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Finding Meaning in the Classroom: Learner-Centered Approaches that Engage Students in Engineering 1149
. seeing ways that students can manage their own Novak [5] summarizes the requisites for such
thinking and learning; meaningful learning as follows:
. creating the kind of social context that supports
. Relevant prior knowledge: That is, the learner
collaboration, shared thinking, and risk taking;
. facilitating various kinds of engagement with the must know some information that relates to the
content in ways likely to build understanding. new information to be learned in some nontri-
vial way.
. Meaningful material: That is, the knowledge to
Guided by this underlying theory our efforts have
been to locate and adopt promising pedagogical be learned must be relevant to other knowledge
strategies. and must contain significant concepts and pro-
Drawing upon a broad research base, the positions.
. The learner must choose to learn meaningfully.
National Research Council (NRC) recently
reported the following points as key to successful That is, the learner must consciously and delib-
learning [3]: erately choose to relate new knowledge to know-
ledge the learner already possesses in some
. Students come to the classroom with preconcep- nontrivial way.
tions about how the world works. If their initial Learner-centered pedagogy focuses on ways
understanding is not engaged, they won't change learners must be engaged in order to learn mean-
or they may learn for the test and revert to ingfully. Our goal is to focus on the metacognitive
preconceptions. aspects of learning. In this way we hope to provide
. To develop competence in an area, students learners with a set of learning skills and attitudes
must (a) have a deep foundation of factual that enable them to become more autonomous.
knowledge, (b) understand facts and ideas in Learners need to know how to process information
the context of a conceptual framework, and (c) in ways that enable them to construct meaningful
organize knowledge in ways that facilitate retrie- knowledge. Mayer describes three processes in
val and applications. which the learner must engage for meaningful
. A metacognitive approach (involving the lear- learning to take place [6]. These are: select, organ-
ners' knowledge of their own thought process) ize, and integrate. Learners must recognize and
to instruction can help students learn to take pay attention to the relevant and important
control of their own learning by defining learn- content, they must organize the content in a
ing goals and monitoring their progress in structure that is faithful to the disciplinary struc-
achieving them. ture of the content, and they must integrate the
content into their existing cognitive structure (i.e.,
These points carry strong implications for effective knowledge).
teaching that are often at odds with the typical Theory directs us to believe that the best way to
engineering classroom. The pedagogy traditionally teach metacognitive strategies is to first model
practiced in engineering courses takes a `bottom- their use explicitly and then, in a variety of ways,
up' approach, adding incremental bits and pieces encourage students to internalize the strategies.
as students tackle increasingly difficult problems. Achieving self-monitoring and self-regulation
The hope is that students will eventually get the big requires not only learner intention, but also a
picture and be able to integrate and apply all the repertoire of learning skills that can be brought
procedures. The all-too-frequent reality, however, to bear appropriately and effectively in a learning
is that students cannot apply their knowledge to situation. Mayer identifies two classes of strategies
new situations. This becomes evident when they that learners can use to facilitate meaningful learn-
are unable to solve problems even slightly different ing [6]. One he calls structure strategies. These
from those used for practice and instruction. This strategies help learners think about the structure
becomes even more apparent across courses. of the content they are learning. They acquire an
The need for a different approachÐone that organized and interrelated set of ideas, a set that
focuses on meaningful learningÐin the engineer- they can continue to build upon rather than a
ing classroom is eloquently expressed by Schneck hodge-podge of unconnected facts and formulae.
[4]: The second class of strategy Mayer calls generative
strategies. Generative strategies help learners link
The exponential surge of material that must now be new knowledge with existing knowledge. These
covered in engineering curricula, its rapid obsoles- strategies focus on productive ways of processing
cence, and the general trend toward more holistic information, ways that involve the sort of inten-
attitudes in 21st century education all require that tions and consciousness necessary for meaningful
the engineer of the future be a product of a program
learning.
of integrated learningÐone that teaches students to
use unified, deductive approaches to the creative What then should the student experience in an
formulation and solution to engineering problems. engineering classroom look like? Clearly the find-
Moreover, successful engineering programs in the ings described here point to a learner-centered
21st-century university will be those that address the approach to teachingÐthat is, the teacher needs
current void between product-oriented skills training to be aware of and build upon the experiences
and process-oriented holistic training. and knowledge that each student brings to the
1150 G. Ellis et al.
classroom. Teachers must help students acquire a . [Recognize] that a major reason many women
deep knowledge of the subject matter, and they choose engineering is because of an altruistic
need to help students organize that knowledge in a bent (and the knowledge that engineering does,
useful way. Too often in the classroom it is left in fact, help society and people).
entirely to the students to put all the pieces . [Nourish] students' interest by using examples in
together and see the big picture. Finally, teachers class that highlight application and problem
must help students understand, evaluate and take solving and that demonstrate how engineering
responsibility for their own learning. has led to improvements in society and the
While the research findings on successful learn- quality of people's lives.
ing summarized above apply to all students,
This paper illustrates educational strategies used in
women are particularly at risk in the typical
the Picker Engineering Program by presenting
engineering classroom. This is evidenced by the
examples from the introductory core class in en-
fact that only 8.5% of the engineers in the United
gineering mechanics (EGR 270). EGR 270 is a
States are women [7]. Similar statements can be
four-credit, semester-long course that is largely
made for underrepresented minority groups and
populated by sophomore engineering students.
are summarized by Chubin et al. [8]. Goodman
Topics include 2-d and 3-d rigid body equilibrium,
et al. [7], summarize the concern of engineering
shear and bending moment diagrams, dynamics,
education reformers as follows: `the interests,
vibrations, and an introduction to stress and
socialization, and experiences of women (and
strain. The primary aim of the course is the
other underrepresented groups) are often at
development of conceptual understanding and
odds with traditional engineering structures.
problem-solving ability in engineering mechanics.
These populations tend to flourish, on the other
Alongside that aim, other important objectives are
hand, in settings that emphasize hands-on,
the development of communication skills, the
contextual, and cooperative learning.' In their
ability to work effectively in a team, and an
study of thousands of women engineering
increased understanding of professional responsi-
students from 53 institutions, Goodman et al.
bility. The paper pulls these strategies apart in
[7], found the following:
order to describe them more clearly. Topics
. Half of all women leaving engineering programs include integrating engineering and the liberal
cited dissatisfaction with the programs at their arts, engaging learners, helping students organize
schools, including grades, teaching, workload their learning and helping students take control of
and pace. their learning. It is important for the reader to
. One-third mentioned negative aspects of their realize that in practice this content and the instruc-
school's climate: competition, lack of support, tional practices are much more an integrated
and discouraging faculty and peers. whole.
. One-half said they left because they were not
interested in engineering.
INTEGRATING ENGINEERING WITH THE
Each of these reasons is related to the pedagogy LIBERAL ARTS
used in the classroom and illustrates the potential
for poor teaching to discourage women from Froyd and Ohland [10] have reported that inte-
careers in engineering. The integration of engin- grated programs can improve retention, improve
eering and the liberal arts, which is the hallmark of learning of interdisciplinary content and improve
the Picker Engineering Program, has important acquisition of non-disciplinary skills. As in all of
implications for attracting and retaining women the courses in the Picker Program, the liberal arts
in engineering. Grasso [9] illustrates this point by are integrated regularly into EGR 270. For ex-
comparing the fields of medicine and engineering. ample, dance is one of the approaches used to
He states that if a physician is asked why she teach dynamics in context. In classroom activities
selected a career in medicine, she is more likely students learn about the mechanics of the fouetteÂ
to say `I like helping people' than `I liked biology'. turn, grande jeteÂ, and arabesque used in balletÐ
On the other hand, an engineer's most common and under the guidance of a dance instructor they
response to the same question is, `I liked math and also experience the movement. This allows them to
science'. Grasso points out it is not surprising that directly feel the concepts that they are learning.
most college-bound students, especially women, (Research has shown the importance of kinesthetic
are unwilling to sign on for educational programs experience for learning mechanics [11].) By exam-
that promise such a narrow role in society. This is ining the proper technique in the movements,
particularly tragic because of the flawed reasoning. students see how the artistry is achieved within
Engineers don't just design and create things: they the constraints of the laws of mechanics. In a
also need to consider the societal, economic, envir- follow-up to the classroom activity, students use
onmental and ethical issues involved as part of the VideoPoint [12] software to discover the mechanics
design process. Based upon their study of women of why a dancer gives the illusion of floating
in engineering, Goodman et al. [7], support during a grande jete (the kicking motion changes
Grasso's illustration with the following suggestions the center of mass and results in the head following
for improving engineering education: a flatter trajectory than the center of mass).
Finding Meaning in the Classroom: Learner-Centered Approaches that Engage Students in Engineering 1151
Another example of integrating the liberal arts is learning in the classroom. Recently Smith et al.
that ethics is taught across the engineering core at [14], summarized the history, theory, and research
Smith. Riley et al. [13], notes that this approach base of this movement and the literature on a
has several benefits. These include allowing variety of classroom strategies for engaging the
students time to develop their sense of morality learner, such as: active and cooperative learning,
and mature in their ability to analyze and reflect on learning communities, service learning, coopera-
ethical problems, encouraging students to see tive education, inquiry and problem-based learn-
ethics as a practice of thought and exchange of ing and team project learning. They also cited a
ideas that must be exercised over a lifetime, and variety of references to guide the implementation
helping students see ethical decision-making as of these techniques in the classroom [15±17].
part of the core skill set of an engineer. The A variety of approaches are used in the EGR
approach is a particularly good fit in the Picker 270 classroom to engage the learner. Mazur [18]
Program because other topics related to social has shown the effectiveness of using concept ques-
responsibility, notably sustainability, are also tions to increase student engagement and promote
distributed across the curriculum. In EGR 270 deeper understanding of concepts in physics. In
ethical considerations are integrated with the tech- EGR 270 concept questions are used regularly to
nical content through two case studies. help students identify the preconceptions they
In the first case study, students examine the 1976 bring to the classroom and then help them chal-
Hyatt Regency Hotel collapse in Kansas City. The lenge or build upon those preconceptions as appro-
unit includes assigned readings on professionalism, priate. For example, in the beginning of the unit on
a multi-media presentation by the instructor laying moment of inertia students are asked to identify
out the chronology and facts of the case, a group about which axis an angle-shaped column will
problem-solving activity to identify the technical buckle under axial loading. After reasoning
cause of the failure, and group discussions of the through the question on their own, students work
issues of professionalism involved in the failure. in groups to discuss and reconcile differences
These issues include assigning responsibility for among their answers. The activity concludes with
the design flaw, understanding the responsibilities students testing their answers experimentally using
of licensed professional engineers, assessing the cardboard folded in the shape of an angle column.
communications among the parties, and discussing Using this question as a starting point, the theories
the discipline actions that were taken. Experience involved in the unit can be developed and related
has shown that these discussions are an important back to a common experience. Later in the unit,
opportunity for students to share and work through similar questions on the same content will help
their personal concerns about taking on the ethical both the student and instructor assess the learning
and legal responsibilities of the profession. that has taken place and help inform the direction
In the second case study, students investigate and pace of the class.
both the mechanics and societal effects of the 1985 Another strategy used on a daily basis is group
Michoacan earthquake. This class activity also problem solving. In this activity students work in
begins with the instructor presenting the facts of small teams to solve problems that synthesize the
the case in a multimedia presentation. This presen- content presented during the class. While the
tation includes not only the technical aspects of the students are solving the problem, the instructor
caseÐsuch as the geology, acceleration±time works with each group to answer questions and
histories and their Fourier spectra, and pictures identify common issues that may need to be ad-
of various structural failuresÐbut also attempts to dressed with the entire class. After completing the
make students aware of the human dimensions of problem, a student team presents its solution to the
the tragedy. Based upon this information, students rest of the class. Many students participate in this
work in groups to explain the damage pattern of process by asking questions, sharing alternate
the earthquake throughout Mexico. Once the solutions or providing additional insights. As in
technical analysis is completed, students research the use of concept questions, it is not just the
and write a paper on the effect that the tragedy students who gain directly from the immediate
(and the engineer's role in it) had on Mexican feedback and opportunity to improve their under-
society. Topics arising in these papers include standing. The instructor also gains a better under-
discussions of political unrest, unification of a standing of the students' needs and can adjust the
divided lower class, government re-organization, class accordingly.
tourism and other economic effects, exposure of Project-based learning is another strategy for
corruption, the response of citizens to the presi- engaging students that is an integral part of the
dent's actions after the quake, and the tremendous EGR 270 class. Throughout the semester students
suffering of the victims. work in teams to produce a video for teaching
dynamics concepts, design a bridge and analyze the
structural safety of the Washington Monument.
ENGAGING THE LEARNER Through these projects students develop a deeper
understanding of mechanics and practice applying
There is a growing literature base about the need their knowledge to situations beyond those idea-
to engage the learner to promote meaningful lized in the textbook. It also provides an ideal way
1152 G. Ellis et al.
for students to learn skills that go beyond the students to analyze, synthesize and evaluate infor-
technical content of the course. The following is mation gathered from a variety of resourcesÐa
a description of the video production project that strategy reported by Briedis [21] for developing
illustrates this approach. A more detailed descrip- lifelong learning skills. Smith's Media Services
tion of the project can be found in Ellis et al. [19]. supports this effort by providing equipment and
Despite the fact that video is a primary com- offering workshops in video production. Consis-
munication medium in our society, engineering tent with Smith's philosophy of integrating engin-
students typically receive little or no preparation eering and the liberal arts, these workshops give
in its use. This represents a missed opportunity not equal emphasis to the technical and artistic aspects
only for preparing students to be effective com- of production. Students are also instructed in
municators, but also for using the medium to management and team production skills.
engage them in the learning process. For example, Examples of screenshots from two different
Reynold and Barba [20] report that the use of videos are shown in Fig. 1. It has been our
video can help empower the learner by allowing experience that students produce videos that exhi-
them to control time and study phenomena that bit creativity and originality, both in content
are difficult to observe; by bringing sense to verbal choice and presentation style. They often tape
descriptions of scientific phenomena through motion based upon the personal interests and
visual and auditory representations; and by help- experiences of the team members to illustrate the
ing students make immediate and direct connec- concepts in their videos. These have included
tions to the concrete world. In EGR 270 students shooting billiards, bicycling, diving and playing
develop and demonstrate a basic proficiency in the basketball. Students express their creativity by
use of the medium by producing a two- to three- choosing the production approach (voice-over,
minute instructional video on combined transla- interview, vignette, combination, etc.), storylines,
tional and rotational motion. This requires musical effects and shot composition.
Fig. 1. Screenshots from student videos that explore the mechanics of a foul shot (upper) and the mechanics of spin in billiards
(lower) [19].
Finding Meaning in the Classroom: Learner-Centered Approaches that Engage Students in Engineering 1153
Fig. 2. Concept maps used in EGR 270. The upper map shows the relationships among topics in the course. The lower map shows the
relationship between motion and its causes [29].
1154 G. Ellis et al.
but can also result in a `master' map that is lean that includes a range of content and difficulty
and shows the major relationships among ideas. levels. This requires the students to identify which
5. Repeat steps 3 & 4. problems cover the needed content at the right
difficulty level to meet their learning needs. The
Two sets of interrelated instructor-generated maps
homework is then graded using a rubric designed to
are used in EGR 270. These include a succession of
encourage constructive effort toward learning and
increasingly sophisticated course concept maps
useful feedback to the student. In the EGR 270
showing the relationship among the major
rubric the level of effort counts for 50%, starting
concepts in the class (the final map is shown in
solutions from a conceptual framework and demon-
the top of Fig. 2) and a second dynamics map
strating conceptual understanding of fundamental
illustrating the relationship between motion and its
ideas counts for 20%, and correctness and presenta-
cause (bottom of Fig. 2).
tion each count for 15%. This approach is meant to
The course map is introduced on the first day of
discourage students from becoming adept at
class as part of a group activity in which students
mimicking a process that is in the textbook or
articulate their current knowledge of continuum
demonstrated by the instructorÐan approach that
mechanics (such as the importance of shape or
results in a short lived and limited ability to solve
material for resisting bending) and then explore
engineering problems [31].
how this knowledge is represented on the concept
Another example in EGR 270 is the use of
map. Through this activity the students are made
student narratives to encourage reflection upon
aware of the knowledge they already possess and
the learning process. After completing each of
the nature of the learning that needs to take place,
the three projects, students write narratives reflect-
i.e., representing and organizing their knowledge
ing on what they have learned through the experi-
in a meaningful way and developing the quant-
ence, including what they did well and want to
itative skills needed for its application. Following
continue, and what they want to improve upon in
this activity the concept map is revisited regularly
future efforts. Individual ideas are discussed in
throughout the course to help students understand
groups and assembled into a reflection for the
why they are learning each new topic, how new
entire class that will be shared with students
concepts fit in with the concepts already learned,
taking the class in the future. Our experience is
where assumptions and idealizations are made and
that students discuss a wide range of issues, from
where, conceptually speaking, they are headed in
time management and group skills to how to
the future. Finally, the map is used to help students
include supporting data most effectively or write
organize data, equations, and concepts for solving
a sound conclusion. Below are several excerpts of
problems.
student reflections on the video production
The dynamics map first is used in EGR 270 as
project.
an organizing device for reviewing Newtonian
One group, recognizing the delicate balance
mechanics and then later as a tool for solving
between education and entertainment, wrote:
rigid body dynamics problems. To solve problems,
the students identify on the map the location of the Our group has learned that a good video must grab
variables that are given in the problem statement the audience's attention in the introduction and main-
and the variables that need to be calculated. The tain its interest throughout the production. Though
pathway connecting these locations is then identi- our introduction and theme helped maintain interest,
the use of background music would have made our
fied as the solution procedure. Through this explanation more exciting. Also, while our diagrams
approach the structure of the dynamics concepts and equations were helpful aids, they could have been
is reinforced each time students solve problems. presented more slowly, so that they would be easier to
Further discussion of this map for teaching physics understand. The video should have a steady flow,
can be found in Ellis and Turner [28]. with numerous clips and transitions that lead into one
another and do not interrupt the movie's pace.
Many groups wrote about the growth of their team
HELPING STUDENTS TAKE CONTROL skills. One example is the following:
OF THEIR LEARNING The group learned how to accommodate each mem-
ber's individual schedule, cooperating during meeting
Felder and Brent [30] discuss the importance of times to be most productive, and accepting diverse
meeting the needs of engineering students with opinions in a mature fashion. All these skills will be
different learning styles, approaches to learning applicable in future professional settings during
and intellectual development levels. They describe internships and eventual careers.
how the `one-size-fits-all approach to teaching' that
has been typical in engineering education `violates ASSESSING EGR 270
virtually every principle of effective instruction
established by modern cognitive science and A variety of assessments (pre- and post-course
educational psychology.' Throughout EGR 270 attitude surveys, mid-semester formative assess-
students are given opportunities to make choices ment, and post-course written surveys and focus
about their learning. For example, students are groups) were administered to measure the effec-
allowed to choose homework problems from a list tiveness of the new approaches introduced into the
Finding Meaning in the Classroom: Learner-Centered Approaches that Engage Students in Engineering 1155
EGR 270 class in the fall of 2002. These data, when and analyze it very specifically in terms of how it
possible, were also compared to the 2001 class that works physically. There's no better way to get
was taught by the same instructor in a more outside of the textbook.' When asked in post-
traditional lecture format. course focus groups to identify factors critical to
At the midpoint in the semester students their learning in EGR 270, student comments
completed a brief written survey to ascertain, for revealed the impact of the metacognitive
example, how helpful the use of conceptual frame- approaches taken, for example, in the homework
works was to their learning. All respondents to this assignments: `He (the professor) set up a rubric so
survey were in agreement that the course concept that if you do the problem all out and follow each
map was helpful to their learning. In focus groups step, you get a certain number of points. He really
conducted at the conclusion of the course, this was wants to see you follow the steps and what he
further echoed in student comments such as `He taught you, instead of just concentrating on the
(the professor) makes a point at every new chapter right answer.'
to go through the concept map and say ``so we In a post-course survey 63% of respondents in
learned how to do this, which means we can now the EGR 270 class in fall 2002 agreed with the
do this, which relates to this' and it makes every- statement that `the forms of evaluation in the
thing make sense.' Further, in a post-course ques- course were excellent' in comparison to only 25%
tionnaire it was found that the percentage of of EGR 270 students who agreed with this state-
students that agreed with the statement, `the ment in fall 2001 (statistically significant differ-
course goals and objectives were clear' showed a ence, p 0.003). To assess mastery of content
statistically significant difference (p 0.009) when knowledge, students in 2001 and 2002 were given
the instructional approach was changed from a final course examination that included standard
lecture to learner-centered pedagogy. In the Fall engineering mechanics problems and as well as
2001 class, only 60% of respondents agreed with questions designed to measure conceptual under-
the statement; whereas in the Fall of 2002, 92% standing. Approximately two thirds of the ques-
agreed. tions on these exams were identical. Based upon an
In the mid-semester survey students were also evaluation of student performance on the identical
asked if the video project was helpful for their questions, students answered 86% of the questions
learning. A positive response was indicated by 83% correctly in 2002 compared to 82% in 2001.
of the respondents, 15% did not respond or indi- Although this increase in mean test scores was
cated no preference, and 2% indicated a negative not statistically significant (p 0.176), it clearly
response. The following were cited multiple times does not show a decrease in the mastery of content
as positive factors in the experience: knowledge as measured through a traditional
. the satisfaction of learning the skills needed to evaluation instrument. (The changes made to the
exam in 2002 were designed to measure student
communicate through a new medium;
. the opportunity for creative expression in an learning of the higher-level skills introduced in the
revised courseÐsuch as using concept maps to
engineering course;
. the intellectual challenge of communicating help frame and develop solution strategies for ill-
defined problems. In future studies we recommend
ideas;
. the chance to learn on their own; and including such questions in comparative studies.)
. the experience of working in a group. Finally, when asked in post-course surveys to rate
their achievement relative to specific learning
Students responded enthusiastically to the hands- objectives outlined in the course syllabus, students
on, project-based learning approaches taken in the in the 2002 EGR 270 course agreed strongly that
fall 2002 EGR 270 course: One student wrote, learning objectives were achieved (Table 1).
`People could take anything they do in their life In post-course surveys, 83% of students in 2002
Table 1. Student perceptions of learning objectives in EGR 270, Fall 2002 [19]
1 I have developed a conceptual understanding of how loading, geometry, and material properties 100%
affect the mechanical behavior of a continuum.
2 I have developed problem solving competence based upon fundamental principles in calculating 96%
internal and external forces for statically determinate 2D and 3D mechanical systems in static
equilibrium.
3 I have developed problem solving competence based upon fundamental principles in calculating 92%
internal and external forces for calculating centroids.
4 I have developed problem solving competence describing the behavior of damped and forced 40%
vibrating systems.
5 I have improved my understanding of calculus and physics through their application. 88%
6 I have improved my skills in oral, written and visual communication. 64%
7 I have improved my ability to work effectively in a team. 80%
* 25 out of 27 students responded on a five-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
1156 G. Ellis et al.
approaches with a retention rate of 87% for the successfully because there is an excellent support
first graduating class (out of 23 students) and system amongst the students and faculty.
92% of the following class (out of 28 students)
remaining in the program in their senior year.
Also encouraging is a 100% retention for under- CONCLUSION
represented minority students in the graduating
and senior class (out of 11). In an attempt to A learner-centered approach to teaching intro-
better understand these numbers graduating ductory engineering mechanics has been shown to
students were asked in an exit survey what be effective for women engineering students. An
encouraged them to stay in the program at assessment of the course supports the effectiveness
Smith. Common answers included the emphasis of the approach for increasing student satisfaction,
on the liberal arts and the satisfaction of succeed- confidence and commitment towards engineering,
ing in a challenging program. However, the while also achieving the technical learning objec-
development of supportive relationships that the tives of the course. These results are consistent
program fosters was the most prevalent answer. with research on effective learning and retention of
One student wrote: women and underrepresented minority groups in
engineering; thus we feel that they are broadly
Smith is an excellent learning environment not only applicable in engineering education.
because of the rigor of the program, but also because AcknowledgementÐThis research has been partially supported
of the sense of community that exists here. Professors with generous grants from the GE Foundation, the Ford Motor
are able to challenge us constantly by pushing the Company and the National Science Foundation (grant BEE-
limits of our education. They are able to do so 0230625).
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