Kumarakom, A tourism village in Kottayam.

Kumarakom in Kerala is now an internationally renowned backwater tourism hub. More than 17,000 foreign tourists and 30,000 domestic tourists visit and stay every year in this small village. Natures bounty is the unique selling proposition to attract different target groups from around the world in the past one decade. Marvellous lake shore, tasteful inland fishes, birds splendid in number and varieties, house boat cruise on back waters, delicious food and rejuvenation therapies are the publicized attractions. But beyond all these the life of the villagers, the history they created, the unique style of their agriculture, social actions, religion, festivals, and the models they created in developmental planning and village governance are all worth knowing, seeing and experiencing. Kumarakom is situated in Kottayam District, in Kerala State, in India; it is on the west of Kottayam, and on the north east of Alappuzha (Alleppey). The total area of Kumarakom is 52 Sq.Kms. (12,844 Acres) out of the above, 24 Sq.Km. is part of Lake Vembanad, 16 Sq.Km. is Paddy fields, the area of the settlement of the village is only 12 Sq.Kms.The whole of western, southern and part of northern boundary of Kumarakom is Lake Vembanad. Kumarakom was a very small place till 18th Century; major part of Kumarakom was reclaimed from Lake Vembanad, by using the sand from the

lake. Kumarakom comprises of reclaimed land, lot of canals, Meenachil River and lake Vembanad. How to Reach By Road: Kumarakom is only 10Km from Kottayam Town, 22 Km from Cherthala,22 Km. from Vaikom,35 Km from Alappuzha,65 Km from Ernakulam/Kochi, 280Km from Kozhikode, and 178Km from Trivandrum. By Rail: Kottayam Railway Station, Cherthala, Alappuzha or Ernakulam Railway Station By Air: Nedumassery International Airport at Kochi,in Ernakulam Dist., Karippur International Airport at Kozhikode and Trivandrum International Airport at Trivandrum. By Water:Muhamma, Allappuzha, Ernakulam/Kochi and Kollam The Grama Panchayat controls the local administration of Kumarakom village. The first democratically elected Panchayat assumed office on 17 July 1953. The Communist Party of India (CPI) led it. This village council was in power for ten years and the second Panchayat assumed office on 17 December 1963, under the leadership of the Indian National Congress defeating the CPI in five wards out of eight. The third Panchayat council came into power in 1980 under the leadership of CPI (M). The CPI and CPI (M) captured all the ten seats in 1986. In the fifth Panchayat council also CPI CPI (M) coalition front got eight seats out of ten. In the year 2000 both the CPI (M) led LDF and Congress led UDF secured 6 seats equally. The present Panchayat area is divided into 15 wards. The panchayat election held in 2005 favored CPI (M). They captured 11 seats out of 15. The Panchayat members meet at least once in a month. Till 1996 the village Panchayat had very limited powers and resources. The administration was under bureaucratic control.

The Government appointed the Panchayat Executive Officer and other staff and they were under the control of the state department of Panchayat. The village Panchayat has the authority to levy taxes on buildings, profession and on entertainments. The vehicle tax collected by state government is shared with the Panchayat. The total income of the Panchayat in 1995-96 was Rs. 39,06,976. With the implementation of Panchayat Raj Act 1994 on the basis of the amendments introduced to the Constitution of India in 1992 the village panchayat became a powerful democratic body. Block Panchayats at the intermediate level and District Panchayat at the district level were also formed with effect from 1st October 1995 after the due process of election conducted by the State Election Commissioner. New Laws for Local Government

K. Sankunni Menon the first elected President (1953-63) of Kumarakom Panchayathu The Kerala Panchayat Raj Act as enacted in 1994 was progressive in nature in many respects when compared to other State enactments. But it was to be further refined and the new Panchayat Raj set up required further strengthening. To make recommendations on these lines the Kerala Government in July 1996 appointed a Committee on Decentralization of Powers with Dr. S.B. Sen from West Bengal

as its Chairman. The Committee gave an interim report to the Government in August 1996 and the final report on amendments to the Panchayat Raj and Municipal enactments in 1997. Most of these recommendations were accepted and Acts were amended in 1999. With these amendments the duties and functions of the Local Self-Government Institutions have enlarged and their autonomy is protected. With the amendments carried out in 1999 in the Kerala Panchayat Raj Act, the administrative control of the Government and its functionaries over the Local Self Government Institutions (LSGI) is taken away. The power of the Government to interfere in the administration, to disqualify the members and to dissolve the local governments is removed. The appellate powers are vested in the judicial tribunals. This is very important because different political parties come to power in the State and in the Local Self Government Institutions. If the State Government exercises any control over the Local Self Government Institution administered by a political party different from the one in power at the State, political compulsions may be crept in and the decisions are liable to be taken with partiality and result in political interference. Any decision or action or inaction of a panchayat can be questioned before the Tribunal and the grievance redressed. The Government does not have any authority to sit in judgment over the decisions, actions or omissions of the Local Self Government Institutions. The judicial Tribunals are expected to change the present system drastically.Right to information is a novel idea incorporated in the Act. The transparency in administration will surely bring the corruption to zero level. All decisions are rendered open for the scrutiny of the public. Citizens Charter on the lines of Best Values prevalent in British local bodies is introduced to strengthen the transparency provisions. This will also put a moral obligation on the administrators to render time bound services to the public, as it is their right.

A.G. Ushakumari the first woman President (2000-05) of Kumarakom Panchayathu The most important feature of the amendments of 1999 is the creation of the Ombudsman. Now in Kerala we have 1214 local governments of which 991 are Village Panchayats. The Local Self Government Institutions have about 13000 employees as their own staff and about 60000 Government employees have been transferred to their control. This huge administrative set up is to be put under a vigilance machinery to control corruption and other evil elements. When the administrative control of the Government is taken away there shall be a machinery to check and control. Unlike in the Government, the Standing Committees powers are wide in terms of administration. One body, the Finance Standing Committee does all taxation, appeal, and collection of money and spending. The elected members involvement in day-today administration is unlimited and even the payment is authorised by the executive head, viz., the President or the Chairperson. This involvement in the day-to-day administration and in financial matters is a favourable environment for corruption, mal-administration and misutilisation of finance. Hence separate and independent quasijudicial system for adjudication gains importance. For this purpose the law provides for an Ombudsman. The Ombudsman is the first of its kind in the entire country. The members of the Local Self Government Institutions exercise a number of executive powers and on that ground alone there is every

chance of some becoming corrupt. The Ombudsman will function as an anti-corruption and public redressal forum. Face to Face Democracy

Kerala is the only State in the country, which has given utmost importance to the Grama Sabhas (Village Assembly) in the decentralization process. We have constituted Grama Sabha for each and every constituency of the village panchayat/ municipality. In fact Grama Sabha is the general body of the electors forum in a ward. Grama Sabha has been given powers to take decisions on the matters assigned to it, oversee the administration of the local government, comment on its activities and induce its decisions, so as to make it just and development oriented. Convening the meetings of the Grama Sabha once in three months in a year is made a mandatory duty of the ward member who is also the convenor of the Grama Sabha. The budget, audit reports etc. of the local government are discussed and commented upon by the Grama Sabha. By strengthening the Grama Sabhas, we have given life to the concept of face-to-face democracy. Participatory Planning As per article 273G (a) and 243W (a) (i) of the Constitution of India,Section 175 of the Kerala Panchayat Raj Act and Section 51 of the Kerala Municipality Act, each local government has the powers, authority and responsibilities to prepare its own annual and long term plans for the economic development

and social justice. These draft plans are discussed thoroughly at the Grama Sabha/ Ward Sabha level and additions and modifications are suggested with reference to local needs and resources. Thus plan implementation is made easy and effective. The plans are prepared in the form of viable projects and they are carried out with the Government grants, local governments own revenue, public contributions in cash, kind and labor and the available institutional finance. The District Planning Committee integrates the plans at the District level. The State Planning Board gives necessary guidance to the District Planning Committees and the individual local bodies in the preparation and implementation of plan projects. The Keralas Peoples Plan Campaign was a good example for defining participatory democracy. Finance of Local Government Only the Village Panchayats are given the power of taxation. The establishment cost of the Block and the District Panchayats are met by a non-plan grant-in-aid from the Government. The major taxes levied by Village panchayat are Property Tax, Profession Tax, Entertainment Tax and Advertisement Tax, the last one practically not exploited. The assigned taxes by the State Government consist of Land Revenue and Surcharge on Stamp Duty and the shared tax is the Motor Vehicle Tax. The tax collection and share of taxes and grants from the government for the year 2003-04 of Kumarakom Grama Panchayat is given below Property Tax (Building Tax) Rs. 918985 Profession Tax Rs 546010 Show Tax Rs 3942 Surcharge on building Tax Rs 626 Surcharge on show Tax Rs 235 Entertainment Tax Rs 4425 Addition Entertainment Tax Rs 2828 License Fees Rs 24972 Grants and Contributions from Government Rs 3380847 Miscellaneous Receipt Rs 33812 Library cess Rs 46318

Plan grant for annual development projects Rs 7000000 Total Rs 11963000 This shows that the fiscal base of the Grama panchayat is quite good. The Kerala Panchayat Raj Act provides for levy of user charges and also availing of institutional finance by Panchayat Raj Institutions. The Finance Commission recommended one per cent of the net revenue of the State to be devolved to local governments. But the CPI (M) led LDF Government went far beyond and decided to devolve 35 to 40% of the Plan Funds to local governments. The grant-in-aid from Plan Fund to Kumarakom Grama Panchayat for the year 2004-05 is Rs. 71,66,000 The local body wise allocation of grant-in-aid is passed along with the State Budget and is shown in a separate document viz. Appendix IV. It is worth noting that out of the grant-in-aid the percentage of untied funds is very high. Another important feature is that contrary to universal practice, it is the Village panchayat which gets bulk of the grants nearly 70% of the rural share going to them, with the District panchayat and Block panchayat sharing the remaining 30% almost equally. Yet another special feature of this devolution is the absolutely non-discretionary nature of allocation of funds. Constitution of the village administration in Kumarakom is as shown in Illustration-A below.

A meeting of Kumarakom Grama Sabha Number of members elected to the village council is 15. Five seats are reserved for women and one for Scheduled Caste as provided in the law. One third of the posts of Panchayat Presidents in the district are also reserved for women by rotation. During 2000-05 the post of President of Kumarakom Panchayat was reserved for women. Out of the fifteen members 11 held by CPI (M) led LDF and 4 by Congress led UDF. The President and Vice-president of Kumarakom Panchayat belong to LDF. There are 3 Standing Committees also functioning. They are (1) Finance Standing Committee chaired by Vice President. (2) Welfare Standing Committee and (3) Development Standing Committee. Members of the standing committees and their chairmen were elected on the principle of proportional representation and hence both the ruling and the opposition members will get due representation. The office of the Local Administration is well staffed. The allotted staff strength now is 16. They are Secretary, Head clerk, seven Clerks, Overseer, Village Extension Officer and Lady Village Extension Officer, two Peons and two Sweepers. The Krishi Bhavan (Village Agriculture Office) headed by an agricultural scientist and extension officers, Government

Ayurvedic Dispensary, Government Homoeo Dispensary, Veterinary Dispensary, Health Centers and Primary Schools are under the control of the Panchayat. But the Government pay salary to the staffs in these transferred institutions directly. The Grama Sabha (the ward-level village assembly of all voters) is the lowest statutorily recognised unit of selfgovernance. There is legal provision that Grama Sabha should meet every three-months and the developmental works, annual plans, accounts of Panchayat and administration reports should be discussed in the Grama Sabha. If 10% of voters asks, the panchayat president has to call the Grama Sabha. If he fails to do so citizens themselves can convene it and that Grama Sabha too will be legally valid. In Kumarakom each ward is divided into a number of Neighborhood Groups (NHG) consisting of 40-50 proximate families situated at `shouting distance. NHG is a platform for all the members children and adults a sort of extended family and also a place to practice face-to-face democracy. There are 98 such NHGs in Kumarakom, which act as supporting structure of Grama Sabha.

Production of livestock, fishery, and poultry together with rice, in combination, has been recognized as a revolutionary concept to increase production in several countries. Rearing of fish in paddy fields is known to improve the soil conditions leading to increase in the rice yield. Rice-fish rotation is also considered to be effective in suppressing weeds, pests, and diseases. With the popularization of aquaculture as an integrated activity with rice, several padasekharams, presently remaining uncultivated for the past several years in the region could be brought to farming with enhanced profitability.

In the background of aquaculture emerging as one of the most promising industries in the world, with high growth potential, the Research and Development support in India has rendered aquaculture as a bankable rural industry recording an average growth rate of 11.4 per cent. Aquaculture, however, needs to take lessons from our experiences in agriculture and its recent crash on the east coast of India. These lessons indicate that application of wrong technology or over exploitation of natural resources have only short-term gains. Hence, environment-friendly integrated fish farming, suitable to the overall agricultural system is a sound alternative to capitalintensive hi-tech aquaculture. Again, it is essential to develop a threshold grow-out strategy for aquaculture integration, making rotational farming of rice mandatory, whereby the waste generated by aquaculture is assimilated in rice farming and vice-versa. A wealth of documented evidence has been accumulated in favor of integrated farming approach (bio diverse farming). Such studies demonstrate that it can compete with industrial agriculture as well as industrial fisheries in terms of producibility and that bio diverse farming offers the important additional advantages of sustainability and risk reduction Pokkali-A pioneering integrated system The practice of utilization of paddy fields for sequential farming of fish and prawn is an age-old practice in the pokkali paddy fields of Kerala. These are brackish water fields adjoining Vembanad Lake The practice is popularly known as Chemmeenkettu or prawn filtration. Here, in one and the same field, rice and fish/prawn are farmed in a cyclical manner, the detritus supplement of straw after the rice crop forming bulk of the food material for prawns. In these fields, rice is cultivated during the low saline phase (June _October) and shrimps reared during summer months (November-March), when salinity builds up and when the field is unsuitable for rice. In this system, the shrimp seeds naturally entering from

the coastal seas are trapped and cultivated as a mutually beneficial and ecologically efficient enterprise-farming model. Several studies conducted in the pokkali paddy fields have shown that the production of prawns and the net profit could be improved by selective stocking of commercial species. RARS experiments The studies conducted by the Kerala Agricultural University at the Regional Agricultural Research Station (RARS) Kumarakom have set the pace for a change in integrated farming in Kuttanad. These studies indicated that in addition to rice production averaging three tons per ha, fish production ranging from 600-1000 kg per ha could be obtained by simultaneous farming of rice and fish. As compared to the practice of simultaneous farming that requires several modifications in the paddy fields to protect the fish from the inherent risks of pesticide applications, utilization of paddyfields for rotational farming was found more advantageous. This was so because rotation permitted adoption of better management practices for both rice and fish. In these investigations, wherein fish production of Indian major carps, Cyprinus, Etroplus, and Macrobrachium rosenbergi were polycultured, fish yield up to 1005 kg per ha without incurring any additional expenditure on feeding or manuring was achieved. From these observations it could be inferred that rotational farming of rice and fish is a viable proposition for Kuttanad. Certain species of fishes viz., Cyprinus and Grass the support of Fish Farmers Development Agency (FFDA) in Kottayam and technical advice from the RARS, is still continuing with enthusiasm and constant modifications as a result of learning by doing. A detailed account of the integrated farming done is given below. The farming started with the nursery preparation and subsequent deposition of fish seeds (numbering 68,000) arranged by the FFDA, purchased from Government hatcheries

at Polachira, information on various combinations of fish seeds and the required number according to the growth of fish were given by RARS. The need to add poultry droppings to enhance the plankton growth at required level was also advised. The new demand feeding technique through a suspended open gunny bag on the farm was also adopted on the advice of RARS. Both FFDA and RARS inspired and helped the farmer a lot to make the experiment a success. Safeguarding the nursery was a difficult job. The following measures were adopted for this. (I) Spreading net on the top of nursery to keep off birds. (ii) Electric bulbs at selected spots to attract flies. (iii) Net fencing to safeguard the nursery from the attack of snakes and predators. (iv) Employing a full-time labourer for feeding and guarding the nursery. (v) Operating a pump set for pumping in water for oxygenation. Preparation of Nursery After the last washing of water from the nursery, cow dung (@ 500 kg) was applied. Then water was let in through a netted sluice. Cow dung was applied a second time to nourish the water to enhance plankton growth. The pH of field water was tested periodically to ensure that it is maintained between 7.5-5.5. After ensuring that the plankton grown and pH level in water is satisfactory, the fish seeds were introduced into the nursery. Stocking Rate The normal stocking density of fish seed is 4000 to 6000 numbers per ha. It is also possible to stock fresh water prawns additionally at the rate of 10,000 numbers per ha. In such cases bottom feeding fish species are avoided.

The general species mix and stocking models adopted comprise of surface feeders (25 per cent) column feeders (30 per cent), and bottom feeders (45 per cent) Catla, and Grass Carp are surface feeders. Rohu is column feeder, and bottom feeders like. Mrigal, Common carp, and fresh water prawns were also stocked The procedure for preparation of the nursery pond was as follows: After dewatering the nursery pond copper sulphate and lime (l hg each mixed) was applied to kill the weed fishes. Quick lime (100 kg) was used for washing (three times) to reduce the acidity of the soil. Grass Carp that eat weeds was included to control weeds, depending on the extent of the weed problem in the field. Water quality monitoring The quality of environment has a profound influence on aquaculture production. Acidity is a major problem and hence periodic application of lime will be done. Water quality monitoring was done by the cultivator himself with the help of FFDA and scientists of RARS. Feeding in the nursery Rice bran and groundnut cake powder (500 gm) are mixed in water and given in trays immersed in the water at four different places in the nursery every morning and evening. The feed trays are immersed with the help of a stone weight and taken up with the help of a coir rope tied to it. The seedlings remain in the nursery pond for four months. After the rice harvest, the nursery pond is opened to the paddy field (polder). By this time, the fish would have acquired an average weight of 50 gm Feeding in the Polder Fish is allowed to grow in the paddy field immediately after the rice harvest by flooding the field. After flooding no feed was supplemented to the polder during the first month. After

that rice bran, cassava, cooked meat waste, groundnut cake, etc., were given to the fish. Feed was kept suspended in perforated gunny bags. Aquatic weeds were utilized to feed Grass Carp, which was always an integral stocking component. This species (Grass Carp) consumed vegetation up to 60 per cent of its body weight. Water hyacinth, water lettuce, grass etc., are given to the Grass Carp Integration of pigs, livestock, ducks and poultry During the first year, the farmer integrated livestock and pigs, next year ducks were added too, and the third year poultry was integrated. Livestock and duck rearing were discontinued on economic reasons alone. But piggery and poultry proved to be profitable. Pig dung and poultry droppings enriched the field. Cultivation of garden crops on the bunds enhanced the productivity from the unit land. Pigs were reared on the outer bunds of the fields in such a way that the waste and washings are drained into the field for the fish to feed on. In this way, the fish could utilize the feed spit spitten by pigs and also feed on the fresh pig dung that contains 70 per cent of digestible food for the fish. Harvesting and marketing Fish became ready for marketing from the sixth month onwards. The fish crop is totally harvested and marketed in one months time so that the rice crop could be raised on time. Harvesting is carried out by drag netting or gill netting and finally by total draining of the field. Fish was marketed the same day in fish markets at Ettumanoor, Kottayam, and Moovattupuzha. There was substantial reduction in the cost of rice cultivation since the farmer consciously reduced exogenous inputs to maintain the ecological quality of the paddy field to facilitate the fish farming. Since fish such as Grass Carp ate up the weeds the dominant cost component of weeding and land preparations were saved. The ecological suitability of this system was also brought about by the RARS studies.

Comparison with rice-fish systems The Kumarakom Model is an ideal model practised by an individual farmer. But in Kuttanad, normally rice cultivation is done in large tracts of Padasekharams and fish cultivation integrated with rice is gaining ground here. But other integration such as poultry and cattle is difficult here because of the management problems of collective farming. But the integration of rice and fish is spreading, mostly in the Kottayam district of Kuttanad.There are three polders in Kumarakom where integrated farming is being done successfully. The first and foremost is Ittoops Lijo Farm (20 acres) on the southern tip of Kumarakom village, Kappada Padasekharam (10 acres) owned by an individual near it, the Anthony Kayal (55 acre) on the northern side of Kumarakom. Many tourists as well as researchers visit these farms.

RICE CULTIVATION Rice is the dominant crop that covers 57 per cent of the total area of Kumarakom. The physiographical set-up of the area, a

low-lying zone, supports the rice cultivation. Two crops are usually raised during Viruppu (Kharif) in May-September and punja (Rabi) in November-March.All the paddy fields in Kuttanad are submerged area and hence called the Netherlands of Kerala. The rice is raised after bailing out water and bunding the low-lying fields. Cultivation is practised in blocks called Padasekharams (Polders). There are 45 Padasekharams managed by 45 different elected Padasekharam committees in the village. Several cultivators, who cultivate their land individually, own the land in these Padasekharams.

Rice Cultivation Below Sea Level - Wiki Commons Dewatering is taken up on a co-operative basis. The marginal farmers owning less then one hectare account for 57.6 per cent of operational holding followed by small farmers (32.5 per cent). Therefore most of the farmers have to depend on collective ventures for cultivation in the polders. The productivity of the crop is high; 3.8 tons/hectare as against the State average of 2 tons/hectare. Rice Cultivation The main economic activity in this wetland tract is rice cultivation. The cycle of activities in a rice cultivation season in Kumarakom is as follows:-

1. Removal of waterweeds: The rice field is usually infested with waterweeds due to fallowing. The first step to initiate cultivation is removal of all aquatic weeds. 2. Repair of outer bunds: Since the cultivation is done below water level, a strong outer bund is a necessity for dewatering and safe cultivation. 3. Auction for pumping: The Puncha Special Officer who is an official of the Revenue Dept. does the auctioning for pumping. This is done at Kottayam, the district headquarters. Usually the members of the polder committee and interested farmers participate in the auction. The polder committee gives farmers attending a token amount for attendance, which is then included in the organizational expenses of the polder. The contractor who takes the auction is responsible for the de-watering activities in the polder. 4. De-watering: This can take 1 or 2 weeks for small polders and up to 30 days for bigger polders. During de-watering, a net is strung across the outlet for fishing. The polder committee also auctions the fishing rights. During the dewatering period the traditional fishermen can fish in the polders. 5. After de-watering, the field is allowed to dry in the sun and weeds are allowed to grow. 6. Weedicide is applied and water is let in and the weeds are made to decay. 7. De-watering. 8. Polder preparation: Levelling of polders is done with a tiller and/ or by female agricultural laborers who level the field by hand. 9. Irrigation; water is let in through sluices. 10. Sowing: sprouted seeds (seeds are tied in a sack and kept in water for a day and then kept outside for a day after tying it tight for germination) are sown in water.11. De-watering: the sprout is allowed to grow after this. During the period,

weeds also grow, but the growth is slower and hence the height of the weeds will be lower than that of the rice plants. 12. Irrigation: water is let in to a level at which the weeds are submerged. 13. De-watering after a week when the weeds are made to decay 14. Gap filling and weeding: gap filling is done to adjust the space between plants and simultaneously, weeding is also done. 15. First application of fertilizers. 16. Second application of fertilizers (15 days after the first application). 17. Third application of fertilizers (15 days after the second application). During the activities mentioned under 15, 16 and 17, there is frequent irrigation and de-watering done to keep fresh water in the field. During the same time pesticides and fungicides are applied as and when pests or diseases are noticed. 18. After 45 days, the first stages of rice are visible. 19. After 110 to 120 days, harvesting is done. 20. This is taken to the threshing field, which is usually on the embankment of the polder.21. Threshing: usually during the night by the female farm workers who did the harvesting. 22. Winnowing: mostly by using the winnowing machine (powerful fan is used to separate the paddy from the chaff) The increasing cost and risk of cultivation is found as the major constraint to farming.The rice cultivation in Kuttanad is a demonstration of what human endeavour can accomplish even without elaborate equipments. A detailed survey conducted in Kumarakom has shown the following as the major problems.

Problems of labor: Scarcity of labor with diminishing labor productivity 23. Paddy is stored in piles and merchants come and take this. The merchants can be local rice processors or modern rice mill owners. De-watering: High cost of dewatering, power failures, delays associated with this activity Weak bunds and recurring cost of maintenance High weed-growth and high cost of weed control Salinity intrusion and crop loss during summer months Acidity and iron toxicity and declining soil fertility due to constant use of chemical inputs

Pest and diseases damage routing in poor grain formation Damage done by rodents Inadequate transportation facilities and marketing problems. The intensive cultivation using high breed varieties of rice, chemical fertilisers, and heavy doses of pesticides has caused both fertiliser and pesticide pollution to the aquatic

environment in Kuttanad. The KWB study (1989) has estimated that 20,228 tons of chemical fertiliser and 485 tons of pesticides are applied every year in Kuttanad. Spread of noxious aquatic weeds due to fertiliser pollution has an added effect on killing fishes and rendering fisher folk jobless.Shrinking Rice Fields

The cost of rice cultivation has increased considerably and made it unremunerative. Consequently farming in Kuttanad brings heavy loss to farmers. Young men and women are not ready to work in the paddy fields. As a result an acute shortage of labor is experienced in rice cultivation. Many of the cultivators are unwilling to take the heavy risk of rice cultivation. They even try to convert paddy field to coconut garden or to housing site. The conversion of paddy fields is done in violation of law and it is detrimental to the economic and developmental interests of the society. Rice being the staple food of the state, we must have a reliable domestic supply to ensure food security. But every year the area for cultivation and production of rice is shrinking. Increasing cost of cultivation due to increase in the price of fertilisers, pesticides, and labor not followed by any commensurate increase in output price is the major factor that contributed to the persistent pressure for replacement of rice by other more remunerative crops. Apart from

diminishing returns from rice cultivation acute shortage of labor also discourage rice farmers from continuing the traditional occupation, as successful rice cultivation demands crop operations at the right season and time. This has tempted some of the farmers to switch over to other enterprises. In many areas, paddy fields have been systematically converted into coconut plantation further altering the ecology and aggravating flood problems.

In this context, diversified agriculture covering livestock and poultry farming aquaculture, horticulture, etc., following new economic climate is not only essential to ensure nutritional security for the households, but also to develop ability to import commodities by exporting agricultural commodities. Further, rice farm production is the most efficient way of alleviating poverty, protecting the environment, and bringing about economic transformation in rural areas. The growth in farm productivity will accelerate growth not only in industry but also of the HOME LIFE

here are about 5120 households with an average family size of 4.49 in Kumarakom according to the latest Census in 2001. Kerala has had its own distinctive style of domestic architecture and the pattern of dwellings. Almost every house is a separate dwelling located in a self-contained compound and it is provided with all domestic amenities within its boundaries. The distributed habitation pattern of Kerala is quite different from the conglomerate habitats of the rest of India. The traditional upper class houses called nalukettu were built in accordance with the principles of Thachu Sastra (Science of Architecture) for accommodating the erstwhile families under Marumakkathayam system. Some of them could accommodate as many as 150 or 200 inmates.

Traditional Architechture They consisted of a rectangular structure, sometimes tiled but generally with a thatched roof, comprising a central courtyard (Nadumuttom) the structure being divided into four main rooms and four corner rooms, and the courtyard being connected to the outside by four corridors arranged in Swasthika form. Wood and laterite were important building materials used, wood for making the columns, eves, the gables, the overhanging roof and balconies and laterite for

basement and foundation of the building. Verandas and cattle shed formed part of every house. Usually the entrance to the house was through a gate house (Padippura).The traditional Nalukettu is now almost a thing of the past, though specimens of it may still be seen in the rural areas. In Kumarakom too there were some Nalukettu type big houses but all have been dismantled. But some tourist resorts have brought such dismantled Nalukettus and rebuilt and kept. In Kumarakom Lake Resort and Coconut Lagoon one can see the re-creation of a Kerala village. Here traditional timber mansions known as Nalukettu, Illams and Tharavads, have been saved from destruction, dismantled and transported to the backwater retreat and meticulously reassembled plank by plank to give the guest a feel of Keralas stately homes.

Nadumuttam Under the impact of modern civilization the style of domestic architecture has changed. The modern houses are intended to accommodate single families and there have, therefore, been significant changes in the design, lay out and architecture of residential buildings. The new terraced or tiled bungalows have replaced the old Nalukettus. Almost all modern upper class houses are constructed in the western style and they consist of drawing room, dining hall, bedrooms, with attached

bathrooms, a kitchen and a storeroom. The number of storeys in the house depends on the financial capacity of the parties concerned. The roof is made of reinforced concrete and is decorated on the sides by concrete railings of beautiful designs. The walls are plastered with lime, or with cement and then whitewashed. The floor is done in cement, or in mosaic/ ceramic tiles, if the party can afford to have it. The windows are provided with iron bars of different varieties. Decorative grills are also used in some houses, at least on the front side in order to ensure an attractive appearance. The bars, which were till recently fixed vertically on the windows are now being placed horizontally. Ventilators have become indispensable items. Either they are attached to the top of the windows or provided separately. A flower garden in front of the house has become the fashion of the day. The houses are invariably provided with electric lights and pipes, wherever possible. Those, which are not roofed with concrete, have wooden ceilings. It may, however be noted that the houses of the very poor are still built of bricks and the roofs are thatched with plaited coconut leaves. Instead of brick walls wooden planks or bamboo mats are also sometimes used. Hundreds of small houses are recently built with the financial assistance from government, loans from banks, co-operative societies and government owned Housing Board. The landless `hutment dwellers, could secure ten cents of land as a result of the Land Reforms laws implemented in 1970s. The bureaucratic delay in implementing this law was remedied by forceful agitation of the agriculture workers and CPI (M). More than a house and squatters households could grab permanent right to 10 cents of land each, which helped them to construct new hygeinic homes. Furniture and Decorations The houses of the well todo have fairly well furnished rooms. The use of chairs, tables, settees, teapoys, sofa etc, is quite

common. The doors and windows of houses are provided with curtains. T.V. sets and flowerpots wherein either fresh flowers or artificial flowers made of paper or plastic are kept as decorations in almost every drawing room. Clock, photos and calendars adorn the walls. Coir mats and carpet are spread on the floor. Wooden cots are found in some houses, but people also sleep on grass mats spread on floors.

Traditional House The lighting of the lamps is a delightful ceremony with children squatting around the lamps chanting devotional songs. Some of the bronze lamps are ornamental and oil is generally used as an illuminant. Kerosene lamps are lit only after the ceremonial lighting of the bronze lamps is done. But now electric lights have almost replaced the kerosene lamps. In Kumarakom more than 85% houses are electrified. It must, however, be stated that a few earthenware pots and mats form the only household possession of the poor classes. Dress

A distinguishing feat- ure of the people of Kerala is the simplicity and elegance of their dress. White cloths are preferred to coloured clothes by the vast majority of people. A piece of cloth (mundu), is worn round the loins by men of almost all communities. A small upper garment is also worn while at home. While what is described above is the traditional form of dressing among men, irrespective of caste, there are differences in the forms of dressing prevalent among women. The women wear an inner garment round the loins and an outer garment covers this, which are usually two and a half yards in length and one and a half yards in breadth. Sometimes instead of two clothes one clothe sufficiently long for the purpose is worn. In the past it was customary for these women to leave the upper part of the body exposed, but this custom has now disappeared. Each caste and community has its traditional form of dress. The conventional dress used by Christian women is the white mundu or cloth, about seven yards long and one and a quarter yards broad, worn in a distinctive style with a fan-like portion on the backside. They cover the upper part of the body with a long sleeved blouse. The Muslim women have a liking for gaudy dress. They wear blouses closed at the neck with long sleeves and cover their heads with scarves.

Now as a common habit the people of Kerala wear chappels. Walking barefooted is considered below ones dignity among the majority of people. However the educated and well to do sections in the society use foot wear when they go outside the houses.

There have been significant changes in the sartorial habits of the people in recent years. The young women of today, irrespective of caste or community, have almost given up the conventional costumes in favor of white or colored saris and blouses, brassieres, cholis etc. New forms of dresses such as churidar, pants, shirts and colourful T-shirts are common among young women everywhere. Almost all women take special care in the growth and preservation of the hair. They

use plenty of oil to improve its growth and to keep it smooth and shiny. There are several ways of doing the hair among them. The traditional way has been to part it in the middle and tie it either tight to the ears or twist it up in front in a sort of cone or sometimes to tie it into a knot behind. The Young womans plait of hair used to reach the knee or even lower, adding greatly to her beauty. With the increasing craze for fashions in dress, fashionable forms of hairdressing have also come into vogue among young women. Blackening of the eyes and eyebrows is widely prevalent. Young and old ladies use nail polish and face powder and rarely lipstick. Ornaments Ornaments made of gold have been popular with all classes of women. The oldest ornament of the Nair women was a necklace called nagapatam, or serpents head, so called from the shape of the pendant. Other ornaments used around the neck by the Nair women were the Yanthram, poothali, avilmala and pulinakham. They also wore a nose ornament called mukkuthi from which was suspended a gold wire called Grattu. Round the loins were worn gold and silver belts. While grown up women did not wear anklets, the young ones used Kappu and Kolusu. The ear ornament of the Nair women was the Toda, which was a double convex disc, the front surface of which is decked with precious stones such as rubies, for the wearing of which the ear lobes were sufficiently dilated. The dilating process began at a very early age and the ear lobes became so far distended as to make it possible to wear todas of more than an inch in diameter. Now toda has became out of fashion. Only very old ladies wear this. Rings of all kinds were used for fingers. The Namboothiri women used only as few ornaments as possible. They wore rings on their fingers. A peculiar kind of necklace known as Cheruthali was worn loose over the breast. The Tamil Brahmins were not sparing in the use of ornaments. They had ornaments for the head, nose, ears, neck, arms, fingers, waist, and feet, and in fact for every part of the body. The Syrian Christian women bore their

ears in several parts and wore a kind of heavy-gilt brass rings called Mekka motiram at the top of each ear. They when quite young in order to accommodate a `U shaped ornament at the time of wedding dilated the ear lobes. They were also accustomed to use necklaces and rings of various sorts. The Muslim women used to wear a variety of ornaments all over their body. They wore several necklaces in addition to armlets, bracelets, bangles and anklets of different description. It was customary to have ten to fourteen holes bored in each ear in order to facilitate the wearing of a string of ornaments. The craze for ornaments has diminished among all classes of women. They now limit their jewellery to the absolute minimum. A simple gold chain is preferred for the neck. The modern ear ornaments consist of simple ear rings, studs etc. Bracelets and bangles made of gold and glass are worn on the wrists. Food Rice, boiled and served hot, is the staple food of people of all castes and creeds. The rice consumed is usually of the coarse type. The daily dietary of the people consists of the morning breakfast, mid-day meal or lunch, the afternoon Tiffin and supper at night. Kanji (rice boiled in water and served in liquid form), which was the traditional Malayali breakfast, has now almost become a thing of the past. The modern breakfast consists of dishes like dosa, idly, poori, etc., and beverages like coffee and tea. The more well to do sections take bread, with jam or butter, eggs and such costly beverages as oats, horlicks, bournvita etc. The people prefer dishes made of rice, but those prepared from wheat have become common out of sheer necessity. The mid-day meal or lunch is an elaborate affair and it consists of boiled rice and curries with pickles and buttermilk. The supper after sunset is either kanjee or a full meal with some of the items as are used for the mid-day lunch. Coconut oil and condiments are used in all culinary preparations. Coconut is an indispensable ingredient in almost all curries. Among Christians pork and beef are

favourite items of food. There is no substantial difference in the dietary habits prevalent among various castes and communities except that some are vegetarians or others nonvegetarians. The Namboothiris and the Ambalavasis have been strict vegetarians and they take no animal food. The Nairs, Ezhavas etc., are not regular vegetarians or non-vegetarians and they take both foods according to convenience or habit. The Christians and Muslims have been definitely nonvegetarian. Both of them eat fish and meat.

RELIGIONS/CASTE The most important religious communities of Kumarakom are the Hindu and the Christian. Even though 5 percent of the total population in Kottayam district are Muslims, here there is only one Muslim family in Kumarakom. The Hindu community as elsewhere in the state is organised on the basis of the caste system. The Brahmins who are at the apex of the

caste hierarchy form only a very small minority in Kumarakom, only six families. Brahmins in Kerala come under two broad divisions, Indigenous and Non-indigenous Brahmins. Indigenous Brahmins are Namboodiries and in Kumarakom all the six families are Namboodiries. The Ambalavasis, the Varriers who are concerned with the performance of some function or the other connected with the temples also form a small portion of the Hindu population.The Nairs and Ezhavas form the most influential and numerous of Hindu castes in Kumarakom. The Nairs were originally a martial race but with the British conquest and occupation of the country, they gave up their traditional occupation of fighting and took to agriculture, government services and the learned professions and callings.

A serpent grove in Kumarakom Ezhavas in Kumarakom were largely engaged in the cultivation of coconut palms and the industries connected with its products eg: toddy-tapping, manufacture of coir etc. Many among them were farmers and agricultural workers, while a few earned their livelihood by other forms of manual labor such as rowing of country boats and fishing. The Ezhavas have distinguished themselves in the field of Ayurveda and Astrology. In recent years many of them have given up the traditional occupation of toddy tapping and have taken to new pursuits. Next to Nairs and Ezhavas, the Kammalas (Artisan) form another important section in the Hindu community in

Kumarakom. There are various sub-divisions among them such as Asaris (mainly carpenters) Musaris (brazier, belleter), Kollan (Blacksmiths), Thattans (goldsmiths) Kallasaries (masons) and Ganakas (astrolegers). But they are a small section among Hindus. Dheevara community whose main occupation is fishing forms a small segment of Hindus. The male members fish from the lake and the females do door to door selling of fishes. The most backward among Hindu community is categorized as per constitutional law as Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Their population in this village is very small. A majority from among the scheduled castes were converted to Christianity and therefore are not considered as scheduled castes. They are considered as Backward Christians. The most important sects among scheduled castes are Parayas (sambavar) and thePulayas (cheramar) Velans whose traditional work is white washing and lime making are also included among scheduled castes. The Pulayas in Kumarakom were hard working agricultural labourers. There are Hindu Pulayas and Christian Pulayas. The only scheduled tribe in Kumarakom is Ulladan. This race is almost extinct in many parts of Kerala. A few of them however are seen in Kumarakom. They catch and eat tortoise and are non-vegetarians. They make plates using arecnut palm. Foods are collected in such plates and sometimes they use them as hats also. Their main job is fishing and canoe making. Hindu Religious Beliefs and Practices The religious beliefs and practices of the Hindus here represent a fusion of Aryan and Dravidian ideas. There are a number of Non-Aryan religious beliefs and practices, which have become part of the Hindu religious faith. Serpent worship and ancestor worship are admittedly non-Aryan practices.

The origin of snake worship goes back to remote antiquity. But in no part of the world is snake worship still prevalent as in Kerala. In almost every house the south-west corner of the compound is set apart for a snake shrine called Sarppakavu. The proposition of the serpent god is considered essential to the well being and prospirity of the family. According to the tradition the first Aryan colonists brought by Parasurama found Kerala uninhabitable. So they left. Then the Naagas (Snakes) of the lower world came and occupied the land. When the Aryans came again they found the land occupied and waged war against the Nagas. Parasurama decided to favour the early colonists and ordered that they should set apart a corner of their compound as an abode for the serpent god. This grove which is found in some houses for snake worship is an evidence of the connection between the Nagas and the Dravidian peoples.There are some such groves still in Kumarakom. The Naaga shrines at Mannarassala is the most important serpent worship centre in Kerala. It is a small beautifull village about 3 kms North-west of Sri Subrahmonya Temple at Haripad in Alleppey District.

Vavu Bali - An important ritual connected with ancestor worship

Ancestor worship has also been an age-old practice. The deceased ancestors are looked upon as benefactors of the taravad and special pujas are performed on New Moon days to propitiate them. There are certain important shrines in this District, such as the one at Vedagiri near Ettumanur, which are visited by people for performance of Vavu Bali on Amavasi or New Moon days. It may be mentioned thatVavu Bali is an important ritual connected with ancestor worship.In Kumarakom also hundreds of people gather together at SKM Temple for Vavu Bali every year. Apart from practising serpent worship and ancestor worship, the Hindus also venerate animals and birds like the cow, bull, garuda, peacock and the monkey. There are also certain plants, which are considered by them as especially sacred. The Aswatha, the Bilva and the Tulsi may be particularly mentioned in this connection. Pradakshinams round the Aswatha (peepul) tree are believed to bring religious merit. The Bilva is sacred to Siva and is largely used in his worship. TheTulasi is likewise sacred to Vishnu but it is also used in all temples for pujas,irrespective of the deity. The Hindus worship all the Gods and Goddesses of the Hindu pantheon such as Siva, Vishnu, Bhagavathi, Sastha, and Subramonian etc. Kottayam is famous for its great temples or Mahakshetrams dedicated to Siva. The Siva temples of Vaikom, Kaduthuruthi, Ettumanur, Tirunakkara, Thazhathangadi, Kadapattur, Lalom, Mariapally and Vazhapally are among the most famous of their kind in the District. In Kumarakom also there are two Siva temples. The existence of such a large number of famous Siva temples in the same area perhaps shows the predominant influence exerted by the Saiva cult in this District in the ancient past. It is also significant that compared to the neighboring District of Alleppey; there are only a few Vishnu temples of repute in Kottayam. The more important among them are those of Trikkodithanam, Tiruvarpu, Kudamalur, and Bharananganam

etc. At Aymanam, near Kumarakom there is an ancient temple dedicated to Vishnu in the form of Narasimha. There is also another Narasimha temple at Manganam to the east of Kottayam. In this District there are two famous temples dedicated to Sri Rama. They are located at Tirumanivenkitapuram (Vaikom, taluk) and Ramapuram (Meenachil Taluk). Within a radius of 3 k.m. from the latter temple are situated the temples of Kudappalam, Amanakara and Methiri dedicated to Lakshmana, Bharata and Satrughna respectively. The Tirumuzhikulam temple (Mulakkulam village) is dedicated to Lakshmana while the Vennimala temple is dedicated to both Sri Rama and Lakshmana. The existence of two separate flagstaffs side by side is a special feature of the latter temple. One of the famous Bhagavati temples of Kerala is located at Kumaranallur in this District. There are important Bhagavati temples at Peruvantanam, Perunnai and Cheruvalli. There are temples dedicated to Subramonian at Udayanapuram, Kidangur, Edappadi, Perunnai and Munnar. The District is particularly famous for the Sastha cult. Sabarimala, the most celebrated of the Sastha shrines in the country, is situated in the Peermade Taluk of Idukki District. There are also Sastha temples at Erumeli, Punjar, Devikulam, Kumarakom, and Vedavyasagiri. Ganapathi is accommodated as a minor deity in many temples. In the Siva temple in Vazhapally the worship of Ganapathi is more popular than that of the main deity, Siva. At Adityapuram near Kaduthuruthi there is a temple dedicated to Aditya, the Sun God. Panachikkadu in Kottayam Taluk has a famous shrine dedicated to Saraswathy, the Goddess of Learning. As temples dedicated to the Sun God and Saraswathi are rare, the Adityapuram and Panachikkad shrines assume special significance. At Olassa there is a temple dedicated to Dhanwantari Deva (Physician of the gods) Temple Rites: The worship in the temples of the District is open to all irrespective of sex. To an average Hindu, the day bigins with a

bath in the temple tank. He makes a dash to the temple with the mundu still wet and circumambulates the deity, chanting the Lords name.With his forehead, chest and arms smeared with holy ashes and sandal paste he emerges into the work a day world with the feeling that the day has begun well for him.Hindu life is intimately associated with temples. The rituals are of a very elaborate nature prescribed in the Tantras (rituals). Thepriest performs the Puja or worship after he has purified himself by the performance of such external acts like dhyanam (meditation) and japam (prayer). This is followed by the offerings of water, flower, sandal, incense, camphor etc. The number of dailyPujas varies in different temples as per the importance of each. The maximum is five and the minimum one. The daily Pujas are called Nityanidanam. Under this head comes the abhishekam, puja, nivedyam, namaskaram, sribeli etc. The devotees offer vazhipadu, which consist of nivedyams, archanas, lighting etc. The kanikka or the depositing of coins is a common practice in most temples. Devotees also offer ornaments and other valuables to the deity. Each temple has its distinctive vazhipadu. In the temple in Ettumanoor it is the payment of money, in Vaikom it is the feeding of Brahmins. In Vazhapally the main vazhipdu is the Appam offered to Ganapathi and in Thiruvarppu it is the Uzhapayasam. In Subramonia temples like Udayanapuram, Kidangoor etc. the main offering is the Kavadi. It consists of an offering of sandal, rose water etc. to Lord Subramonia carried in posts over the shoulders of the devotees, the posts being suspended from the ends of a pole well decorated with tapestry and feathers of the peacock. At Sabarimala, the pilgrims make lavish offering of rupees and images in gold and silver. Appam and aravana payasam are also popular vazhipadu here, Muzhukappu or the artistic coating of the idol with sandal paste is an important vazhipadu in many temples. In most of the major temples there is an annual utsavam. The function consists of special services and processions. Exhibitions of various arts

like Kathakali, Ottam Tullal, patakam etc.,are conducted for the benefit of the devotees. During the processions the idol of the deity is taken round in pradakshinam inside the temple on the back of an caparisaned elephant to the accompaniment of nagaswaram and other forms of music. Some of the major temples have their own elephants and teams of artists for the purpose. The temples of the District are now open to all the Hindus irrespective of caste. However till a quarter of a century ago, the so-called Avarnas or backward classes were prevented from entering the temples. They could offer worship only from allotted places of prescribed distance. In course of time a feeling of self-respect asserted itself among the backward classes and the demand for temple entry took shape. The new movement secured the sympathetic support of large numbers of people belonging to the Savarnas or Higher Castes. The Vaikom Satyagraha that was conducted in 1924 under the auspices of the Indian National Congress to secure admission for the backward classes to the approach roads adjacent to the famous Vaikom temple was a turning point in the history of this movement. On November 2, 1936, His Highness Sri Chitra Thirunal issued the famous Temple Entry Proclamation throwing open the temples of Travancore to all Hindus irrespective of caste. Fasts and Festivals The Hindus observe several fasts or Vrithams with a view to propitiating various Gods and Goddesses and acquiring spiritual benefits. The important fasts are those undertaken on the Shashti, Ekadasi, Pradosham and Full Moon days. In addition, the Hindus also observe a number of religious festivals. In Chingam (August-September) the Ashtami Rohini the sacred day on which Lord Krishna was born, is celebrated. The Vinayaka Chaturthi which falls on the fourth day of the bright fortnight in Chingam (August-September) is sacred to Ganapati. People are prohibited to see the Moon on this day as it is supposed to bring miseries and misfortunes of all kinds. The Navaratri festival falls in Kanni (September-

October). It is a nine-day festival and is a favorable period for the worship of Sakthi. The last three days are set apart for the worship of Saraswathi. Throughout the Durgashtami, Mahanavami and Vijaya Dasami days the worshippers are prohibited from doing their customary work. TheVijayadasami or Puja Eduppu day is regarded as auspicious for the beginning of childrens education vidyarambha. It is customary in this District for the parents to take their children to such places as Vedavyasagiri and Panachikkad Sarswathi shrine in order to initiate them formally into the study of the letters (Vidyarambha).Narakachaturdasi or Deepavali falls in the month of Tulam (October-November). It is also known as the festival of lights. Trikkarthika is another festival, which falls in the month of Vrichigam (November-December). Its main feature is the illumination of Hindu houses in the night. The Thypuyam festival that falls in Makaram (January-February) is sacred to Subramonia and special offerings are made to the Lord on this day. Thy pongal and Mattu pongal which fall on the first and second days respectively in the month of Makaram (JanuaryFebruary) are also important festivals. The former is the harvest feast of South India. On the occasion of the latter festival the cows and bulls which have been of service to the people in the previous agricultural seasons are bathed, decorated and fed. The animals are not made to work on that day. Maha Sivaratri the day on which Lord Siva danced theThandava dance is celebrated in Kumbham (FebruaryMarch). The Sri Rama Navamiis a nine-day festival that falls in the month of Medam (April-May). The Navami or the ninth day is the anniversary of the birth of Sri Rama. Onam The most important national festival of Kerala is Onam and people regardless of caste or creed observe it. It is the harvest festival of Kerala and falls in the month of Chingam (August-September). The festival lasts for ten days of which the last four are more important than the rest.

According to tradition it is celebrated in memory of Mahabali, the mythological king of Kerala whose reign was one of undisturbed peace and prosperity and who is supposed to revisit the land once a year. A portion of the front yard of every Hindu house is cleared and decorated with flowers on these days. On the last four days pyramid-shaped images of Trikkakara Appan (the deity of Trikkakkara), made of wood or clay, are set up at the place andpujas offered. The senior members of the family present clothes (Onapudava) to the juniors and servants. A sumptuous feast is held on Tiru Onam day. The people make themselves merry by participating in various sports and field games. Vishu The festival of Vishu, which falls on the first day of Medam (April-May), the Malayalee New Year Day, is equally important. It coincides with the Tamil New Year Day (Chithira Vishu). The main ceremony connected with Vishu is Kani Kanal(literally having the first sight): On the night previous to the Vishu day the Kani is arranged. It consists of a number of things believed to be auspicious. Palmyra leaf-book, gold ornaments, new white cloth, a measure of rice or paddy, bellmetal mirror, halved jack fruit, flowers of Konna tree, halved coconut, yellow cu-cumber and two standing oil lamps with coconut oil emitting sparkling light are placed in a convenient room. On the morning of the Vishu day every member of the family gets up early and sees the Kani. The Malayalee believes that if he sees these auspicious things on the first day of the New Year, the whole of the year will be lucky for him. The Sastha Shrine at Sabarimala is visited by Hindus in their thousands on Vishuday. Children and poor people get gifts of money from elders on the occasion of the Vishu. This is called Vishu Kaineettam. Tiruvathira, another characteristic festival, is observed in Dhanu (December-January). It is of special importance to women as it is supposed to commemorate the death of Kamadeva (God of Love) who was reduced to ashes by Lord Siva while attempting to wake him up from his penance.

Hindu Customs and Manners Each caste and community among the Hindus has had its own typical customs and manners. The Talikettukalyanam, Tirandukuli, Puli Kudi etc., once formed the main customary ceremonies among the Nairs and the Ezhavas who followed theMarumakkathayam system. Talikettukalyanam was performed for all girls before they attained puberty. The essential part of the ceremony lay in the tying of the Tali (a small piece of gold attached to a string) round the neck of the girl by a male belonging to the same or higher caste. It may be mentioned that the Tali tier did not have any claim on the girls, as the Talikettukalyanam was not a real marriage. It was done only with a view to giving the girl a marriageable status. The ceremony ofTirandukuli was celebrated when a girl attained puberty. The girl was kept in a separate room for about four days. In the room a lamp was lit and a brass pot with a bunch of coconut flowers was kept. A Kurava proclaimed the event. Friends and relatives were invited and treated to a sumptuous feast. The girl used to get presents from the guests. Another ceremony viz., Pulikudi (tamarind juice drinking) was quite essential for pregnant women in the ninth month of pregnancy. The ceremonies described above have now become defunct as social reformers worked hard to rouse public opinion against them.

A Hindu Marriage in Kumarakom

Among the ceremonies, which are still current among the Hindus, may be mentionedNamakaranam, Chorunu, Vidyarambham, Upanayanam, and Sardha etc. TheNamakaranam or naming ceremony is generally celebrated within a month of the childs birth. The father sits crosslegged before a lighted lamp, near which is placed a vessel containing the eight auspicious things ashtamangalyam. He then places the child on his lap and whispers the proposed name three times in its right ear.Annaprasanam or Chorunu takes place when the child is six months old. This is the first feeding of the child with rice. The child is placed on the lap of the father and is then given rice and curries. This ceremony is performed in temples also.Vidyarambham or initiation into the letters of the alphabet is gone through in the 3rd or 5th year of the child. Usually it takes place on the Vijayadasami day (Puja Eduppu Day). The father takes the child on his knees and writes the alphabets, the letters being traced in rice by the father holding the ring finger of the child.Upanayanam, which is common among the Brahmins, is the investiture of the boy with the sacred thread. It is generally performed in the 8th year of the child. All Brahmins, both indigenous and non-indigenous, perform this ceremony. Srardha is the ceremony of making offerings to the departed spirits of forefathers. This is performed every year. Cooked rice, plantain fruits, coconuts, parched rice, etc., are served as offerings on plantain leaf and kept in a room with a lamp in front of it. After some time the room is opened and the offerings are distributed among the members of the family. The Hindus generally cremate their dead bodies, while those of children under two or three years of age as well as those of persons who have died of small pox or cholera are buried. When a Hindu is at the point of death, the junior members pour a few drops of water or milk into his mouth from a small cup made of the Tulasai Plant. Relatives and others are immediately informed when the person dies. The body is placed at the central courtyard with the head to the south. It

is then washed anointed and neatly clothed and marks of bhasma (sacred ash) and sandal pastes are made on the forehead and joints. The body is laid on a long plantain leaf after it is covered with new clothes. Then it is taken to the cremation ground on the shoulders by the nearest relatives, sons, nephews etc. Before the cremation blood relations put rice (vaikari) in the mouth of the dead body. While in some parts of the State cow dung is used for the purpose of cremation, it is seen that in various parts of this district the mango tree is felled and cut into pieces and used as fuel for cremation. The eldest son who is the chief mourner cuts a piece from the wrapped new cloth and wears it round the waist, tucking to his waist a piece of iron. This is done before setting fire to the pyre. The chief mourner with a pot of water goes round the pyre thrice letting the water out from a pierced hole. Then he allows the pot on the head to fall from his back. The sanchayanam or the ceremony of the disposal of the bones of the dead person is done on the 5th or the 7th day. The mourners collect unburnt bones and ash and these are put in a mud pot covered with another and is buried underneath a jack tree. On a later occasion they are carried to some holy place and consigned to the river or sea. On the death of a person the obsequies (making offering to the deceased) continues till the period of pollution is over which may be for 16 days or less. It is also the custom among certain castes to observe diksha (i.e. growing beard) for 41 days or a year following the death. SOCIAL HISTORY Slavery was prevalent in this part of Kerala until the beginning of 19th century. A Slave Sale Deed (translation) kept in the Show Case Records, Government Archives; Thiruvananthapuram executed in 1763 A D is reproduced below. A SLAVE SALE DEED

(Translation) This is a Slave Sale Deed executed on the 9th Meenam Sunday 938 M E (1763 A D ) Mathunni, Thoppalanil House, Thottakkad (Kurukkani, Kollam, Christian) purchased the slave, Thazhathu Thevuthan, son of Pulaya slave Azhaki, belonging to Eappen Mappila, Kollettu House, Puthuppally at a price fixed by four peopleand executed this document aafter giving the price. In the same way Eappen Mappila,Kollettu House, Puthuppally sold the slave Thazhathu Thevuthan, son of slave woman Azhaki at the price fixed by four people and wrote this sale deed after receiving the price. Eappen Mappilawho had the right to tie, chain or kill the slave if necessary, transferred these rights and privileges to Mathunni. Witnesses: 1.Pullolickal Cheriyan ( Sd/ ) 2. Mootamukalil Sankara Kaimal (Sd/ ) Handwriting: Ipe Chacko, Slave Sale Deed in Palmyra leaf, Kollettu House, Pampady, Kottayam The punishment to runaway slaves was very cruel and very often they were murdered if caught by the master. Many such incidents were narrated by Hentry Baker (Jr.) in his book `The Hill Aryans (1856). Benjamin Baily and Joseph Peet the missionaries through a proclamation made on 8th March 1835 liberated some slaves working under them and set them free. It was the first time in the history of the land and this was about 20 years before the Travancore Government freed its slaves in the state. During the second half of the eighteenth century, this land was dominated by the Hindu society with its numerous sub divisions and its inseparable caste system. The caste system had continued in India from time immemorial, with all its evils. The worst thing about the evils of caste system was that

it was a religious institution with a religious outlook and was used as a cruel weapon for fleecing the downtrodden. One section of the population consisted of free men and another comprised of bonded slaves. Several strange practices were common at that time. Child marriage, Devadasi system (girls being offered to temples as slaves of the Gods, many of them ending up as prostitutes), Dowry system, Smarthavicharam,(A Brahmin woman who was suspected by her relatives or neighbors of illegal connections with men, had to face severe trials and then she would be excommunicated,Pulapedy (during the months of February and March, if a Pulaya man happened to meet a Nair woman who was not escorted by a man, the Pulaya man might seize her and she would lose her caste and connections) Mannapedi ( if a Mannan man happened to meet a Nair woman unaccompanied by a man, he might seize her and she would lose her caste and connections) The low caste people were not allowed to walk along public roads and to enter temple premises. Their women were not allowed to cover their breasts. Learning also was prohibited to them. They also had to use special words and body language when speaking to high caste people. The Hindu society was divided into two broad groupsSavarnas and Avarnas depending on their castes. Caste was again sub-divided into numerous sub-castes. The Savarnna Hindus consisted of Brahmins, Kshethria and Temple workers. The Vysyas, Fishermen, Artisans, Slaves, Pulayas and Parayas constituted the Avarnas.The religion dominated by caste and convention kept the various sects in their respective shells. The traditional religion served the interests of the upper class only and did not permit any change in the social set up. Those who suffered under this system were denied even the opportunity to think about their plight. There were other groups, which were not included in the caste system, such as Christians, Muslims and certain Hill Tribes. They were `out castes in the real sense because they were outside the caste system.

At Kumarakom more and more workers were brought from far away places to work on the land. Paddy cultivation, reclaiming the land for coconut cultivation and fishing were the main works. The wages were very low and paid in kind, such as a measure of paddy. The social system was feudal; untouchability, caste system and all superstitions related to it were strong in the past. Very few upper caste Hindus and Christians owned land and the majority were under utter exploitation. Backward Hindus were denied temple-entry and education. It was only in 1910 that Ezhavas were allowed entry in Government schools and pulayas still had to wait up to 1930 to get their children educated in public schools. Wave of Renaissance The consecration of Sree Kumara Mangalam (SKM) Temple by Sree Narayana Guru in 1903 marked the first wave of renaissance movement in this village. SKM Temple gave a common place for Ezhavas, the major community of Kumarakom to assemble and discuss their frequent problems. The formation of Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana (SNDP) Yogam in 1903 initiated the formation of caste organisations. In the same year a Pulaya Samajam was established to address the appalling conditions of the lowest caste Pulayas. The shift of land from Nairs to Syrian Christians and deteriorating material condition forced the Nair community to form the Nair Service Society (NSS) in 1914. In Kumarakom, Ezhavas were organised under SNDP and centered on the SKM temple. This was an instrument of emancipation from the social and economic subjugation, which the caste system had imposed on them. They started a school near the temple and organised more and more homeschools (Kudippallikudams) under a single learned Asan or Teacher. Teaching was done as a service and only a Dakshina (small gift) was given at the time of joining school to the teacher. Pulayas worship was at Muthente Nada Temple built on the outskirts of Kumarakom on an outer bund

of a polder. Nairs also had a temple, Puthiyakavu Devi Temple and a village council of Nair elders (Karayogam) was formed near this temple. The social reformers working with SNDP organised the limeshell co-operative society in 1928. The society enlisted all the lime-shell workers who dive into the lake and collect shells for livelihood. The members of this first workers co-operative society were Ezhavas, Pulayas, Valas and backward Christians. Lime-shell, the sub-fossil deposits of shellfish found extensively in the lake Vembanad is the chief source of calcium carbonate in Kerala whereas in other parts of India limestone is used in its place. Shell lime is used mostly in the construction of buildings, as soil conditioners, for the manufacture of cement, calcium carbide, glass and bricks and also as an important chemical in the manufacture of paper, rayon, sugar etc. This society had to wage a long struggle with other individual license-holders in the field of marketing limeshell. The Government at last gave monopoly right to workers co-operative society to collect lime-shell from the Lake Vembanad and took steps to stop all illicit collection and sale of lime-shell by private individuals. The lime-shell cooperative society thus became a big job provider for the poor people of this village. Three cooperative banks now functioning in Kumarakom were started under the initiative of three major communities in the past. One, which started in 1922 under the initiative of the Nair Service Society as a multi purpose cooperative, is the oldest. Following the Nair Communitys path the Catholics and the Jacobite Christians also initiated formation of cooperative credit societies respectively in the years 1931 and 1941.All the three cooperatives developed in to Banks with seven banking offices in different parts of the village and almost all adult members in Kumarakom are members of these banks. The poor farmers and workers hitherto considered unbankable obtained loans from these banks on liberal terms and many could purchase lands and improve their living conditions,

especially after the land reforms in the 1970s. The State Bank of Travancore and South Indian Bank are the other scheduled banks having branches in Kumarakom.The District Cooperative Bank also started a branch in Kumarakom in 2005. A big private financial institution (Muthoot Bank) is also functioning here.. Three other small private moneylenders establishments and many other individual moneylenders are also doing business at comparatively higher rates of interest. Their security for loan is mainly blank cheques from the debtor. If the debters fail to pay back the loan the cheque is presented to the bank to get bounced. The lender will immediately file a criminal case under Negotiable Instruments Act, which really put the debtor in great trouble. Sometimes even muscle power and police help are also used to realise money from defaulters. Modern Education in Kumarakom

A primary school was started in Kumarakom with the blessings of the king of Travancore in 1868. This was the first modern school in public sector, followed by the establishment of Sethu Lakshmi Bhai Government LPSchool in 1910 and Government North LPSchool in 1911. A.G. Baker started the Anne Baker Memorial School in the northern remote area of Kumarakom in 1886. The Christian Churches started St. Johns LP School in 1910, St. Marys LPS in 1914, Sacred Heart LPS in 1929, Consalatha Memorial LPS in 1929, St. Peters LPSchool and NNCJM LPSchool in 1964. The first English school was established at Kumarakom in 1943 for which Attamangalam St. Johns Church donated the land. SKM High School was started in 1964. The local government started a Panchayat LP School at a remote area of Kumarakom in 1966 and surrendered it to the Government later.

Now there are 14 schools, 6 government owned, 7 fully government aided and one unaided, in Kumarakom imparting education up to standard 12 and about 3500 students attend schools. All the teaching and non-teaching staff of the government schools and aided schools are getting salary and pensionery benefits from the exchequer. Now the school enrollment is 100% and even pre-school education is also nearing 100%. The SNDP has started P G Radhakrishnan Memorial Sree Narayana College in Kumarakom in 2004.This is unaided but affiliated to the Mahatma Gandhi University.In 2005 the Government has sanctioned an aided Sree Narayana Arts and Science College to the SNDP Union, in Kumarakom. In Kumarakom there were 1044 children in the age group of 3 5 in 2003. Almost all of them were undergoing pre-school education in 28 Nursery Schools and Anganvadies spread across the village. Government run Anganvadies provide food to the children. In Kumarakom the spread of education changed the rigid social customs and practices of the predominantly agrarian society, which changed the attitudes of the people too. The educated found it difficult to practise their hereditary profession and any menial jobs and they created a pool of `educated unemployed. Egalitarian interests The mobilization of the working class has its roots in the identity politics of Pulayas or Ezhavas. But from the 1930s there was a conscious mobilization along class lines. While supporting and actively participating in the social reform movements in various communities, particularly of the oppressed castes, the communists sought to build class and mass organisations of various sections of people irrespective of caste and raised caste-reform slogans as part of their antifeudal democratic struggle. The growth of the working-class movement and the Communist Party of India were concomitant in many ways. This was different from the earlier communal mobilizations since it was based on secular

ideologies and the mobilization was largely vertical. The working class mostly belonged to the former untouchables (scheduled castes such as Pulaya), and backward castes such as Ezhavas. The mobilization of these groups was done on identity lines at the beginning, as that was the only legitimate point of rallying for rights and hence for a politics of emancipation against the hegemonic classes. Social Empowerment in Kumarakom The lowest castes were denied any form of literacy in the traditional rigid Hindu caste structure. From the end of 18th century, European missionaries who started schools throughout Kerala began to spread their ideas among the deprived sections. The social revolts by Pulayas were for freedom to walk along public roads, for school entry, temple entry, etc., and these paralleled the growth of political consciousness, which gave Pulayas a new identity, consciousness, and political status. By the early 1940s the political developments in Travancore and Cochin (with antistate agitation on the rise) provided an environment conducive for organizational work for the Pulayas and other landless laborers. This has made their traditional exclusion from public spaces impossible and paved the way to their social empowerment, although this did not lead to economic empowerment. Breaking the barrier of Castes in Kumarakom The Communist Party made the first attempts to break the barrier of communalism, to build organizations for workingclass unity. The trade unions organized by the leftists among coir factory workers had formed themselves into a union in Alleppey (Alappuzha) in the 1920s and started agitations by 1938. The Ezhavas Social Reform Movement also took this egalitarian struggle forward. The proletarian mobilizations by the Congress Socialist Party and later the Communists led to the development of a new `class consciousness in the place of former `caste consciousness among the workers of all

castes. Having realized the limited possibility of their attaining equality vis--vis traditional upper class Christians, the neo-Christians (Pulaya converts) started responding to leftist ideology and the non-converted Pulayas tended to follow them. Anti Communist Struggle in Kumarakom Another radical measure was the attempt at land reforms by the Communist government through new laws to alter or abolish old land tenures and to create new ones. A few days after it took office in 1957, the legislative process for land reform began. By an Ordinance of 11 April 1957 (the Ministry was formed on 5 April), evictions were prohibited and land holdings restored to tenants who were evicted after the formation of the state of Kerala. Secondly, arrears of rent were cancelled. Thirdly, the rights of janmi landlords and intermediaries on tenanted land were taken over by the government. Where land rights vested in the government, all rent payments were stopped. Fourthly, tenancy legislation sought to give land to the tiller. There were peasant marches by the beneficiaries in support of land reforms, but `reactionary forces unleashed a massive campaign against it. The leaders of the two main landowner communities, the Christians and the Nairs, whose organizations radically opposed the land reforms, launched the main offensive. The upper class Christians was a dominant group in all economic and administrative spheres and business as well as farming, controlling most of the tea, rubber and coffee plantations. Alarmed by the moves of reforms (of education and land) of the Communist government, `their class position and traditional links with international anti-Communist church organizations united them with similar social and economic interests which constituted the anti-Communist resistance. The Nair Service Society led a crusade against the bill, because the Nairs were the principal landowning community in the Travancore-Cochin area and the bill affected them. In Kumarakom the majority among Nair community were with

the Communists. Among them also a shift towards anti communist camp was conspicuous. The Churches were the meeting places of agitators of Vimochana Samaram.In 1959, the Vimochana Samaram (liberation struggle), staged by the communal organizations and political parties led to the dismissal of the Communist state government by the (Union) Government of India on 31 July 1959. Land Reforms After a prolonged political battle that broke two Communist governments, the Kerala Land Reforms Act was passed, effective as of 1 January 1970. It was followed by a vigorous process of political mobilization and agitation for the implementation of the legislation. The main component of the new law involved homestead land (kudikidappu) occupied by the rural poor. Occupants of such land were to be given ownership rights. The size of the plot allotted varied from 3 cents in a town or city, to 10 cents in a village, and could be purchased at 25% of the market rate and half that if the owner had land above the ceiling. The other component of land reform concerned the imposition of limits on land ownership and the distribution of land identified as surplus to the landless. The land ceiling in Kerala, varied with the size of household; it did not exceed 25 standard acres. In December, 1969, in a huge meeting at Alappuzha (under the auspices of the CPI (M)) in which 500,000 people attended, it was proclaimed that even if the land reform legislation is implemented or not, fencing will be done around the homesteads of agricultural laborers to assert their rights. Eighteen agricultural labor comrades became martyrs in the agitation that followed. The process of land reforms with the demand being built up from below brought about a change in the agrarian class structure. Tenancy was abolished and

owner-cultivators who directly hired labor and supervised agricultural operations replaced the earlier non-cultivating renter landowners. The farmer-tied laborers were converted into an agrarian labor force with contractual relations with the employer, and these former landless laborers, whose conditions of life and work were appalling, have undergone conscious politicization enabling them to articulate their demands. The small plots transferred to landless households were also an important element in the qualitative changes brought about in the distribution of economic and social power in the Kerala countryside. According to a data from the Government of Kerala, of all rural households not less than 93% owned land and houses in which they lived. These households could now improve their bargaining power in the labor market, especially with the Agricultural Workers Act of 1974 and similar labor legislation by successive governments. The economic mobility obtained by the social and political changes described above impacted on the societal power relations. During the nine years from 1970, the highest percentage (63%)of increase in real daily wages of men and women were in Kerala. Plantations, private forests, and land belonging to religious and charitable institutions were exempted from the ceiling limit. Hence, rice cultivation was the most affected by land reforms, and mainly rice and coconut lands were subdivided. The land ceiling, i.e. government appropriation and distribution of surplus land during land reforms created a large number of new landowners, most of them small and marginal. All Owners of Land All the families in Kumarakom thus became owners of the land they lived in. Thousands of acres of agricultural lands were declared surplus and distributed among the landless. The big landlords were forced to sell their lands at a very low price, which also helped a re-distribution of land to the landless. Thus the percentage of households not owning land drastically

came down. Tillers of land became owners of their agricultural land. No other state in India achieved such a sharp fall in the number of landless. The areas of state government intervention in Kerala that have been most significant for the people have been land reform, health, and education, and the public distribution system. All households in Kumarakom are cardholders for low priced rice, kerosene, wheat and sugar. There is one Maveli Fair price provisions shop selling domestic items run by the state owned Civil Supplies Corporation. The state has also introduced a series of measures that are intended to provide protective social security to persons outside the `organized sector, who are not usually covered by such schemes. Health Service in Kumarakom In terms of hospitals and dispensaries, the health infrastructure in Kerala is far better developed than in India as a whole: in 1989, there were 106 hospitals and dispensaries per 1000 sq km in Kerala against 12 in India, and 254 hospital and dispensary beds in Kerala per 100,000 persons against 77 in India. But Kumarakom enjoys better medical service in the public sector. It has a 50-bedded Primary Health Centre, 4 Mother and Child Development Centres, an Ayurvedic dispensary and a Homoeopathic dispensary in public sector. Under private sector there are 3 small hospitals 12 dispensaries and 3 Dental clinics. Education The proportion of total government expenditure spent on education in Kerala is much higher than the corresponding proportion spent by all states. Most primary school children go to state-run or state-supported schools. There are 13 schools run or supported by the state and 140 teachers working. The cost per student from government fund in this village is Rs. 3500/- per annum and 3480 students avail this benefit irrespective of their income level. In 1987-91 the Government

successfully provided administrative and institutional support to the total literacy campaign. Social Security Measures in Kumarakom Kerala has social security measures that cover most sections of rural workers. These are mainly contributory welfare funds in which the government,the employers, and the workers participate including welfare funds for agricultural workers, fishermen, toddy, coir workers, handloom and khadi workers, and construction workers. There are also pension schemes for the destitute and the physically handicapped persons and for assisting the unemployed. In Kumarakom about 2500 people are getting various welfare pensions such as agriculture workers pension (1084), old age pension, pension to widows and destitutes, physically handicapped, fishermen etc. About 800 young men get unemployment doles at the rate of Rs. 120/- per month. Although the amount received by individual pensioners appears low, the entitlement is enough to pay for half the food-grain requirements of an adult, and that pension entitlements make an appreciable difference to the status and acceptability of older persons in the households to which they belong. Keralas development experience and Keralas development future are matters of great importance for other states in India and internationally. Working within the constraints imposed by the Constitution of India by hostile central governments, the Left in Kerala has mobilized the people for kinds of social change unprecedented in the rest of the country. Keralas achievements were possible because of the universal literacy and because of traditional patterns of gender, caste, and class dominance were transformed radically. In the conditions of contemporary India, it is worth remembering that public action, and not policies of globalization and liberalization, was the locomotive of Keralas progress.

Posted in Kumarakom KUMARAKOM THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE There is no reliable scientific history of ancient Kerala. This lack of scientific understanding of ancient Kerala society was sought to be remedied by a mythological story of the origin of Kerala. The story runs as follows. Parasurama, the sixth incarnation of Lord Vishnu was renowned for his physical strength. He acquired his name from his weapon, a parasu (axe). He was engaged in a 21year battle, killing many people. Finally he retired to the Western Ghats where he undertook a long penance. Distraught with his murderous activities he beseeched the gods for help. The sea God Varuna responded, pledging to give Parasurama land, which equalled the distance, he could throw his axe. When Parasurama threw the axe from Gokarnam it fell at Kanyakumari, Indias southern tip. With that the seas receded, exposing the strip of land that formed Kerala. Parasuramas act of throwing away the weapon was symbolically the repudiation of war and therefore, for many, Kerala was created as a land of peace and harmony. The whole of this land was then given by him as a gift to the Brahmins to atone for his sins. The Brahmins settled on the land. The great hero then fixed up the rules of conduct for these newly settled Brahmins as well as for others, making Brahmins the lords of the land, others their loyal dependents; the dependents of these Brahmins are the present day Namboothiris, while the others are the present day Nairs and other castes. This story of the origin of Kerala, it is obvious, was concocted by the landlords, most of whom were either the Namboodiris or very close to them. These landlords had the advantage of being the only educated people in medieval Kerala.

They, therefore, put the whole story in writing Kerala Mahatmyam (Greatness of Kerala) and Kerala Pazhama (Antiquity of Kerala) being the two most notable works in this regard. The story thus got wide currency not only as one, which passes from mouth to mouth, but also with the authority of the written word. Parasurama as presented in Kathakali Dance According to a theory accepted by all the acknowledged authorities on the history of Kerala, the Malayalees of all castes, except the scheduled castes, are immigrants: the highest caste, the Namboodiri, it is said, came and colonised Kerala sometime between the second century B.C. and the eighth century A.D.; the Nairs are supposed to have come earlier than the Namboodiri, though in this case there are some historians who argue that they are not immigrants at all; the Ezhavas too are said to have come sometime just before or just after the beginning of the Christian Era: the Jew, the Christian, the Muslim, etc., are all, of course, either immigrants themselves or converts. Like Kerala, Kumarakom and many parts of Kottayam District bordering the Lake Vembanad seems to have been submerged under water, the Arabian Sea having extended considerably into the interior of the area. Marine fossils including coral reefs have been found near Lake Vembanad, and this is considered proof of the fact that the tract was once under sea. Some of the local place names are also cited as proof of the withdrawal of the sea. Thus Vaikom is literally taken to mean new land and Kaduthuruthy, at present an inland town,sea land. Perhaps, the old legend according to which Kerala was a gift of the Arabian Sea to Parasurama has its origin in this geological fact of elevation of land from the sea. Even if the theory of the recession of the sea and the consequent rise of the land area is not seemingly convincing, there is a possibility that the area in question was at one time an extensive swamp interspersed with sand-banks and mud-

banks at various places. The rivers like the Periyar, Pampa, Meenachil, Achencoil etc. originating in the High Ranges in the eastern part might have brought down in spate immense quantities of sand and silt and built up huge deltas which eventually jutted into sea. Kumarakom was reclaimed from such shallow areas of Lake Vembanad forming landmasses using clay taken from the lakebed by hard working labourers. Being fertile land fit for cultivation of paddy and other crops they might have attracted colonisers in later years and became populated. Thus from the geological and geographical points of view the early history of Kumarakom and Kottayam assumes a special significance of its own.

The village Kumarakom, part of Greater Kuttanad exhibits all the characteristic features of the Kuttanad region. The name Kumarakom is derived from the words Kuminja and Akam, which mean the land, formed by the accumulation of sediments. It is a speck of depositional and reclaimed land in the entire region, which is a product of fluvial-estuarine agencies modified by human activities in the shape of reclamation. Hence this village is characterised by both natural and man-made landscapes. In the 2nd century AD, there was a writing about a port named Koraura. Later the historian Kesari Balakrishna Pillai

said that Koraura Port was the present Kumarakom. Later it lost its importance as a port as the lake was formed. Even today a portion of Vembanad Lake on the western side of Kumarakom is called Kappal Chall (Ship route). In the 12th century, Kumarakom was part of Vembolinadu.The Cholas defeated the Cheras and the rulers became free. In the 15th century it was a trade centre of Thekkumkoor Kingdom. In 1749, Thekkumkoor was defeated by Travancore; considering the strategical location, Ramayyan Dalawa, the Minister of Travancore, ordered the continuous military presence at Kumarakom. A Geographical sketch of Kumarakom The total area of the village Kumarakom is 51.67 Sq.Km. of which 24.13 Sq.Km. is still under Lake Vembanad . 15.75 Sq.Km. is polders (group of paddy fields). There are 45 such polders, the extent of which ranges from 3 acres to 400 acres. The paddy fields included in these polders are lying 0.5 m _ 2 m below mean sea level (MSL). Dewatering the land after strengthening the palm lined external bunds every year was necessary for paddy cultivation. The area of settlement of the village is 1179 ha (24%) and these areas are criss-crossed by tidal channels and streams. Its attractive palm-shady lake beaches, quiet resorts, backwaters, snake boat races and friendly village life draw travellers to Kumarakom. Population in Kumarakom The first census in Kumarakom was undertaken in 1891 and showed a population of 8332 and 1729 houses. The available population details of subsequent census of Kumarakom from 1941 are shown in Table 1 below: Table 1: Kumarakom: Population (1941 2001) Total population Year Increase In number In percentage 1941 13027

1951 14328 1301 09.98% 1961 16543 2215 15.46% 1971 18532 1989 12.02% 1981 20807 2275 12.27% 1991 22232 1425 06.85% 2001 22995 763 03.43% Labour participation rate is 36% (overall). It is 51.34% among men and 21.06% among women. The corresponding figures for 1991 was 37.4% (overall), 51.2% among men and 25.4% among women. It shows slight decrease in overall employment rate due to the reason that more women lost their chances for employment. Major opportunities were in agriculture and allied areas. In 1991, 1156 men and 1777 women were agricultural workers. But in 2001 their numbers were seen reduced to 724 and 1142. The other occupations of the villagers are in lime-shell collection, fishery, construction industry, commerce and tourism. The literacy rate is 96.5%. The average family size in Kumarakom is 4.49 and the total households in Kumarakom are only 5120. The sex ratio is in favor of women. There are 1026 female for every 1000 male population in 2001. Climate The river Meenachil with its tributaries cut through the landscape. The river is fed by the monsoons and it irrigates and fertilises the region all the year round. The geographical position of Kumarakom endows it with a tropical marine climate. Its proximity to the lake has a moderating effect on its temperatures, which are relatively stable from 22o C to 34o C. The months from October to April are the hottest and June, July and October are the wettest months. While there is little variation in temperatures, rainfall is a different matter. Being a monsoon region, Kumarakom experiences either dry or wet seasons. The abundant rainfall of the two annual monsoons means that droughts are rare. This village receives the southwest

monsoon around 1 June. Waterways are replenished and the land is nourished during monsoon. The northeast or winter monsoon occurs in November and early December. Its fall is much less than its earlier counter part. The average monthly rainfall and temperature are as shown below.(Table 2) Table 2. Average Monthly Rainfall and Temperature in Kumarakom Month, Temperature C, Rainfall (mm) Max. Min. January 32.8 22.4 45.4 February 33.4 23.9 53.3 March 34.4 24.6 0 April 33.8 24.2 155.6 May 33.0 24.4 285.0 June 30.8 23.2 665.2 July 30.9 23.3 544 August 31.4 24.4 231.4 September 30.9 23.8 265.5 October 33.1 24.6 393.8 November 31.9 23.8 199.8 December 32.5 22.5 32 The land Kumarakom was formed only a few centuries ago. Physiographically, this area is quite unique. It was not part of the gift of gods to Parasurama. It was the creation of hundreds of hard working labourers. They made the land and also created the history of the land. There are two roads from Kumarakom running east and north. They are (1) Kotayam-Kumarakom Road which is a link road to the Main Central (MC) Road (Thiruvananthapuram Angamali), and (2) The recently accomplished Kumarakom Vechoor road which connects Kumarakom to Alappuzha via Cherthala and Kochi via Vaikom or Cherthala. This road joins the National Highway 47 at Cherthala. The other main link roads inside Kumarakom are (1) Kumarakom Attipeedika towards south (2) Kumarakom Konchumada towards southwest (3) Kumarakom Choolabhagam towards northeast. These roads

are busy with regular transport services and private vehicles. The road to Konchumada is being extended to Pallikkayal the southern tip of Kumarakom. This road will open the shortest route to Alappuzha by boat from Pallikkayal through Vembanad Lake. One can reach Kumarakom from the nearest railway station Kottayam by a 14 km. road journey or the Kochi International Airport through NH 47 and through Vechur, Thanneermukkom bund road and Cherthala driving 70 km. by road. There are many secondary roads linking the main roads and interior areas of all wards in Kumarakom.

The inland water transport is common through motorised and non-motorised boats. There are regular ferry services from Muhamma, (Alappuzha district) to Kumarakom crossing lake Vembanad. There is a Digital Electronic Telephone Exchange having optical fiber connectivity in Kumarakom with an equipped capacity of 3100 lines and working connections of 3015 lines. The tele-density is about 11/100 populations. Bharath Sanchar Nigam Ltd (BSNL), Reliance, Tata, Escotel, BPL and Airtel have base stations in Kumarakom providing full coverage for their mobile services. Other mobile phones get coverage in the lake area of Kumarakom.

Kumarakom is being promoted by the Kerala Tourism Department as one of the `Four Gateways (the other gateways being Kovalam, Thekkady and Kochi). This is one of the six backwater tourism resorts in Kerala. Among the 11 potential tourist sites, as identified by the Tourism Department, Kumarakom ranks sixth in terms of the total tourist arrival.

It is the vast and beautiful lake Vembanad that attracts tourists to Kumarakom. But the perplexing question is this, why is Kumarakom more attractive, enjoyable and relaxing to the tourists compared to other villages adjcent to the same lake? Why has Kumarakom been the chosen place for the honourable Prime Minister to have his holidaying for more than a week? Well, the answer is simple and quite interesting. The Arabian Sea is on the western side and Kumarakom lies in the east. The breeze always blows from west to east and so Kumarakom gets cooler breeze and more powerful waves. Moreover, the lake has its maximum length and breadth (6 kms.) at Kumarakom. Here lies the reason behind the beauty of lake Vembanad at Kumarakom. Once the majority of the people of Kumarakom depended on the lake Vembanad for fishing, collecting sand and mud for reclaiming land or for filling the shallow areas and also for

collecting lime shells. The lake was then the main work place and means of transportation for the people as the road access was limited. The placid lake has been a home to many kinds of fishes, other creatures and water birds. Now, there is a fish sanctuary on the northern side of the lake Vembanad , to promote the breeding of various fishes. There are different ways of fishing in the lake, which is quite interesting. One of the most prominent ways of fishing is Vellavali. Vella is a traditional fish catching device. It is a long coir decorated with tender palm leaves. When the vella is pulled through the lake bottom frighten the pearlspot fish and the fish instinctively hide its head in the silt making turbidity in the lake bottom. On seeing this turbidity the fisherman who follows the moving vella can catch the fish with naked hands and throw to the vallam (canoe) following the fisherman. Shell collection (shells are used for making cement) is done mechanically by dredgers and physically by people who dive and collect it from the lake in a country boat for their livelihood. Natures bounty is now the main tourist attraction. Kumarakom provides a favorable environment for rich aquatic life. Some of the mangrove and associated species found in Kumarakom are Rhizophora apiculata, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Sonneratia caseolaris, Avicennia officinalis, Acanthus illicipholius, Kandelia candel, Baringtonea recemosa, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Thespesia populnea, calophyllum inophyllum and Ceribera odollam. Mangrove ecosystem provides a multitude of ecosystem services ranging from protection of shores to providing suitable habitats for several species of aquatic flora and fauna as well as certain birds and mammals. Notable among the mammals found in the area is Otter (Lutra lutra). There are about 90 species of land birds and water birds in Kumarakom. Nearly 40 % of these are migrants, some of them being long distance migrants, flocking to Kumarakom from the Himalayan region and beyond.

Marvellous lake beaches, tasteful inland fishes, birds splendid in number and varieties, cruise on the backwater etc., are the publicized attractions for tourists here. But beyond all that the life of the villagers, the history they created, unique style of their agriculture, social actions, religion, festivals and the models they designed in developmental planning and village governance are all worth knowing, seeing and experiencing. This book leads to such unexplored areas of this small but peerless village.

Table 3. Flora of Kumarakom Tourist Complex Area Courtesy : Prof. N.Ravi, Verbena, Mundakkal Middle, Kollam-1 Species Family I. True Mangroves 1. Avicennia officinalis L. Verbenaceae 2. Bruguiera gymnorrhiza Merr. Rhizophoraceae 3. Rhizophora apiculata Bl. Rhizophoraceae 4. Rhizophora mucronata Lamk. Rhizophoraceae 5. Sonnerita caseolaris (L.) Engl. Sonneratiaceae 6. Kandelia candel (Linn.) Druce II. Marshy and Mangrove Associates 1. Ardisia littoralis Andr. Myrsinaceae 2. Barringtonia racemosa Rox. Barringtoniaceae 3. Canavalia obtusifolia DC. Febaceae 4. Cerbera odollam Gaertn. Apocynaceae

5. Clerodendrum inerme Gaert. Verbenaceae 6. Derris scandens Benth. Fabaceae 7. Derris trifoliate Lour. Fabaceae 8. Dolichandrone spathaceae (L.f.) k.chum. Bigniniaceae 9. Excoecaria agallocha L. Ephorbiaceae 10. Hibiscus tiliaceaus L. Malvaceae 11. Ipomaea paniclata R.Bt. Convolvulaceae 12. Lagenandra Ovata Dalzel Araceae 13. Melastoma Malabathricum L. Melastomaceae 14. Pandanus tectorius Soland. Pandanaceae 15. Premna latifolia Roxb. Verbenaceae 16. Stenochlaena palustre L. Polypodidiaceae 17. Thespesia populnea Solan ex.Corr. Malvaceae III. Non-Mangroves 1. Anamirtha cocculus W & A. Menispermaceae 2. Centrosema pubescens. Fabaceae 3. Cayaratia tenuifolia Gagnep Vitaceae 4. Flagellaria india L. Flagellariaceae 5. Mikania micrantha Kunth. Compositae 6. Mucuna gigantean (Willd.) DC. Fabaceae 7. Sapium indicum Willd. Euphorbiaceae 8. Stictocardia tiliaefolia Hallier. Convolvulaceae IV. Hydophytes. 1. Aponogeton crispus Thumb. Aponogentonaceae 2. Centella asiatica (L.) UrB. Apiaceae 3. Cyperum cephalotes Vehl. Cyperaceae 4. Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms-Lamb. Pontederiaceae 5. Hydrilla verticillata Royle. Hydrocharitaceae 6. Hygroryza aristata Nees. Poaceae 7. Lemna gibba L. Lemnaceae 8. Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenan. Limnocharitaceae 9. Monochoria vaginalis Presl. Pontederiaceae 10. Najas graminea Del. Najadaceae 11. Nymphaea nouchali N. Burm. Nymphaeceae 12. Nymphoides indica (L.) O Kuntze. Menyanthaceae 13. Pistia stratiotes L. Araceae

14. Salvenia molesta Mitchell. Salviniaceae 15. Urticularia flexuosa Vahl. Lentibulariaceae V. Common Plants (Weeds and Garden escapes) 1. Allamanda Cathartica L. Apocynaceae 2. Breynia rhamnoides M.Arg. Euphorbiaceae 3. Calophyllun inophyllum L. Clusiaceae 4. Clerodendrum viscosum Vent. Verbenaceae 5. Dregea volubilis (L.f) Benth.ex.Hkf. Ascelepiadaceae 6. Eupatorium odoratum. Asteraceae 7. Glochidion zeylanicum A. Juss. Euphorbiaceae 8. Hygrophila quadrivalvis Nees. Poaceae 9. Ixora coccinea L. Rubiaceae 10. Leersia hexandra Sw. Poaceae 11. Melothria maderaspatana Cogn. Cucurbitaceae 12. Morinda citrifolia L. Rubiaceae 13. Mimosa pudica L. Mimosaceae 14. Panicum repens L. Poaceae 15. Paspalum vaginatum SW. Poaceae 16. Stereospermum tetragonum DC. Bignoniaceae 17. Urena sinuate L. Malvaceae 18. Vernonia elaegnifolia. Asteraceae VI. Plants under Cultivation. 1. Annona glabra Forsk. Annonaceae 2. Cocos nucifera L. Arecaceae 3. Garcinia cambogia Desr. Clusiaceae 4. Glyricidia sepium (Jacq) Kunth ex.Walp. Fabaceae 5. Hevea brasiliensis Muell.-Arg. Euphorbiaceae 6. Mimusops elengi L. Sapotaceae 7. Musa paradisiacal L. Musaceae 8. Polyalthia longifolia H.k.f.2T. Annonaceae 9. Streblus asper Lour. Moraceae 10. Syzygium caryophyllaeum Gaert. Myrtaceae 11. Tectona grandis L.F. Verbenaceae 12. Theobroma cacao L. Sterculiaceae Posted in Kumarakom

KOTTAYAM THE HOME TOWN Kottayam is the nearest town, to Kumarakom. It is the district headquarters. This compact town centre is noisy, busy and increasingly polluted but the outskirts are pleasanter. The eastern side of Kottayam district is the foothills of the Western Ghats and is intensively cultivated with cash crops, notably, rubber, tea, cardamom and pepper while the valley bottoms are given over to coconut trees and paddy. The River Meenachil flows along its northern bank and takes a turn to the south to border its western boundary in Thazhathangadi. In the south also the town has a watery boundary in the River Kodur, which is a branch of Meenachil River. The Meenachil River has been of great navigational advantage to the town for centuries, being connected to the port of Alleppey (Alappuzha) and Kochi through the Lake Vembanad. The antiquity of Kottayam is a matter of conjecture. There is a view that in ancient days it was a seaport town from where the pepper, produced in Palai and other places in Meenachil, made its way to the countries of the west. It is suggested that Arabian Sea receded to its present boundary in the course of several centuries. If this assumption is correct, Kottayam must have been a centre of maritime trade and a meeting place of ancient civilizations. Kottayam is called the land of lake, letters and latex. It is the main Christian centre in Kerala. It is also a place of churches and seminaries. It is the place where the first vernacular newspaper Deepika started its publishing and the largest daily Malayala Manorama is printed. Six major daily newspapers are published from this small town. They are Deepika (owned by Catholic Church), Malayala Manorama (of an industrial house), Mangalam (owned by an individual), Mathrubhoomi (owned by a publishing company), Kerala Kaumudi (owned by another family in Thiruvananthapuram) and Desabhimani (the organ of the Communist Party of India

(Marxist) CPI (M)). Kottayam is the headquarters of Sahithya Pravarthaka Sahakarana Sanghom (SPCS) the first and biggest writers co-operative society that publishes Malayalam books and distributes them through its chain stalls throughout Kerala. Keralas biggest publishing house DC Books is also centred at Kottayam. The pioneer work in the field of western education and female education started in this town by CMS missionaries. The first Malayalam press (CMS press) where the first Malayalam Bible was printed also started in Kottayam. The town was undoubte- dly the meeting ground of all the three great religions of the land viz; Hinduism, Christianity and Islam as evidenced by the large number of temples, churches and mosques in the area. The existence of the religious shrines of different communities in close proximity to one another is proof of the glorious tradition of religious toleration and communal harmony that prevails in this part of the country from time immemorial. There are about 50 temples in and around Kottayam town. Side by side with the remnants of the old palaces and forts of the Tekkumkur Rajas at Thazhathangadi in the western outskirts of Kottayam may be seen the ancient Thaliyil Siva Temple. The most important of the temples in the town is the Thirunakkara Mahadevan Temple. The Keralapuram temple dedicated to Krishna and Pallipurathukavu Bhadrakali temple Kodimatha are at east and south of Thirunakkara Temple. In addition to Hindu temples and churches, Kottayam has its mosques as well. The old mosque of Thazhathangadi had its origin in the days of Thekkumkur Rajas. It stands in the vicinity of many temples and churches as a symbol of communal harmony. It was with Church Mission Society (CMS) missionaries in 18th century that Kottayam entered an era of educational progress and enlightenment. These Christian missionaries working in the District in 18th and 19th centuries enriched Malayalam literature by their

valuable works. The first travelogue in Malayalam Varthamana Pusthakom or Travel to Rome (1778) written by Paremakkil Thomas Kathanar (1740-99) was published in Kottayam. The CMS missionaries who made Kottayam the centre of their activities compiled several outstanding works in Malayam. Rev. Benjamin Bailey who founded the CMS Press in Kottayam (1821) published a Malayalam English Dictionary in 1846. Rev. Richard Collins who was the principal of the CMS College Kottayam Rev. Benjamin Bailey published a Malayalam Dictionary of his own in 1865. Kottayam is an important centre for rubber production and it is the biggest rubber market in Asia. The headquarters of Rubber Board and Rubber Research Institute are in Kottayam. Kottayam town is surrounded by some of the most fertile and beautiful scenery in the State, with hills and backwaters. Here is a list of some places other than Kumarakom. The First Printing Press founded by Bailey in Kottayam (1821) Sri Mahadeva Temple, Thirunakkara: This famous temple situated in the heart of Kottayam town has exquisite paintings. One who looks at these paintings gets the impression that they show real pulsations of life. Saraswathy Temple, Panachikkadu: The famous Goddess Saraswathi temple at Panachikkad (near Chingavanam) is unique as the idol of the goddess of learning is invisible, since it is consecrated in a pit submerged in water. A creeper that grows wild there obstructs vision of the idol. On Vijaya dasami day large number of children are initiated in the letters of alphabet in this temple. The main offering is thri-madhuram. Mahadeva Temple, Ettumanoor: The temple is 10 km north of Kottayam. It was constructed in 1542. Its murals depicting scenes from Ramayana and the Krishna legends are famous.

The Arattu festival in March draws thousands of pilgrims. The main offering to the God has to be made as Kanikka mostly in cash and hence the temple is one of the richest temples in this State. Peermade: It is on the way from Kottayam to Thekkadi (National park) route. Tea, rubber and cardamom plantations surround it. Wagamon: This hill station, at an elevation of 1,100 meters above sea level is a trekkers delight. It is on the IdukkiKottayam border. The breeding center of the Kerala Livestock Board is located here. Elaveezhapoonchira: This is a picnic spot located in the midst of beautiful hillocks. It is easily accessible from Pala. Elaveezhapoonchira means valley where leaves dont fall and is named so because the place has no trees. Vazhikkadavu: This hill station of rocky terrain is on the outskirts of the district. On one side of the main rock are extremely tall and steep rocks and on the other is a valley of terrible depth. Bordering this crude landscape is the Meenachil River. During the months of December/January, the landscape comes alive in a riot of colours with orchids and wild flowers. Poonjar Palace: The palace is a testimony to the regal opulence of byegone era. Within the palace walls, is an extraordinary royal collection of antiques and exquisite furniture which include a palanquin, a thoni -carved out of a single piece of wood for Ayurvedic massages, huge chandeliers, palm leaf engraving, jewel boxes, different varieties of lamps, sculptures of Nataraj (dancing Lord Shiva), grain measures, statues and weapons. A unique conch preserved here is taken out once a year for ritualistic purposes.

Thattans (goldsmiths) Kallasaries (masons) and Ganakas (astrolegers). But they are a small section among Hindus. Dheevara community whose main occupation is fishing forms a small segment of Hindus. The male members fish from the lake and the females do door to door selling of fishes. The most backward among Hindu community is categorized as per constitutional law as Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Their population in this village is very small. A majority from among the scheduled castes were converted to Christianity and therefore are not considered as scheduled castes. They are considered as Backward Christians. The most important sects among scheduled castes are Parayas (sambavar) and the Pulayas (cheramar) Velans whose traditional work is white washing and lime making are also included among scheduled castes. The Pulayas in Kumarakom were hard working agricultural labourers. There are Hindu Pulayas and Christian Pulayas. The only scheduled tribe in Kumarakom is Ulladan. This race is almost extinct in many parts of Kerala. A few of them however are seen in Kumarakom. They catch and eat tortoise and are non-vegetarians. They make plates using arecnut palm. Foods are collected in such plates and sometimes they use them as hats also. Their main job is fishing and canoe making. Hindu Religious Beliefs and Practices The religious beliefs and practices of the Hindus here represent a fusion of Aryan and Dravidian ideas. There are a number of Non-Aryan religious beliefs and practices, which have become part of the Hindu religious faith. Serpent worship and ancestor worship are admittedly non-Aryan practices. The origin of snake worship goes back to remote antiquity. But in no part of the world is snake worship still prevalent as in Kerala. In almost every house the south-west corner of the

compound is set apart for a snake shrine called Sarppakavu. The proposition of the serpent god is considered essential to the well being and prospirity of the family. According to the tradition the first Aryan colonists brought by Parasurama found Kerala uninhabitable. So they left. Then the Naagas (Snakes) of the lower world came and occupied the land. When the Aryans came again they found the land occupied and waged war against the Nagas. Parasurama decided to favour the early colonists and ordered that they should set apart a corner of their compound as an abode for the serpent god. This grove which is found in some houses for snake worship is an evidence of the connection between the Nagas and the Dravidian peoples.There are some such groves still in Kumarakom. The Naaga shrines at Mannarassala is the most important serpent worship centre in Kerala. It is a small beautifull village about 3 kms North-west of Sri Subrahmonya Temple at Haripad in Alleppey District. Ancestor worship has also been an age-old practice. The deceased ancestors are looked upon as benefactors of the taravad and special pujas are performed on New Moon days to propitiate them. There are certain important shrines in this District, such as the one at Vedagiri near Ettumanur, which are visited by people for performance of Vavu Bali on Amavasi or New Moon days. It may be mentioned that Vavu Bali is an important ritual connected with ancestor worship.In Kumarakom also hundreds of people gather together at SKM Temple for Vavu Bali every year. Apart from practising serpent worship and ancestor worship, the Hindus also venerate animals and birds like the cow, bull, garuda, peacock and the monkey. There are also certain plants, which are considered by them as especially sacred. The Aswatha, the Bilva and the Tulsi may be particularly mentioned in this connection. Pradakshinams round the Aswatha (peepul) tree are believed to bring religious merit.

The Bilva is sacred to Siva and is largely used in his worship. The Tulasi is likewise sacred to Vishnu but it is also used in all temples for pujas, irrespective of the deity. The Hindus worship all the Gods and Goddesses of the Hindu pantheon such as Siva, Vishnu, Bhagavathi, Sastha, and Subramonian etc. Kottayam is famous for its great temples or Mahakshetrams dedicated to Siva. The Siva temples of Vaikom, Kaduthuruthi, Ettumanur, Tirunakkara, Thazhathangadi, Kadapattur, Lalom, Mariapally and Vazhapally are among the most famous of their kind in the District. In Kumarakom also there are two Siva temples. The existence of such a large number of famous Siva temples in the same area perhaps shows the predominant influence exerted by the Saiva cult in this District in the ancient past. It is also significant that compared to the neighboring District of Alleppey; there are only a few Vishnu temples of repute in Kottayam. The more important among them are those of Trikkodithanam, Tiruvarpu, Kudamalur, and Bharananganam etc. At Aymanam, near Kumarakom there is an ancient temple dedicated to Vishnu in the form of Narasimha. There is also another Narasimha temple at Manganam to the east of Kottayam. In this District there are two famous temples dedicated to Sri Rama. They are located at Tirumanivenkitapuram (Vaikom, taluk) and Ramapuram (Meenachil Taluk). Within a radius of 3 k.m. from the latter temple are situated the temples of Kudappalam, Amanakara and Methiri dedicated to Lakshmana, Bharata and Satrughna respectively. The Tirumuzhikulam temple (Mulakkulam village) is dedicated to Lakshmana while the Vennimala temple is dedicated to both Sri Rama and Lakshmana. The existence of two separate flagstaffs side by side is a special feature of the latter temple. One of the famous Bhagavati temples of Kerala is located at Kumaranallur in this District. There are important Bhagavati temples at Peruvantanam, Perunnai and Cheruvalli. There are temples dedicated to

Subramonian at Udayanapuram, Kidangur, Edappadi, Perunnai and Munnar. The District is particularly famous for the Sastha cult. Sabarimala, the most celebrated of the Sastha shrines in the country, is situated in the Peermade Taluk of Idukki District. There are also Sastha temples at Erumeli, Punjar, Devikulam, Kumarakom, and Vedavyasagiri. Ganapathi is accommodated as a minor deity in many temples. In the Siva temple in Vazhapally the worship of Ganapathi is more popular than that of the main deity, Siva. At Adityapuram near Kaduthuruthi there is a temple dedicated to Aditya, the Sun God. Panachikkadu in Kottayam Taluk has a famous shrine dedicated to Saraswathy, the Goddess of Learning. As temples dedicated to the Sun God and Saraswathi are rare, the Adityapuram and Panachikkad shrines assume special significance. At Olassa there is a temple dedicated to Dhanwantari Deva (Physician of the gods) Temple Rites: The worship in the temples of the District is open to all irrespective of sex. To an average Hindu, the day bigins with a bath in the temple tank. He makes a dash to the temple with the mundu still wet and circumambulates the deity, chanting the Lords name.With his forehead, chest and arms smeared with holy ashes and sandal paste he emerges into the work a day world with the feeling that the day has begun well for him.Hindu life is intimately associated with temples. The rituals are of a very elaborate nature prescribed in the Tantras (rituals). The priest performs the Puja or worship after he has purified himself by the performance of such external acts like dhyanam (meditation) and japam (prayer). This is followed by the offerings of water, flower, sandal, incense, camphor etc. The number of daily Pujas varies in different temples as per the importance of each. The maximum is five and the minimum one. The daily Pujas are called Nityanidanam. Under this head comes the abhishekam, puja, nivedyam, namaskaram, sribeli etc. The devotees offer

vazhipadu, which consist of nivedyams, archanas, lighting etc. The kanikka or the depositing of coins is a common practice in most temples. Devotees also offer ornaments and other valuables to the deity. Each temple has its distinctive vazhipadu. In the temple in Ettumanoor it is the payment of money, in Vaikom it is the feeding of Brahmins. In Vazhapally the main vazhipdu is the Appam offered to Ganapathi and in Thiruvarppu it is the Uzhapayasam. In Subramonia temples like Udayanapuram, Kidangoor etc. the main offering is the Kavadi. It consists of an offering of sandal, rose water etc. to Lord Subramonia carried in posts over the shoulders of the devotees, the posts being suspended from the ends of a pole well decorated with tapestry and feathers of the peacock. At Sabarimala, the pilgrims make lavish offering of rupees and images in gold and silver. Appam and aravana payasam are also popular vazhipadu here, Muzhukappu or the artistic coating of the idol with sandal paste is an important vazhipadu in many temples. In most of the major temples there is an annual utsavam. The function consists of special services and processions. Exhibitions of various arts like Kathakali, Ottam Tullal, patakam etc., are conducted for the benefit of the devotees. During the processions the idol of the deity is taken round in pradakshinam inside the temple on the back of an caparisaned elephant to the accompaniment of nagaswaram and other forms of music. Some of the major temples have their own elephants and teams of artists for the purpose. The temples of the District are now open to all the Hindus irrespective of caste. However till a quarter of a century ago, the so-called Avarnas or backward classes were prevented from entering the temples. They could offer worship only from allotted places of prescribed distance. In course of time a feeling of self-respect asserted itself among the backward classes and the demand for temple entry took shape. The new movement secured the sympathetic support of large numbers

of people belonging to the Savarnas or Higher Castes. The Vaikom Satyagraha that was conducted in 1924 under the auspices of the Indian National Congress to secure admission for the backward classes to the approach roads adjacent to the famous Vaikom temple was a turning point in the history of this movement. On November 2, 1936, His Highness Sri Chitra Thirunal issued the famous Temple Entry Proclamation throwing open the temples of Travancore to all Hindus irrespective of caste. Fasts and Festivals The Hindus observe several fasts or Vrithams with a view to propitiating various Gods and Goddesses and acquiring spiritual benefits. The important fasts are those undertaken on the Shashti, Ekadasi, Pradosham and Full Moon days. In addition, the Hindus also observe a number of religious festivals. In Chingam (August-September) the Ashtami Rohini the sacred day on which Lord Krishna was born, is celebrated. The Vinayaka Chaturthi which falls on the fourth day of the bright fortnight in Chingam (August-September) is sacred to Ganapati. People are prohibited to see the Moon on this day as it is supposed to bring miseries and misfortunes of all kinds. The Navaratri festival falls in Kanni (September-October). It is a nine-day festival and is a favorable period for the worship of Sakthi. The last three days are set apart for the worship of Saraswathi. Throughout the Durgashtami, Mahanavami and Vijaya Dasami days the worshippers are prohibited from doing their customary work. The Vijayadasami or Puja Eduppu day is regarded as auspicious for the beginning of childrens education vidyarambha. It is customary in this District for the parents to take their children to such places as Vedavyasagiri and Panachikkad Sarswathi shrine in order to initiate them formally into the study of the letters (Vidyarambha). Narakachaturdasi or Deepavali falls in the month of Tulam (October-November). It is also known as the festival of lights. Trikkarthika is another festival, which falls in the month of Vrichigam (November-December). Its main feature is the illumination of Hindu houses in the night.

Note prepared by T.J Joseph Deputy Tahsildar,Kottayam Mob- 9447464502