied electron shells = 3 = period no. = 3 = no. of electrons in the outermost shell = 7 = group no. (VII) =7= (VII)
6.1
15 X (i) (ii)
Solution (a) 2,8,5 (c) Non-metal (b) (i) Group V (ii) Period 3
2,8,5 V (i)
(ii)
29
6.1
2, 8, 18, 32, 18,
The elements in between Group II and Group III are called the transition elements (or transition metals). Many common metals such as iron (Fe) and copper (Cu) are transition elements.
II (
6.3
6.3
( ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) ) ( 6.2 )
Group Period 2 3
I
Li Na
II
Be Mg
III
B Al
IV
C Si
V
N P
VI
O S
VII
F Cl
0
Ne Ar
Figure 6.2 Elements change from metals to non-metals across Period 2 and Period 3 of the Periodic Table.
reactive metals
semi-metals
reactive non-metals
noble gases
more non-metallic
30
6.2
II 0 IV
Group VII
F Cl Br I At
VII
Group 0
Ne Ar Kr Xe Rn
Let us take Group I as an example. All Group I elements have one outermost shell electron. They have similar chemical properties. This suggests the following relationship:
Chemical properties of an element depend mainly on the number of outermost shell electrons.
Elements in the same group have the same chemical properties. Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties.
31
6.2
and and
15 Y 16 Y
B. D.
4X 7X
and and
20 Y 17 Y
A. C.
6X 9X
15 Y 16 Y
B. D.
4X 7X
20 Y 17 Y
Solution The subscripts stand for atomic numbers. Electronic arrangements of the atoms: A. B. C. D. In B,
6X
(2, 4) and
15 Y
4 X (2, 2) and 9X 7X 4
20 Y (2, 8, 8, 2) 16 Y 17 Y
15 Y 20 Y 16 Y 17 Y
X and
6.3
P (a) (b) P (c) (i)
8Q
20 P
P (ii)
12 R
(ii)
12 R
6.4
6.4
Elements within the same group of the Periodic Table have similar chemical properties. Yet there is also a gradual change in chemical properties down a group. Let us take Group I, Group VII and Group 0 as examples. I VII 0
32
I
6.3
lithium sodium potassium rubidium
Li Na K Rb Cs Fr
caesium francium
silvery solids
In fact, this rule also applies to Group II elements (the alkaline earth metals). ( )
II
VII
6.4 VII
33
fluorine chlorine bromine iodine Figure 6.4 Group VII elements (the halogens). VII ( ) astatine
F Cl Br I At
(pale yellow gas) (greenish yellow gas) (dark red liquid) (black solid) (black solid)
VII
26
VII
VII
0
6.5 0
colourless gases
34
6.5
6.5
We can predict the chemical properties of an element from its position in the Periodic Table.
6.4
( (
2, 8, 2, 8,
Key terms
Page 1. group 2. main group 3. period 4. Periodic Table of Elements 5. reactivity 6. transition element 7. transition metal 28 28 28 27 33 30 30
35
Summary
6.1 1. 6.2 2. 3. Elements with similar chemical properties Some elements show The Periodic Table In the modern Periodic Table, all elements are arranged in increasing order of . (a) The Periodic Table consists of periods and groups. (b) A horizontal row of elements is called a (c) A vertical column of elements is called a (d) For elements in the main groups: (1) Period number of an element = number of (2) Group number of an element = number of 6.3 4. 5. Patterns in the Periodic Table Across a period from left to right, there is a change from metals, to to . Elements within the same group of the Periodic Table have the outermost shell electrons in their atoms, therefore they have properties. However, there is a gradual change in reactivity down a group. Groups similarities and trends Group I elements are called the Group II elements are called the Reactivity of Group I and II elements 7. Group VII elements are called the Reactivity of Group VII elements 8. 6.5 9. Group 0 elements are called the Predicting chemical properties of an unfamiliar element Chemical properties of an unfamiliar element can be predicted from its Periodic Table. in the . down the group. . They are all very unreactive. . . down the group. and finally number of chemical electrons in an atom of the element electron shells in an atom of the element . . chemical properties.
6.4 6.
36
7.1
7.1
( )
What is an ion?
A simple ion is derived from a single atom. A polyatomic ion is derived from a group of atoms. Examples of simple ions are sodium ion, lead(II) ion, copper(II) ion, chloride ion and bromide ion. Examples of polyatomic ions are ammonium ion, hydroxide ion, sulphate ion, nitrate ion and permanganate ion. (II) (II)
) (
electron flow
anode
cathode electrolyte
cation
7.1
/ /
7.2
7.2
Colour of ions
Many ions are colourless. However, some ions are coloured. We should notice that transition metals usually form coloured ions; most of these are cations (e.g. copper(II) ion), but a few are polyatomic anions (e.g. permanganate ion). On the other hand, elements in the main groups in the Periodic Table form colourless ions (not listed in Table 7.1). (II) ( 7.1 ) ) ( ) (
Name
(a) Copper(II) ion (b) Iron(II) ion (c) Iron(III) ion (d) Cobalt(II) ion (e) Nickel(II) ion (f) Chromium(III) ion (g) Chromate ion Table 7.1 The colours of some ions in aqueous solution. 38 (h) Dichromate ion (i) Manganese(II) ion (j) Permanganate ion (II) (II) (II) (III) (II) (II) (III)
Colour
blue or green pale green yellow or brown pink green green yellow orange very pale pink purple
7.2
( )
7.2
Gemstone
Amethyst Emerald Jade Peridot Topaz Turquoise
Colour
purple green green light green yellow bluish green
Migration of ions
We can observe the migration (movement) of coloured ions during electrolysis, using the set-up as shown in Figure 7.2. 7.2
39
dilute hydrochloric acid dilute hydrochloric acid this region slowly becomes orange due to the migration of negative dichromate ions towards the positive anode this region slowly becomes blue due to the migration of positive copper(II) ions towards the negative cathode (II)
Figure 7.2 To show the migration of coloured ions during electrolysis (using a U-tube). ( U )
A simpler way of investigating the migration of coloured ions under the influence of an electric field is shown in Figure 7.3.
7.3
small potassium permanganate crystal small potassium permanganate crystal purple spot anode anode microscope slide 20 V d.c. supply 20 V cathode cathode filter paper moistened with sodium sulphate solution purple spot microscope slide filter paper moistened with sodium sulphate solution
Figure 7.3 To show the migration of purple permanganate ions under the influence of an electric field (using a strip of filter paper on a microscope slide). ( )
7.3
(III)
7.3
Formulae of ions
7.3
Formation of ions
An atom is overall electrically neutral, because it has the same number of protons and electrons. But if the number of electrons in an atom is increased or decreased, an ion is formed. Example 7.1 Understanding how an ion is formed
Explain, in terms of electronic arrangement and number of protons and electrons, the formation of (a) a lithium ion Solution (a) Consider a lithium atom, Li. Electronic arrangement: 2,1 Number of protons = 3; number of electrons = 3 Charge of the atom = (+1) 3 + (1) 3 = 0 (i.e. the atom carries no charge) To get the electronic arrangement of the nearest noble gas (helium) 2 (which is a duplet), one electron has to be removed. An ion is formed. Number of electrons = 3 1 = 2 Charge of the ion = (+1) 3 + (1) as 1+ or +) 2 = +1 (written (b) an oxide ion. (a) Li 2,1 =3 = (+1) =0 ( ( 2( =31=2 = (+1) = +1 ( Li ( Li (b)
1+ +
7.1
(a)
(b)
=3 3 + (1) ) ) ) 3
3 + (1) 2 1+ +)
The resulting positive ion is called lithium ion, + represented by Li . (Note that 1 is usually dropped out in writing the + 1+ charge on an ion. Thus we write Li instead of Li .) (b) Consider an oxygen atom, O. Electronic arrangement: 2,6 Number of protons = 8; number of electrons = 8 Charge of the atom = (+1) 8 + (1) 8 = 0 (i.e. the atom carries no charge) To get the electronic arrangement of the nearest noble gas neon 2,8 (which is an octet), two electrons have to be gained. An ion is formed. Number of electrons = 8 + 2 = 10 Charge of the ion = (+1) 8 + (1) as 2) 10 = 2 (written
1 ) O 2,6 =8 = (+1) =0 (
Li
=8 8 + (1) ) ( ) ) 8
2,8 (
The resulting negative ion is called oxide ion (not 2 oxygen ion), represented by O .
= 8 + 2 = 10 = (+1) 8 + (1) 10 = 2 ( 2) O
2
41
Polyatomic ions are formed from a group of atoms. However, their formation is not discussed here.
7.4
What is a formula?
We can refer to an element, a compound or an ion by its name. Alternatively, we can refer to it by its formula (plural: formulae).
7.5
+
(c) H (g) H
2+
NH3 Mn
42
Anions
Name Name
sodium ion potassium ion copper(I) ion (I) silver ion mercury(I) ion (I) hydrogen ion
Charge
Formula
H
Name
hydride ion chloride ion bromide ion iodide ion
Cl
Cu
Br I
Ag
Hg H
+
OH
hydroxide ion nitrate ion nitrite ion hydrogencarbonate ion hydrogensulphate ion cyanide ion
NO3
1+
NH4
ammonium ion
NO2
HCO3 HSO4 CN
permanganate ion chlorate ion hypochlorite ion oxide ion sulphide ion
magnesium ion calcium ion barium ion lead(II) ion (II) iron(II) ion (II) cobalt(II) ion (II) nickel(II) ion (II) manganese(II) ion (II) copper(II) ion (II) zinc ion mercury(II) ion (II) aluminium ion iron(III) ion (III) chromium(III) ion (III)
O S
2+
2 2 2 2
2+ 2+
SO4 SO3
sulphate ion sulphite ion silicate ion carbonate ion chromate ion dichromate ion
Pb Fe
2+ 2+
SiO3
2+
Co Ni
CO3
2 2 2
2+ 2+
CrO4
Mn Cu Zn
Cr2O7
2+
2+ 2+
Hg Al
3+
3+
Fe
3+ 3+
Cr
PO4
phosphate ion
Refer to Table 7.3. You should pay special attention to the following points: 1. 2. All simple metal ions (e.g. Na , Mg ) are cations. All simple non-metal ions (except H ) and most polyatomic ions (e.g. OH , HCO3 ) are anions (except NH4 ). 3. 4. There is only one common polyatomic cation NH4 . Polyatomic ions usually consist of non-metals only (e.g. NO3 , CO3 , SO4 ), but some consist of a metal and a nonmetal (e.g. MnO4 , CrO4 , Cr2O7 ). 5. When a metal forms only one cation, the ion has the same name as the metal, e.g. sodium metal (Na) forms sodium ion (Na ). 6. Transition metals can form more than one simple cation with different charges. To name each ion, a Roman numeral indicating the charge is written in brackets after the name of the metal. For example, iron metal (Fe) can form iron(II) ion Fe and iron(III) ion Fe . 7. Simple anions have names ending in -ide, e.g. an oxygen atom (O) forms an oxide ion (O ); a sulphur atom (S) forms a sulphide ion (S ). 8. The polyatomic anion with more oxygen is named as -ate, and that with less oxygen as -ite, e.g. SO4
2 2 2 2 2+ 3+ + 2 2 2 2 + + + + 2+
7.3 1. ( Na
+ +
Mg )
2+
(H )
) HCO3 )
OH
NO3
CO3
SO4 ) (
2
CrO4
Cr2O7 )
(Na )
(II) 7.
(III)
2
sulphate ion,
SO3 sulphite ion; NO3 nitrate ion, NO2 nitrite ion. 9. Ions with 4+ or 4 charges are uncommon. They are not listed in the table.
CO 3
SO 4 SO 3 NO3 NO2 8.
2
4+
44
7.4
7.4
( 3 ) ( Mg
2+
2+
) (2,8)
Mg 7.4a
(2,8,2)
( ) O 7.4b
gains 2e 2e
O O
(2,6)
loses 2e 2e
Mg Mg
2+
magnesium atom
magnesium ion
oxygen atom
oxide ion
All metals form ions: they usually form cations. Some nonmetals form ions most of these are anions.
II
III
VI
VII ( VI )
(8 6) O
2
7.6
Group Period 2 3 4
I Li Na K
II Be Mg Ca
III
IV
V N
VI O S
VII F Cl Br
Al
2.
The atomic numbers of strontium and astatine are 38 and 85 respectively. Write the formula of (a) strontium ion (b) astatide ion. (Refer to the Periodic Table for atomic symbols and group numbers.)
2. (a) ( (b)
38
85 )
7.2
46
7.5
Chemical bonds
7.5
Atoms can join together, by chemical bonds, to form millions of different compounds.
7.6
7.6
Ionic bond
Formation of ionic bond between sodium and chlorine
A sodium atom Na has the electronic arrangement 2,8,1. It can + lose one electron to get the stable octet 2,8, forming a Na ion. On the other hand, a chlorine atom Cl has the electronic arrangement 2,8,7. It can gain one electron to get the stable octet 2,8,8, forming a Cl ion. Thus when a sodium atom and a chlorine atom react, the sodium atom loses one electron to the chlorine atom. As a result of this transfer of electron, two ions are formed. See Figure 7.5. 7.5 2,8 + Na 2,8,7 Na
2,8,1
2,8,8 Cl Cl
electron
Na
Cl
transfer
Na
Cl
(both stable)
Figure 7.5 Electron dot/cross diagrams showing the transfer of an electron from a sodium atom to a chlorine atom in the formation of sodium chloride, NaCl. / NaCl 47
In the electron dot/cross diagrams (or simply electron diagrams) given here, ions are put inside square brackets with the charge written at the top right-hand corner. )
Ionic bond is the strong non-directional electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions. An ionic bond can be formed by the transfer of one or more electrons from one atom (or group of atoms) to another. ( )
In the above reaction between sodium and chlorine, only the outermost shell electrons are involved. This is true for most chemical reactions. So for electron diagrams in the rest of the book, only the outermost shell will be drawn. Thus Figure 7.5 can be simplified as: 7.5
electron Na
+
Na Cl
Cl transfer
2,8,1
2,8,7
2,8
2,8,8
Na
Cl
Na +
Cl
48
electron F
F Mg
2+
F
Mg
F transfer
7.7
( (b)
7.7
7.7
(Na ) (Cl ) ( 7.6)
+
In sodium chloride, cations (Na ) and anions (Cl ) are attracted together by ionic bonds. They are packed regularly, so that each ion is surrounded by six ions of the opposite charge (Figure 7.6). This packing continues until a continuous, threedimensional structure called giant ionic structure is formed.
centre of Cl ion
+ +
+ + + +
chloride ion
+ +
sodium ion
centre of Na ion
+
Figure 7.6 Sodium chloride has a giant ionic structure. It consists of Na and Cl ions held together by ionic bonds. + Na Cl
49
Sodium chloride consists of ions, so it is called an ionic compound. Magnesium fluoride is another ionic compound.
7.8
7.8
Cl
Na
Cl
50
7.3
Solution (a) Potassium oxide K ion carries 1 positive charge; O ion carries 2 negative charges. To have electrical neutrality, the ratio + 2 of K ions: O ions must be 2 : 1. Thus the ionic formula of potassium oxide is as shown below:
+ 2
(a) K
+
O K 2 1
+
(K )
+
2
one oxide ion this number written after the brackets shows the number of potassium ions present
(K )
O
+
(not K O , K O , (K )2(O )) The formula is K2O, not KO, K2O. (b) Magnesium nitrate Mg ion carries 2 positive charges; NO3 ion carries 1 negative charge. To have electrical neutrality, the ratio 2+ of Mg ions: NO3 ions must be 1 : 2. Thus the ionic formula of magnesium nitrate is as shown below:
2+
2+
K 2O
KO
NO 3 Mg
2+
NO 3 2
Mg (NO3 )
one magnesium ion
2+ 2+
2+
this number written after the brackets shows the number of nitrate ions present
Mg (NO3 )
( Mg NO3
2+
2+
(not Mg NO3 , Mg NO3 2) The formula is Mg(NO 3 ) 2 , not MgNO 3 , Mg2(NO 3 ), MgNO32. (c) Sodium hydroxide The ionic formula is Na OH , not Na (OH )2, Na (OH ), + Na (OH) . The formula is NaOH, not Na(OH)2, Na(OH).
cont'd
+ + +
Mg NO3 2)
2+
Mg(NO 3 ) 2 Mg2(NO 3 )
Na(OH)2
NaOH Na(OH)
51
(d) Calcium hydroxide The ionic formula is Ca (OH ) 2 , not Ca OH , 2+ 2+ Ca OH 2, Ca (OH) 2. The formula is Ca(OH)2, not Ca2(OH), CaOH2. (e) Iron(III) sulphate The ionic formula is (Fe ) 2 (SO 4 ) 3 , not Fe SO 4 , 2 3+ Fe 2(SO4 )3. The formula is Fe2(SO4)3, not FeSO4, (Fe)2(SO4)3.
3+ 2 3+ 2 2+ 2+
Ca2(OH) (e)
Fe SO4 FeSO4
3+
Fe2(SO4)3 (Fe)2(SO4)3 20
7.8
(II)
(b) (d)
Problem-solving strategy
Predicting the formulae of ionic compounds Step 1 Write the formulae of the two ions involved side by side. Mg
2+
1 Mg 2
2 + 1 2+
Step 3 Take the number of the charge on each ion across to the other. Mg = Mg1
2 +
Mg 3
F F2
Step 4 Combine the symbols and simplify the ratio. MgF2 (Omit the number 1 for Mg) 4 =
Mg Mg1
2 +
F F2
MgF2
52
Mg
Al2O3
Al
3+
Al2O3
SO4
Fe2(SO4)3
Fe
3+
SO4
Fe2(SO4)3
Ca2O2
CaO
Ca
2 +
Ca2O2
CaO
(Note: The formula of calcium oxide is CaO but not Ca2O2. This is because the formula of an ionic compound expresses the simplest whole number ratio of the ions present. Therefore, the ratio of 2 : 2 must be simplified to 1 : 1.)
( C a 2O 2 2 2 1
CaO
7.9
(b) (d)
53
Cation
Al
3+ +
Anion
SO4
2 2
Formula of compound
Al2(SO4)3 (NH4)2CO3 Ca(NO3)2 Cu2O CuO PbBr2
Name of compound
aluminium sulphate ammonium carbonate calcium nitrate copper(I) oxide copper(II) oxide lead(II) bromide (I) (II) (II)
NH4 Ca
CO3
2+ +
NO3 O O
2 2
Cu Cu Pb
2+
2+
Br
2.
Some ionic compounds contain water of crystallization. The number of molecules of water of crystallization (n) has to be added at the end of the name as: -n-water. For example, Na2CO3 10H2O is called sodium carbonate-10water.
2. (n) Na 2 CO 3 10H2O
7.10
(b) (d)
FeCl3 Cu(OH)2
54
Key terms
Page 1. anion 2. cation 3. chemical bond 4. electron dot/cross diagram 5. formula 6. giant ionic structure 7. ionic bond 8. ionic compound 9. migration of ion 10. polyatomic ion 11. simple ion 12. transfer of electron 13. water of crystallization / 37 37 47 48 41 49 48 50 39 37 37 47 54
55
Summary
7.1 1. Formation of ions from atoms Noble gases have great stability because their atoms have either an of electrons (8 electrons in the outermost shell), or a of electrons (2 electrons in the only one occupied shell) as in helium. Other atoms can also gain great stability if they can get an octet (or duplet). An A A + NH4 ) are called is an atom or a group of atoms having an overall electric charge. is derived from a single atom. + is derived from a group of atoms. Positive ions (e.g. Na , ; negative ions (e.g. Cl , MnO4 ) are called .
2.
7.2 3. 4.
Colours and migration of ions Colours of some ions in aqueous solution are listed in Table 7.1 on p.38. Colours of some gemstones are due to traces of ions. Refer to Table 7.2 on p.39.
7.3 5. 6.
Formulae of ions A represents the smallest unit (using chemical symbols and numbers) of a substance or species under some specified conditions. Names and formulae of common ions are listed in Table 7.3 on p.43.
7.4 7. 8.
Elements and ions All metals form ions: they usually form these are . . Some non-metals form ions most of
For metals in Groups I, II and III, the number of charges on an ion is equal to its group number. For non-metals in Groups V, VI and VII, the number of charges on an ion is usually equal to 8 minus group number.
7.5 9.
Chemical bonds Atoms can join together by chemical bonds to form different compounds. There are three main types of chemical bonds, namely, bonds, bonds and bonds.
56
7.6 10.
Ionic bond and ionic substances is the strong non-directional electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions. When a metal (which tends to electrons) and a non-metal (which tends to electrons) combine, they do so by the transfer of electrons, forming ions. The ions are held together by ionic bonds. For example,
+
electron Na
11.
Cl
Cl transfer
Na
2,8,1
2,8,7
7.7 12.
Structures of solid ionic compounds An (or ionic substance) is a compound which consists of ions.
7.8 13.
Formulae and names of ionic compounds The formulae of ionic compounds can often be predicted using a short-cut method: X
a
XbYa
NO3
Zn(NO3)2
57
8.1
8.1
) CH4 HCl
CO 2
C H methane
Cl
hydrogen chloride
Molecules in elements
Elements consist of either atoms or molecules. All metals consist of atoms. All non-metals (except carbon) consist of discrete (separate) molecules. For example, chlorine gas consists of discrete chlorine molecules. The number of atoms in a molecule of an element is called its atomicity. In gaseous elements, the atomicity of chlorine (Cl2), nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2), fluorine (F2) and hydrogen (H2) is 2; that of noble gases (e.g. Ar) is 1; that of ozone (O3) is 3. In solid elements, the atomicity of yellow phosphorus (P4) is 4; that of sulphur (S8) is 8. Thus argon (Ar) is monoatomic, oxygen (O2) is diatomic, ozone (O3) triatomic and so on. We can now define molecule. 8 (O2) (N2) 2 (O 3 ) (P4) (O2) ( (F2) Ar) 3 4 (Ar) (O3) (S8) (Cl2) (H2) 1 ( ) ( )
58
A molecule is the smallest part of an element or a compound which can exist on its own under ordinary conditions.
8.1
1. Br
2 +
Br Ne Na
Zn(OH) NH3
C6H12O6
CaO
(b) (e)
(c) (f) )
Covalent bonding
Covalent bond formation in a chlorine molecule
A molecule usually consists of a number of atoms chemically joined together. Take the example of chlorine gas. The chlorine atom, Cl, is very unstable. Its outermost shell contains only seven electrons one electron less than an octet. Electron transfer between chlorine atoms is impossible here. This is because they all tend to gain electrons, and no one would lose them. But by sharing of electrons (one electron from each chlorine atom) in the outermost shell, a chlorine molecule Cl 2 is formed. In the molecule, each chlorine atom has a stable octet (Figure 8.2). ( Cl2 ( 8.2) ) Cl
Cl
Cl
electron sharing
Cl
Cl
(both unstable) ( )
Figure 8.2 Electron diagrams showing the sharing of two electrons in the formation of a chlorine molecule (only the outermost shell electrons are shown). ( )
59
It should now be obvious that a chlorine molecule must be Cl2, and cannot possibly be Cl, Cl3 or Cl4. Cl Cl3 Cl4
Cl 2
Covalent bond is the strong directional electrostatic attraction between the shared electrons (negatively charged) and the two nuclei (positively charged) of the bonded atoms. A covalent bond is formed by the sharing of outermost shell electrons between two atoms.
( (
) )
A shared pair of electrons (or bond pair) makes a single covalent bond. It is often represented by a stroke () between the atomic symbols. So a chlorine molecule Cl2 can be written as Cl Cl. (The also indicates the direction of the electrostatic attraction.) Cl 2 is the molecular formula of chlorine, while ClCl is the structural formula of chlorine. Cl Cl Cl2 Cl Cl
( ) Cl 2
The molecular formula of a molecular substance is the formula which shows the actual number of each kind of atoms in one molecule of the substance. The structural formula of a molecular substance is the formula which shows how the constituent atoms are joined up in one molecule of the substance.
When we say the formula of a molecular substance, we usually mean its molecular formula.
A covalent substance is a non-ionic substance in which the atoms are held together by covalent bonds.
60
Molecular formula
Structural formula
H H2
2 hydrogen atoms 2
1 hydrogen molecule 1
Cl
H Cl HCl H Cl
1 hydrogen chloride molecule 1
H H H C H
1 carbon atom + 4 hydrogen atoms 1 +4 1 methane molecule 1 a lone pair of electrons
C H
H CH4 H
H C H H
N H
N H
H NH3 H N H H
H O
H2O
O CO2 O C O
N N2 N N
2 nitrogen atoms 2
1 nitrogen molecule 1
Table 8.1 Electron diagrams to show the formation of some simple molecules (only the outermost shell electrons are shown). ( ) 61
When non-metal atoms combine with each other, there is usually a sharing of electrons, forming covalent bonds.
Rules
(1) An atom involved in covalent bond formation contributes n electron(s) for sharing. n For hydrogen atoms, n = 1 n=1 For other atoms, n = 8 group no. of the element n = 8
Examples
A hydrogen atom contributes 1 electron for sharing; a carbon atom (Group IV) contributes (8 4) or 4 electrons for sharing; ( IV ) (8 4) 4 a nitrogen atom (Group V) contributes (8 5) or 3 electrons for sharing; ( V ) (8 5) 3 an oxygen atom (Group VI) contributes 2 electrons for sharing; ( VI ) (8 6) 2 a fluorine atom (Group VII) contributes 1 electron for sharing ( VII ) (8 7) 1
Cl , a chlorine atom shares electrons with a hydrogen atom. Cl N , a nitrogen atom shares electrons with another nitrogen N H , a nitrogen atom shares electrons with 3 hydrogen
(2)
For hydrogen and Group VII In H elements, an atom shares electrons H with one other atom in covalent In N bond formation. atom. VII N
In H N For other elements, an atom may H share electrons with one or more atoms. other atoms.
H N H
(3)
or
or
1 electron pair (to form a H C H (CH4) contains 4 single covalent bonds; single covalent bond) H ( ) 2 electron pairs (to form a O=C=O contains 2 double covalent bonds; O=C=O double covalent bond) ( ) N N contains 1 triple covalent bond. 3 electron pairs (to form a N N triple covalent bond) ( )
62
Rules
(4)
Examples
A shared pair of electrons is known as The nitrogen atom in an NH3 molecule has 3 bond pairs and 1 lone a bond pair. pair. Some atoms in a molecule may have NH3 unshared pairs of outermost shell lone pair electrons known as lone pairs.
H N
XX
bond pair
In a H2O molecule, the oxygen atom has 2 bond pairs and 2 lone pairs. H2O
lone pair H lone pair O
XX XX
H bond pair
8.1
Solution (a) Ammonium nitrate, lithium hydroxide (b) Tetrachloromethane, ethanoic acid, heptane, iodine (c) Tetrachloromethane, ethanoic acid, heptane
63
8.2
1.
2.
(a)
A dative covalent bond (or coordinate bond) is a bond formed between two atoms where both electrons of the shared pair are contributed by the same atom.
Atoms which have lone pairs of electrons may form dative covalent bonds. Let us consider the following examples.
(NH4 )
NH 3 HCl 8.3) H
+
64
H H N H H Cl H
H N H
ammonium ion
Cl
H or H N H H Cl H
H N H
dative covalent bond
Cl
The ammonium ion (NH4 ) has an overall charge of +1 distributed all over the structure. Thus ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) contains ionic bond (between NH4 and Cl ions) and four covalent bonds (four N H bonds) three of the N H bonds are normal covalent bonds and one is dative covalent bond. It should be noticed that dative and normal covalent bonds differ only in the way they are formed. Once a dative covalent bond has formed, it cannot be distinguished from a normal covalent bond.
+
(NH 4 ) +1 ( ( NH 4
+
(NH 4 Cl) Cl
) N H
N H
(H3O )
H H Cl
+ +
H H3O
+
8.4
65
O H
Cl
O H
Cl
hydronium ion
or
O H
Cl
O H
Cl
The constituents of ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) are all nonmetals, so it is considered as a covalent compound. Although ammonium nitrate is made up of non-metals only, it is + an ionic compound. It consists of ammonium ion (NH4 ) and nitrate ion (NO3 ).
(NH4 )
+
(NH4NO3)
(NO3 )
66
8.2
8.2
We have used the noble gas approach to work out the electron diagrams of the molecules of a few covalent compounds. From the electron diagram of a compound, we can deduce its molecular formula and structural formula. Alternatively, we can use a short cut similar to the one used for ionic compounds. A few examples are shown in Table 8.3. Compound
Hydrogen sulphide
1
8.3
Molecular formula
H S
2
Structural formula
H 2S H S Cl H
H 2 S1
Tetrachloromethane
C Cl
C1Cl4
CCl4
Cl
C Cl
Cl
N H
4
N 1H 3
NH3
H H O N C H O
C O
C2O4
CO2
Table 8.3 Predicting formulae of hydrogen sulphide, tetrachloromethane, ammonia and carbon dioxide (using a short cut). ( )
8.3
(b) (d)
8.3
8.3
8.2
Remarks
nitrogen is an (a) ________________ . (a) magnesium is an (b) ________________ . (b) water is a (c) _________ made of (d) __________ . (c) (d) the formulae of some compounds can be guessed from their (e) _____________ : thus the formula of carbon monoxide is (f) _____________ ; that of carbon dioxide is (g) _____________ . (e) (f) (g)
Nitrogen
molecule
N2
Magnesium
atom
Mg
Water
molecule
H2O
Carbon monoxide
molecule
CO
Carbon dioxide
molecule
CO2
Sodium chloride
NaCl
there is no sodium chloride (h) ________________ to represent the compound sodium chloride. (h)
Hydroxide ion
OH
OH is an ion OH
Air
not applicable
Solution (a) element; (b) element; (c) compound; (d) molecules; (e) names; (f) CO; (g) CO2; (h) molecule; (i) mixture. (a) (d) (g) CO2 (b) (e) (h) NaCl (c) (f) CO (i)
8.4
68
Constituent particles
metals atoms molecules (exception: carbon) (
Examples
copper (Cu) (Cu) argon (Ar) chlorine (Cl2) sulphur (S8) (Ar) (Cl2) (S8) water (H2O) ammonia (NH3) (H2O) (NH3)
elements
non-metals
PURE SUBSTANCES
compounds made up of non-metals only
usually molecules
compounds
compounds made up of metal(s) and non-metal(s) ions potassium oxide (K2O) sodium chloride (NaCl) (K2O) (NaCl)
8.4
(c) (g)
Cr2O7 I2
(d) (h)
Mg P
CHCl3 2 Cr2O7 S8 I2
Ar Mg 2+ Ba P
8.4
8.4
-12 = 12.000 00
69
For elements and compounds consisting of molecules, relative molecular mass is the mass of one molecule of it on the C = 12.000 00 scale.
Learning tip Relative molecular mass can also be called molecular mass. Relative molecular mass carries no units.
Relative molecular mass of = Sum of relative atomic masses an element or a compound of all atoms present in a molecule of the substance
For example, water (H2O) would have a relative molecular mass of 1.0 2 + 16.0 = 18.0. 1.0
(H 2 O) 2 + 16.0 = 18.0
Some compounds (such as ionic compounds) do not consist of molecules. For these, we use formula mass. The formula mass of a substance (or species) is the mass of one formula unit of it on the C = 12.000 00 scale. 12.000 00
12
-12 =
Sum of relative atomic masses of all atoms present in a formula unit of the substance
Formula mass is a general term applicable to all substances (or species) with a formula. In comparison, relative molecular mass only applies to molecular substances. See Example 8.3. 8.3 ( )
70
8.3
(c)
Al2(SO4)3
(b) SO4
(b) SO4
(c)
8.5
1. (b) C2H6
(c) C12H22O11
71
Key terms
Page 1. atomicity 2. bond pair 3. covalent bonding 4. covalent substance 5. double covalent bond 6. formula mass 7. formula unit 8. lone pair 9. molecular formula 10. relative molecular mass 11. sharing of electrons 12. single covalent bond 13. structural formula 14. triple covalent bond 58 60 60 60 62 70 70 63 60 69 59 60 60 62
72
Summary
8.1 1. 2. Covalent bonding and covalent substances A is the smallest part of an element or a compound which can exist on its own under ordinary conditions. Compounds made up of non-metals only usually consist of molecules. Elements are made up of either atoms or molecules. All metals consist of non-metals (except carbon) consist of discrete . 3. 4. Molecules can be represented by to show their shapes. . All
A is formed when one or more pairs of outermost shell electrons are shared between two atoms. For example,
Cl
H Cl
1 hydrogen chloride molecule
5. 6.
is the strong directional electrostatic attraction between the shared electrons and the two nuclei of the bonded atoms. A shared pair of electrons ( bond, e.g. H Cl. 2 shared pairs of electrons make a ) makes a covalent bond, e.g. O = C = O.
a double covalent bond
covalent
A (or coordinate bond) is a bond formed between two atoms where both electrons of the shared pair are contributed by the same atom.
8.2 8. 9.
Prediction of formulae for covalent compounds The of a molecular substance shows the actual number of each kind of atoms in one molecule of the substance, e.g. CH4. The of a molecular substance shows how the constituent atoms are joined up in one molecule of the substance, e.g. H
C H
73
10.
Some atoms have unshared pairs of outermost shell electrons. These are known as e.g. a lone pair of electrons
H O
1 water molecule
11.
The formulae of covalent compounds can often be predicted using a short-cut method: X
a
XbYa SiH4
(where a, b e.g. Si
4
8.3 12.
Particles that make up matter a summary All matter is made up of particles: atoms, molecules or .
Relative molecular mass and formula mass The C = 12.000 00 scale is used for comparing
12
of atoms.
of an element or a compound = Sum of relative atomic masses of all atoms present in a molecule of the substance of a substance (or species) = Sum of relative atomic masses of all atoms in a formula unit of the substance (or species)
74
9.1
Structure of substances
9.1
Introduction
The structure of a substance is a description of what its constituent particles are, and about how they are arranged or packed together.
The study of structures is important, since physical properties of a substance are closely related to its structure.
Molecular structures
There are two types of molecular structures, depending on the molecular size:
( )
9.1 ( )
75
EXAMPLES Elements
Non-metals Simple molecular structures Metals
Compounds
Covalent water H2O carbon dioxide CO2 H2O CO2 polyethene (CH2CH2 ) n (CH2CH2 ) n Ionic
hydrogen H2 iodine I2 H2 I2
SUBSTANCES
Giant structures
copper Cu iron Fe Cu Fe
9.1
(b)
Learning tip For polyethene, the formula is represented by (CH2CH2), where n n is a whole number from 100 to 30 000. Each molecule is very large (hence called macromolecule); it consists of many, usually thousands, of CH2CH2 groups joined together.
n (
100
30 000 ( )
76
9.2
9.2
Most non-metals and covalent compounds are composed of simple, discrete molecules. These substances have a simple molecular structure. The atoms within a molecule are strongly bonded together (by covalent bonds). However, each molecule is attracted to neighbouring molecules by weak intermolecular forces only.
Figure 9.2 The structure of dry ice. The molecules are held by van der Waals' forces in the structure.
77
Structure of iodine
In an iodine crystal, I2 molecules are packed closely together, but they are still discrete molecules. The molecules are held by van der Waals forces. See Figure 9.3. 9.3 I2
Figure 9.3 The crystal structure of iodine. indicates the position of an I2 molecule. Here the molecules are packed in a regular pattern. Repetition of this pattern trillions of times would result in a crystal. I2
9.2
( )
78
2.
Simple molecular solids are soft. Intermolecular forces are weak. It is easy to separate molecules and break down the crystal structure.
2.
3.
They are usually insoluble in water, but soluble in non-aqueous solvents such as methylbenzene and heptane.
3. ( 4. )
4.
They are non-conductors of electricity, whether as solids, liquids or in aqueous solution. This is because they do not contain ions or freely moving electrons to conduct electricity. Note: The aqueous solutions of a few molecular substances conduct electricity and can be electrolysed. This is because mobile ions are formed during the dissolution process. Examples include sulphuric acid and ammonia.
Learning tip Solvents other than water are called non-aqueous solvents.
9.3
(i) )
(ii)
9.3
Macromolecules
9.3
Macromolecules are very large molecules, each containing thousands of atoms. Examples are plastics, proteins and some carbohydrates like starch. ( )
79
9.4
9.4
An ionic compound is usually formed by combining a metal with a non-metal. Ionic crystals consist of positive and negative ions held together by strong non-directional electrostatic attractions (ionic bonds). The ions are regularly packed to form a continuous, three-dimensional giant ionic structure. (There are no discrete molecules.) ( ) ( )
Figure 9.4 Caesium chloride has a giant + ionic structure. It consists of Cs and Cl ions held together by ionic bonds.
or
Cs
Cs
Cl
Cl
Learning tip In the structure of sodium chloride, each sodium ion is surrounded by six chloride ions. 6
80
3.
Most of them are soluble in water, but insoluble in nonaqueous solvents such as heptane.
3.
4.
They conduct electricity when molten or in aqueous solution. They are non-conductors when solid. This is because in solid state, the ions present are not mobile; when molten or in aqueous solution, the ions become mobile and can conduct electricity. They are therefore electrolytes.
4.
Learning tip An electrolyte is a compound which, when molten or in aqueous solution, conducts electricity, and is decomposed at the same time.
9.1
81
9.5
9.5
In a few elements and compounds, non-metal atoms are joined by covalent bonds to form a giant network, called a giant covalent structure. Covalent bonds extend throughout the whole structure. There are no discrete molecules. Carbon atoms can be joined in two different ways, to form diamond or graphite. Diamond and graphite have very different physical properties because of their different structures.
carbon atoms
covalent bonds
To break the structure, numerous very strong covalent bonds between carbon atoms must be broken. This explains the extreme hardness and very high melting and boiling points of diamond. Diamond cannot conduct electricity, because it contains no ions or freely moving electrons to carry electric charges.
82
Two main uses of diamond: (a) Jewellery (b) Diamond cutter (used for cutting glass) (a) (b) ( )
Figure 9.6 The structure of graphite. (The lead pencil is graphite mixed with some clay.) ( )
Each carbon atom is covalently bonded to only three other carbon atoms in its layer, and one outer electron of each carbon atom is free. Those electrons are not attached to any particular atoms but belong to the whole structure (i.e. the electrons are delocalized). They are free to move from one six-membered carbon ring to the next within a layer. Thus, graphite can conduct electricity. Since only van der Waals forces exist between adjacent layers, these weak forces make the graphite crystal easy to cleave, and explain its softness and lubricating property. On the other hand, graphite has a very high melting point, since this involves the breaking of strong covalent bonds within the layers.
83
Some physical properties of diamond and graphite are summarized in Table 9.1.
9.1
Property
Appearance Hardness
Diamond
colourless hardest natural substance on the Earth
Graphite
black solid soft, brittle
3550 non-conductor
(IV)
(IV) (
) SiO 2
(IV)
silicon atom
oxygen atom
Figure 9.7 The giant covalent structure of silicon(IV) oxide. Note that this represents only a very small part of the lattice, which extends in all directions. (IV)
84
There are no discrete SiO2 molecules in silicon(IV) oxide. Thus SiO2 is only an empirical formula, not a molecular formula. This formula shows that the simplest whole number ratio of Si : O atoms in the compound is 1 : 2. Because of its structure, silicon(IV) oxide has a very high melting point (1610C) and boiling point. Also, it does not conduct electricity whether it is in the solid state or molten. (IV)
(IV) SiO 2
SiO 2 Si 1 2 O
(1610C)
Silicon(IV) oxide, with a formula SiO2, has a simple molecular structure. Silicon(IV) oxide has a giant covalent structure. The formula SiO2 only represents the composition of the elements in the lattice.
4. )
85
9.2
9.4
(a) (i) (b) (
17
(IV) (ii)
9.6
9.6
2, 8, 1
Metallic bond
Metal atoms are joined to one another in a giant metallic structure by metallic bonds, which result from the attraction between a sea of delocalized electrons and metal ions.
9.5
2,8,8,2
87
Most metals are solids with high melting points and boiling
points. A lot of energy is required to break the strong metallic bonds in a giant metallic structure.
( )
9.7
9.7
9.2
The bonding, structures and properties of substances with simple molecular, giant ionic, giant covalent and giant metallic structures are summarized in Table 9.2.
(2) Structure
88
( )
(b) M.p. and b.p. (c) Hardness of solid form (d) Solubility in
low
high
very high
usually high
soft
hard
usually high
usually high
(i) water
(ii) generally soluble
89
9.8
9.8
9.8
The flow chart as shown in Figure 9.8 may help us to predict structures other than the metallic structure.
Physical properties
Is the substance a gas or liquid at room conditions? yes
Structure
no Does the substance conduct electricity when molten and in aqueous solution?
yes
no Does the substance have a very high melting point? yes Giant covalent structure
Figure 9.8 Predicting the structure of a substance from its physical properties.
Learning tip Metals have a giant metallic structure. Usually we can tell whether a substance is a metal from its electrical conductivity and appearance. At room temperature and pressure, mercury is the only liquid with a giant metallic structure.
90
9.6
A D
A B C D
Answer the following questions, and explain your answers. (a) Which substance has a giant metallic structure? (b) Which substance has a giant ionic structure? (c) Which substance has a simple molecular structure? (d) Which substance has a giant covalent structure? (e) Which substance is likely to be soluble in heptane? (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
9.9
9.9
Suppose we know what elements make up a given compound. From the group number of the elements, we can predict the bonding and structure of the compound. We can then predict its physical properties. See Example 9.3. 9.3
91
9.3
(ii)
(iii)
( )
) K )
+ 2
VI
( 3 ) 62 1
N1F3
NF3
3 N NF3
1 F N1F3 NF3
92
(ii) (iii)
It has a simple molecular structure. Its physical properties: (1) A substance with a low melting point and boiling point. (2) In solid state, the compound is soft. (3) Insoluble in water, soluble in non-aqueous solvents. (4) Non-conductor of electricity no matter solid or liquid.
9.7
9.3 (a) (c) VII ) (X X Y (b) II
9.10
93
Key terms
Page 1. delocalized electron 2. giant covalent structure 3. giant metallic structure 4. giant network 5. giant structure 6. intermolecular forces 7. macromolecule 8. metallic bond 9. molecular structure 10. non-directional 11. simple molecular structure 12. van der Waals forces 86 82 86 82 75 77 75 87 75 80 75 77
Summary
9.1 1. Structure of substances The of a substance is a description of what its constituent particles are, and about how they are arranged or packed together. Simple molecular structures In some substances, atoms within a molecule are bound together by strong covalent bonds and each molecule is attracted to other neighbouring molecules by weak .
9.2 2.
94
9.3 3.
Macromolecules are very large molecules, each containing thousands of atoms. Examples include plastics, proteins and some carbohydrates. Giant ionic structures In ionic compounds, crystals consisting of positive and negative ions are held together by strong non-directional electrostatic attractions. The ions are regularly packed to form a continuous, three-dimensional . Giant covalent structures In a few elements and compounds, the non-metal atoms join together by covalent bonds to form a giant network called . Giant metallic structures Metal atoms are joined to one another in a by , which result from the attraction between a sea of and metal ions. Comparison of structures and properties of substances The structure, bonding and physical properties of simple molecular structure, giant ionic structure, giant covalent structure and giant metallic structure are summarized in Table 9.2 on p.88. Predicting structure from physical properties It is possible to predict the structure of a substance from its (Refer to the flow chart in Figure 9.8 on p.90.) properties.
9.4 4.
9.5 5.
9.6 6.
9.7 7.
9.8 8.
9.9 9.
Predicting physical properties from bonding and structure It is possible to predict the physical properties of a substance from its bonding and . (Refer to Example 9.3 on p.92.)
9.10 Applications of substances according to their structures 10. Some specialized new materials have been created on the basis of the findings of research on the structure, chemical bonding, and other properties of matter.
95