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` sh na?vvtu, sh naE? Éun´…, sh vIy¡?

krvavhE,
tejiSv navxI?tmStu ma iv?iÖ;avhEš?,
` zaiNt/> zaiNt/> zaiNt?>.

(s> = he; h = indeed; naE = us two; Avtu = may protect; s> = he; h =verily; ; naE = us two; Éun´… =
may nourish; sh = (we two) together; vIyRm! krvavhE = may acquire the capacity (to understand & study
the scriptures); AxItm! = what is studied; tejiSv = (be) brilliant; naE = for us; AStu = let it be; ma
iviÖ;avhE = may we not cavil at each other)

May He protect us both (the teacher & the taught) together (by revealing knowledge). May He nourish us both
(by vouchsafing the results of knowledge). May we (both) acquire the capacity (to understand the scriptures).
May our study be brilliant (and invigorating). May we not cavil at each other.
Oh Lord, may I have peace of the three types of obstacles – those centered around me, those arising from other
living beings and those from natural forces.
yena]rsmaçaymixgMy mheñrat!, k«Tõm! Vyakr[< àae´< tSmE pai[nye nm>.
vaKykar< vréic< Éa:ykar< ptÃilm!, pai[in< sUÇkar< c à[tae=iSm muinÇym!.
` zaiNt/> zaiNt/> zaiNt?>.
(yen = by whom or by which, because, since; A]r = alphabet; smaçaym! = handing down by tradition or
from memory, collection or compilation of sacred texts, the sacred texts in general; AixgMy = to study, to be
desirous of studying or reading; mheñrat! = by Lord Maheshavara; k«Tõm! = absolutely complete;
Vyakr[m! = grammar ; àae´m! = spoken of, addressed; tSmE = that; pai[nye = that Panini; nm> =
salutations; vaKykarm! = the author of vaKysvRdœ ; vréicm! = a grammarian [also a poet ,
lexicographer , and writer on medicine], sometimes identified with kaTyayn, [the reputed author of the
vaitRka or supplementary rules of pai[nI] - He is placed, by some, among the nine gems of the court of
Vikramaditya, and by others, among the ornaments of the court of Bhoja - He was the author of the àak«t!
grammar called àak«t!-àkaz, and is said to be the first grammarian who reduced the various dialects of
àak«t! to a system pÂt!-kwa> ; Éa:ym! = commentary; ptÃilm! = a celebrated grammarian, author of
the mhaÉa:ym! , also a philosopher (the propounder of the Yoga philosophy); pai[inm! = that Panini;
sUÇkarm! = the composer of the sUÇ (a short sentence or aphoristic rule, and any work or manual
consisting of strings of such rules hanging together like threads) - these sUÇ form manuals of teaching in
ritual, philosophy, grammar etc.); à[m! = to bend or bow down before, make obeisance to, to cause a person
to bow before; AiSm = I; muin> = a saint, sage, seer, ascetic, monk, devotee, hermit; Çym! = a triad).

Unto pai[in, by whom, having understood the A]r and by the grace of Bhagvan, the entire Vyakr[<
zaôm! was told, my salutation unto pai[in.
The Legend
The Vedas came with creation and were in Samskrit, hence the language is called dev va[I. Brahmaji
himself taught the Vyakr[ to Lord Indra for a thousand years, word-by-word (pdm!-àit-pdm!). Panini, a
student & scholar of Samskrit, prayed to Lord Shiva for a System by which this grammar could be presented -
to be understood and remembered easily. Lord Shiva came down playing his fmé. Sounding the fmé 14
times – gave the following maheñrai[ sUÇai[ -
A#%[! \¤kœ @Aae'œ @AaEc! hyrvqœ
aiuë åÿk eoì eauc hayaravaö
l~[! |m'[nm! HÉ|! "fx;! jbgfz!
laðë ñamaìaëanam jhabhañ ghaòadhaña jabagaòaś
o)DQwcqtv! kpy! z;sr! hl!,
khaphachaöhathacaöatav kapay śañasar hal
Taking the above as the basis and having gained the knowledge from Lord Shiva, Panini wrote the mUlm!
which consisted of about 4000 sutras.
Another scholar, kaTyayn! , who had also been working on a system of grammar, but could not ‘publish’ his
work before Panini did, then ‘corrected’ Panini’s work by commenting on the errors of omission &
commission by writing about 8000 %´m! & Êé´m! in his vaitRka. Jealous of Panini and hurt by not
getting enough recognition for his works, kaTyayn! cursed Panini – that he would die within a day. Angered
by this curse, Panini too cursed kaTyayn! that if the curse took effect, kaTyayn! should die within a day.
Both curses took effect and this world lost two great scholars of Samskrit and there was none of equal caliber
to spread the knowledge. Lord izv then approached Lord iv:[u to resolve this issue. Lord Vishnu then asked
Aaid;ez to be born as a human being to write the Éa:ym! (Commentary) & spread the knowledge.
Before being born, Aaid;ez wanted to introduce himself to his (would be) mother. So he dropped into the
hands of gaei[ka, who herself was Samskrit scholar, in the water she held in her open palm (AÃil), while
performing her morning prayers, in the form of a small snake. gaei[ka asked the little snake ‘kaeÉRvn’
(instead of ‘kaeÉvn’, adding a ‘r!’ – by mistake). Aaidze; replied ‘spaehm!’ (instead of ‘spaeRhm!’ –
purposely dropping the ‘r!’). gaei[ka realized her mistake and asked ‘%that TVy re)a’ (where is your
‘re)a’). ‘Tvy Apùt’ (you have taken away), replied Aaid;ez, Then he took the permission and her blessings
to be born as her son. Having fallen in the water held in her open palm, he was called - ptÃil,
He mastered the Vedas and had 1000 disciples. In/near the present city of Chinambaram, before imparting the
knowledge of Samskrit to them he laid down two conditions before them – No one should leave before the
entire Éa:ym! is written down. He would impart the knowledge staying behind a curtain, which no one
should lift till the entire Éa:ym! was written down. Aaidze; then hid behind a curtain and assumed his 1000
headed snake form and started teaching, non-stop. Towards the end, an impatient & curious student lifted the
curtain, revealing the 1000 headed form of the guru. Exposed to the fire and venom of the 1000 hooded
Aaidze; all the students & everything around was burnt and reduced to ashes. However, one student (cNÔ
zmaR) who had broken the first rule and wandered away for a while – was saved from the tragedy. ptÃil was
happy that at least one student of his had the knowledge. He was also angered for breaking the first rule and

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turned him into a äü ra]s who would stay on a tree and feed on äaü[. The student fell at the feet of his guru
begging forgiveness and asked for a way to get rid of the terrible curse. ptÃil softened up and said that
whenever äü ra]s could successfully teach and make a student write all that he knew about the language, he
would be free from the curse. He also assured that people having heard of his (Patanjali’s) name would come
to the ähm ra]s, his disciple, seeking the knowledge, in spite of the fact that äü ra]s eat äaü[. As a test for
selecting the student the äü ra]s should ask the following –
Q. What is the inóa êpm! (past present participle) of ‘p<c’.
Correct Ans.: ‘pKv’. (Common mistake ‘p´’)
äü ra]s was allowed to eat all those failing the test and teach those having passed it. Over the years many
people came seeking knowledge, but none could pass the test and ended up being eaten up by the äü ra]s,
Finally one person passed and äü ra]s happy at the prospect of being freed from the curse, immediately
accepted him as a student. He made the student write on the leaves of the vq-v&] (Banyan tree), using the
thorns of the ibLva v&] as pen & the blood for ink. Under the threat of being eaten and with no time to even
stack or arrange the leaves, the student began writing the Éa:ym!, Meanwhile a goat came & nibbled some
of the leaves. As all was so unorganized, neither the teacher nor the student took the pain to find and re-write
the missing text. So even today, the mhaÉa:ym! contains missing texts called AÉi]tm! (eaten by the goat)
and is incomplete. Thanks to ptÃil that we have the grammar of this great language. The äü ra]s then
became free of the curse and was well-known as gaEf pad - a famous scholar & author of the karika to the
mu{fk %pin;d.

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Introduction
Samskrit is a natural language and its grammar is descriptive (not prescriptive). Samskritam is formed by -
sMykœ (Well, good, proper) + k«tm! (Made) = well made. This is so called, as the grammar written for the
language is so transparent that once one knows the grammar, every word can be broken-down to its level of
the root. In the same way, starting from the roots, the words can be built-up.

The Sa ms krit Alphabet


The Samskrit alphabet is written in a script called devnagrI. It is written as below, (also the transliteration
scheme - detailed) –
A a Aa ā # i $ ī % u
Vowels ^ ū \ å § è ¤ ÿ @ e
@e ai Aae o AaE au
k-vgR k k o kh g g " gh ' ì
c-vgR c c D ch j j H jh | ï
q-vgR q ö Q öh f ò F òh [ ë
t-vgR t t w th d d x dh n n
p-vgR p p ) ph b b É bh m m
y-vgR y y r r l l v v
z-vgR z ś ; ñ s s h h
a< à a> ù

Vowels - Svr
There are five simple vowels and four diphthongs in the Samskrit Language. They are -
Simple Vowels A # % \ ¤
Diphthongs @ @e Aae AaE

The vowels are the sounds, which can be pronounced independently. Based on the length of the pronunciation,
they are classified as -
1. ÿSv> (short)- one maÇa
2. dI"R> (long)- two maÇa
3. Plut> - three maÇa
The Plut> shall be ignored, for the time being only
Of the simple vowels, first four have both the short & the long forms. The fifth one, ¤ does not have a long
form. The diphthongs are all long. Therefore, for all practical purposes, there are 13 vowels in the Samskrit
Language. They are –
A l l Vo w e l s
Simple Vowels Diphthongs
A Aa # $ % ^ \ § ¤ @ @e Aae AaE
a ā i ī u ū å è ÿ e ai a au

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Consonants – VyÃna>
There are 33 consonants in the Samskrit alphabet. A consonant cannot be pronounced independently by itself.
It can be pronounced only in combination with a vowel. The vowel A is added uniformly to all consonants to
facilitate pronunciation. However, they can be represented by the consonant symbol with a nether stroke
(called hlNt) as illustrated below –
k – consonant followed by the vowel A
kœ – consonant by itself – without the vowel A

Classification of the Sa mskrit Alphabet


According to the point of articulation, the letters of the Samskrit alphabet are divided into five groups, as
follows –
1 Throat Guttural k{Q(a>
2 Palate Palatal talVya>
3 Roof of the Mouth Cerebral mUxRNya>
4 Teeth Dental dNtya>
5 Lips Labial Aaeó(a>

They are further classified into groups based on the type of effort used. When we classify the consonants and
vowels according to the effort, it again involves two types of classifications. The first one is based on how the
articular surfaces come in contact with each other. This is called internal effort. Based on the internal effort the
consonants and vowels are divided into five groups as follows –
k, o, g, ", '.
c, D, j, H, |.
Hard & Soft Mutes
Sp&òa> VyÃn q, Q, f, F, [.
(The 25 class consonants)
t, w, d, x, n.
p, ), b, É, m.
$;TSp&ò ANtSwa
Semi-vowels y, r, l, v.
> >
$;iÖv&t ^:ma[>
Sibilants ;, z, s.
>
ivv&t> Vowels A, Aa, #, $, \, §, ¤, %, ^.
s<v&t> Short A **
** This A is s<v&t> only for enunciation but for all grammatical purposes it is taken as ivv&ta>.
The second kind of effort is called the external effort. Based on this the 25 mutes are divided into soft
consonants and hard consonants.
 The First & Second of each class of mutes are the hard consonants – the surds.
 The Third & Fourth are the soft consonants – the sonants.
 The Fifth of the class are the nasals and are soft consonants.

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The First & Third are non-aspirates – ALpàa[a, The Second & Fourth are aspirates – mhaàa[a,
On the basis of the above, the following is a comprehensive classification of the Samskrit alphabet
represented in devnagrI –
semi-
vowels Mutes (not resonant sounds - consonants) sibilants
vowel
Svr VyÃna> ^:ma[>
ANtSw>
i i
Internal Effort $;TSp&
vv vv& Sp&òa> $;iÖiv&ta>
Aa_yNtr àyÆ òa>
&t t
ivvar-ñas-A"ae; s<var-nad-"ae;
surd sonant
(hard) (soft)
External Effort non- asp.
asp. nasal
baý àyÆ non-asp. asp. m aspirate
mhaàa ALpàa ALpàa[
ALpàa[ ALpàa haàa mhaàa[
[ [
[ [
ÿSv dI"R class1 class2 class3 class4 class5
Guttural k{Q(a> A* Aa k o g " ' > h
Palatal talVya> # $ c D j H | y z
Cerebral
\ § q Q f F [ r ;
mUxRNya>
Dental dNtya> ¤ t w d x n l s
Labial Aaeó(a> % ^ p ) b É m v **
Gutturo-palatal @
k{Qtalu @e
Gutturo-labial Aae
k{Qaeóm! AaE
* This A is s<v&t> only for enunciation but for all grammatical purposes it is taken as
ivv&ta>
** v is a dNtaeóm! (dento-labial)

A-k…-h-ivsjRnIyana< k{Q, #-cu-y-zana< talu, \-qu-;a[a< mUxaR, ¤-tu-l-sana< dNta>,


%-pu-%pXmanIyana< AaeóaE, |-m-'-[-nan< naiska c, @dEtae> k{Qtalu, AaedaEtae>
k{Qaeóm!,vkarSy dNtaeóm!, ijþamUlIySy ijg!vamUlm!, naisk AnuSvarSy. - Swan
AiÉVyÂk-s&UÇai[.
A, Aa, k… (k-vgR) h! & ivsgR are uttered by the throat
#, $, cu (c-vgR) y! & z! are uttered by the palate
\, §, qu (q-vgR) r! & ;! are uttered by the cerebral
¤, tu (t-vgR) l! & s! are uttered by the dental
%, ^, pu (p-vgR) & AxR-ivsgR, preceding the ;! or á , viz. %pxmanIy, are uttered by the labial
|!, m!, 'œ, [!, & n! are uttered by the nasal, in addition to the above 5 points
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@ & @e are uttered by both throat & palate [@t! + @et! --> @dEtae> (;óI / iÖcnm!)]
Aae & AaE are uttered by both throat & labial [Aaet! + AaEt! --> AaedaEtae> (;óI / iÖcnm!)]
v! is uttered by dental & labial
AxR-ivsgR , preceding kœ or o! , viz. ijþamUlIy, is uttered by te mouth of tongue
AnuSvar is uttered with the help of the nasal

Other S ymbols
a is the dot above the vowel and originates from a m! or a n!
AnuSvr
< This shall be discussed in detail in the siNx rules
a is the aspirate sound that originates from a s! or r! at the end of the word
ivsgR
>
AxRivsg is the modification of the ivsgR under certain conditions
R
is not strictly a symbol of the Samskrit language.
Av¢h =
It is used to represent an elided/omitted A

Consonant followed b y Vowels – sSvrVyÃn ain


The consonants when they join with vowels are represented as follows. The representation here is for the
consonant k. For all other consonants the same convention should be followed –
Consonant Vowel Symbol of the Vowel
kœ + A = k the nether stroke is removed
kœ + Aa = ka a
kœ + # = ik i
kœ + $ = kI I
kœ + % = k… u
kœ + ^ = kª U
kœ + \ = k« &
kœ + § = k© ©
kœ + ¤ = „ ¤
kœ + @ = ke ae
kœ + @e = kE aE
kœ + Aae = kae aae
kœ + AaE = kaE aaE

Conjunct Consonants – s<yu´]rai[


When two or more consonants come together without a vowel intervening, it is called a conjunct consonant. A
conjunct consonant can have any number of constituents. But in the language we do not see more than five
coming together. When the conjunct consonants are written, certain conventions are followed. Sometimes
each consonant loses a part of itself when it joins with another. At other times one is written over the other.
Sometimes a totally new symbol represents the conjunct consonant. There are no definitive rules for this but

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certain conventions are followed and one has to be familiar with them for a proper reading and writing of the
language. Conjunct Consonants Detailed

Rule 1 – In a conjunct consonant, the letter that corresponds to the last sound is generally represented in full,
because it has a vowel, and the letters corresponding to the previous sound(s) are represented by their vertical
half or a part of the whole. The exceptions to this rule are – ', D, q, f, F, r, h,
The order of writing is the same as the order of pronunciation, barring a few exceptions
Rule 2 – When in a conjunct consonant, the consonants – ', D, q, f, F, r, h come in any position other than
the last, they are represented in full and the lower halves of the letters of the sound that follows is placed
above the letters
Rule 3 – When the sound corresponding to r! is part of a conjunct consonant, the following conventions are
followed –
 If the consonant r! is preceded by a consonant, i.e. it is the second member of the conjunct, then it is
represented as a stroke on the body of the preceding consonant. In case the preceding consonant is – ', D,
q, f, F, it is represented as a double stroke below
 If the consonant r! is followed by a consonant, i.e. it is the first member of the conjunct and is preceded
by a vowel then it is represented as a hook on top of the next Svr-VyÃn , consonant that is followed by a
vowel, crossing over the consonant(s) that may intervene

Sa mskrit Numerals
The Samskrit numerals are written as follows-
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

xatu – the verbal root


The starting point i.e. the most fundamental unit of Samskrit is the xatu– the verbal root. There are
approximately 2000 roots in the language. xatu = one who supports, hence the name.
All xatu have ‘action’ as their inherent meaning i.e. every xatu denotes an action. Therefore a xatu is a
i³ya vack>.

Factors Related to an Action ( kark )


1. ktaR 2. kmR 3. kr[m!
4. sMàdanm! 5. Apadanm! 6. Aixkr[m!
ktaR (Doer of an action) – Every action will necessarily have a doer and Panini defines it as SvtÙ> ktaR,
kmR (Object of an action) = This is a technical term used in grammar. kmR can also mean action. It can also
mean kmR)l , but in grammar it refers to an object of an action.
Question: What is an ‘object of an action’?
Answer: Whenever the meaning of the root is understood, if an expectation is created in terms of ‘what’, then
the thing that fulfils that expectation is the object = kmR e.g. when we say ‘it’ an expectation is raised in the
mind of the listener ‘what?’ If one answers ‘fruit’, then the ‘fruit’ is the object of the verb ‘it’.

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Some roots have an object inherent in their meaning and some do not. Roots that have an object inherent in
their meaning are called skmRk xatu – transitive verbs (designating a verb that requires a direct object to
complete the meaning) - e.g. to touch, to look, to take, to pull etc.
And those roots who do not have an object inherent to their meaning are called AkmRk xatu -intransitive
verbs (designating a verb that does not require or cannot take a direct object) - e.g. to stand, to sit, to run, to
grow, to laugh, to cry etc.

Thus, kmR the kark is related to skmRk roots.


kr[m! is the instrument (means) that is most useful in accomplishing an action e.g. ‘I write with a pen’ or ‘I
eat with my hand’. Here ‘pen’ and ‘hand’ are the kr[m!,
sMàdanm! Is the recipient of the act of giving. When the action is giving, the giver is ktaR, The given
object is kmR, The hand which gives is the kr[m!, The receiver is the sMàdanm!,
e.g. n&p> AacayaRy hSten xn< yCDit. The king gives the wealth to the teacher, with his hands.
[ n&p> the king (ktaR), AacayaRy to the teacher (sMàdinm!), hSten with his hands (kr[m! ), xn<
the wealth (kmR), yCDit gives (i³ya)]

Apadanm! Is the point of origin of action. When the action involves movement, the point of origin of this
movement is called Apadanm! e.g. pÇm! v&]at! ptit the leaf falls from the tree. The action is ‘falls’ as it
involves movement, which originated at the tree. Hence the tree is considered to be Apadanm!,
Aixkr[m! is the locus of action i.e. where the actions is located. Locus can be both in time and space e.g. ‘the
children eat in the dining hall, at night’. Here – ‘in the dining hall’ is the Aixkr[m!
of space and ‘at night’ is the Aixkr[m! of time.

There is a third thing which can be Aixkr[m! – which is iv;y (subject or topic).

Samskrit is a declensional language, unlike English, i.e. each noun has a declensional suffix. These
declensional suffixes are known as ivÉi´ or sup!-àTyy. There are seven ivÉi´, each a set of three (singular,
dual & plural). The ivÉi´ are known as ‘cases’ in English. The six will be assigned a particular ‘case’ as
follows –
 the first case denotes the ktaR in ktRir-àyaeg (active voice) and also kmR in kmRi[-àyaeg,
 the second case denotes the kmR in ktRir-àyaeg
 the third case denotes the instrument – kr[m!
 the fourth case denotes the recipient - sMàdanm!
 the fifth case denotes the Apadanm!
 the seventh case denotes the Aixkr[m!
Note: the above cases denote other things apart from the kark
Note: The sixth case does not denote any kark but denotes sMbNx = connection.

siNx> = s<ihta

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When two sounds/letters come together extremely close i.e. without any gap while enunciation. This situation
is called s<ihta or siNx> .
During the siNx> situation, certain euphoric changes take place and the rules representing these changes are
called siNx> rules.

dI"R siNx>
dI"R siNx> When two similar vowels – long or short, come together, the preceding and the following are
together replaced by a single long similar vowel
A or Aa + A or Aa → Aa ⇒ iv*a + Aaly> → iv*aly>
# or $ + # or $ → $ ⇒ Aix + $z> → AxIz>
% or ^ + % or ^ → ^ ⇒ Éanu + %dy> → ÉanUdy>
\ or § + \ or § → § ⇒ ipt& + \[m! → ipt¨[m!
Note -
 When ‘A’ of one ‘maÇa’ and ‘Aa’ of two maÇa come together, the replacement is dI"R i.e. two maÇa
NEVER three maÇa,
 dI"R siNx applies only for simple vowels i.e. A, Aa, #, $, %, ^, \,

Exception
When short ‘A’, not at the end of a pdm! , is followed by a gu[ letter, then the preceding and the following
are together replaced by the following letter. Sūtra - Atae gu[e 6.1.97.
e.g. Év + AiNt → ÉviNt .

gu[ siNx>
gu[ is the name Panini gives to the three vowels – A, @, Aae. This is just a name given, perhaps it is a name
which comes in the tradition. The name is given so that these letters can be referred to, in the sutras by the
name. [Ade'œ gu[> 1.1.2 ]
gu[ siNx> When A or Aa are followed by #, $, %, ^, \, §, ¤ the preceding and the following are
together replaced by a gu[ letter i.e. A or @ or Aae . e.g. sur + $z> ⇒ surez> .
Here the A is followed by $. By the gu[ siNx rule the A and $ should be replaced by a single gu[ letter (A,
@ , Aae). We have to choose the one that would be the closest match. If we analyze the criteria of closeness,
in order of importance, they are –
 Swanm! or AaSym! = point of articulation
 Aa_yNtr-àyÆm! = internal effort
 baý-àyÆm! = external effort
 Any other
In the example – sur + $z> → surez>
for ‘A’ – k{Q is the Swanm! And for ‘$’ – talu is the Swanm!. Therefore, the perfect match would be
the gu[ letter ‘@’ which is k{Qtalu. Thus we have - sur + $z> → surez>.

In the situation of –
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1. A or Aa + \ or § And A or Aa + ¤ when the preceding or the following have to be replaced by a gu[ letter
as though there is a poor match, then we can choose only A. But when \ , § & ¤ are analyzed, it is observed
that these are different from other vowels by having a (small) ‘r!’, ‘r!’ or ‘l!’ components, respectively, added
to the component ‘V’ which is k{Q(. Then the A which is a k{Q( is the match. But because the consonant
component cannot be ignored, Panini writes a special sutra (%r[! rpr>,1.1.51 ) and makes the gu[
replacement of \ & § as ‘Ar!’ and of ‘¤’ as ‘Al!’.

A or Aa + # or $ → @ %p + #NÔ> → %peNÔ>
→ → sUyaeRdy
A or Aa + % or ^ Aae sUyR + %dy>
>
A or Aa + \ or § → Ar! ¢I:m + \tu> → ¢I:mtuR>
A or Aa + ¤ → Al! tv + ¤v[R> → tvLv[R>

v&iœ siNx>
v&iœ siNx> When A or Aa is followed by a @ , Aae, @e or AaE then the preceding and the following
vowels will be together replaced by a single v&iœ letter.
v&iœ s<}a (s<}a = definition) the letters Aa , @e and AaE are called v&iœ letters (v&iœ radEc!
1.1.2). in the situation of v&iœ siNx for eg. k«:[ + @kTvm! = k«:[EkTvm! . Here A is k{Qy, @ is
k{Qtalu.
Therefore @e which is a k{Qtalu is the best match.
e.g. g¼a + @eñyRm! = g¼EñyRm! .
jl + Aaex> = jlaEx>. (Flow of water)
k«:[ + AaETsuKym! = k«:[aEsuKym!. (Curiosity about Krishna)
A or Aa + @ or @e → @e ⇒ k«:[ + @kTvm! → k«:[EkTvm!
ÉaegEñyRm
A or Aa + @ or @e → @e ⇒ Éaeg + @eñyRm! →
!
Aa Aa Aa
A or Aa + or → ⇒ Év + AaE;xm! → ÉvaE;xm!
e E E
Aa Aa Aa
A or Aa + or → ⇒ tv + AaEÚTym! → tvaEÚTym!
e E E

y[! siNx>
y[! siNx> When #, $, %, ^, \ or §, (long or short), is followed by a dissimilar vowel, then the
replacements are as follows -
that
# or $ + any dissimilar vowel → y! + ⇒ #it + Aip → #Tyip
vowel
that nn
% or ^ + any dissimilar vowel → v! + ⇒ + @v → nNvev
vowel u
that i
\ or § + any dissimilar vowel → r! + ⇒ + Aa}a → ipÇa}a
vowel pt&
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that Aak«it
¤ + any dissimilar vowel → l! + ⇒ ¤ → lak«it>
vowel >
Here -
# or $ is replaced by y!
% or ^ is replaced by v!
\ or § is replaced by r!
¤ is replaced by l!

Ayav siNx>
Ayav siNx> is so called because Ay! , Av! , Aay! and Aav! are the replacements. When @, Aae, @e,
AaE are followed by any vowels i.e. –
@ is replaced by Ay!
Aa
is replaced by Av!
e
@
is replaced by Aay!
e
Aa
is replaced by Aav!
E

@ + any vowel ⇒ Ay! eg nI + Ait → ny + Ait → nyit


Aae + any vowel ⇒ Av! eg ÉU + Ait → Éae + Ait → Évit
@e + any vowel ⇒ Aay! eg nI + Ak → nE + Ak → nayk
AaE + any vowel ⇒ Aav! eg pU + Ak → paE + Ak → pavk
Exception #1
When @ or Aae at the end of a pdm! is followed by a A, then the preceding and the following are replaced
by the preceding and the A, in effect is dropped and represented by the symbol ‘=’ – called Av¢h.
e.g. munye + AÚm! = munye=Úm!. izvae + Ahm! = izvaee=hm! .
Exception #2 (Extension to the Ayav siNx)
When y! or v! is followed by any vowel or a semi-vowel or a nasal or a h! or a soft consonant (i.e.by an Az!
letter) then the y! or v! is dropped, optionally (opinion of AacayaR zakLy). Sutra laep> zakLySy
8.3.19.
e.g. tSmE + AyCDt!! (he gave) ⇒ tSmay! + AyCDt!!
⇒ tSmayyCDt! or tSma AyCDt!. (both are correct)
Note: Any siNx does not apply to the later as per the Sutra pUvRÇ-Aisœm! 8.2.1.

it'Nt-àkr[m! - Conjugation of Roots to Form Verbs


Conjugation is a process in which a xatu (root) is converted to the final form of the verb i.e. it'Nt àkr[m!
Based on the changes that take place during the process of conjugation. There are approximately 2000 roots of
the Samskrit Language that are listed in the xatu paQ>, These are divided into 10 groups, called

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conjugations. In English we call them ‘<number>’ Conjugation, for reference. In Samskrit they are called by
the xatu (root) that is at the beginning of the group. These are –
Total # of Roots
Conjugation # Samskrit Name Root g[ivkr[m!
(approx.)
I _vaidg[> ÉU zp! 1200
II Adaidg[> Adœ zp! *
III juhaeTyaidg[> ÷ zp! *
IV idvaidg[> idv! Zyn! 50
V Svaidg[> su îu
VI tudaidg[> tudœ z 50
VII éxaidg[> éx! îm!
VIII tnaeTyaidg[> tn! %
IX ³(aidg[> ³I îa
X curaidg[> cur zp! 450
* will be dropped later

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The roots can be conjugated in 10 + 1 = 11 modes called lkara>, They are –
iqt! lkara>
1 Present Tense vÄRman-kal> l~qœ
Past tense not witnessed by the
2 Remote Past Perfect Tense prae] ÉUtkal> il~qœ
speaker
Periphrastic Future / An*tn Éiv:yt!-
3 l~uqœ
First Future Tense kal>
General / Second / Simple Future
4 Éiv:yt!-kal> l&~qœ
Tense
le
5 Vedic Subjunctive Tense
~qœ
lae
6 Imperative Mood Aa}awR>
~qœ
i't! lkara>
7 Imperfect Past Tense An*tn ÉUtkal> l~'œ Past Tense - not of today
ivixil'
8.a Potential Mood ivXywR>
œ
il'œ

8. AazIilR
Benedictive Mood
b 'œ
samaNy
9 Simple Past Tense l~u'œ General past tense
ÉUtkal>
Conditional Past Mood
10 General / Second / Simple Future l&~'œ
Tense

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ktRir àyaeg>
In Samskrit there are three types of àyaeg> = usage of a verb. The three àyaeg> are –
 ktRir àyaeg> - active voice
 kmRi[ àyaeg> - passive voice
 Éave àyaeg> - passive impersonal
In ktRir àyaeg> The verb denotes the ktaR of the action. “Denotes the ktaR” means that the verb stands
for the ktaR i.e it represents the ktaR i.e it is intrinsically connected to the ktaR. This is true in any
language even though the terminology may differ. e.g. The boy eats ApUpa.
Here the ‘boy’ is the ktaR = doer and the ‘ApUpa’ is the the kmR = object. The ‘eats’ is intrinsically
connected to the ‘boy’. That is why if we change the number of the agent, the verb will also change. e.g.
Two boys eat an ApUp. balaE ApUpm! oadt>. bala> ApUpm! oadiNt.
In the above it may be observed that when the number of the agent changes, the number of the verb also
changes. Therefore the verb in ktRir àyaeg> denotes the ktaR.

In kmRi[ àyaeg> the verb denotes the kmR (the object). This is true for any language
e.g. the ApUp is eaten by the boy.
Here the verb has changed to ‘is eaten’. This verb will change whenever the object changes and Not when the
agent changes. e.g. -
Two ApUp are eaten by the boys. Two ApUp are eaten by two boys
ApUp> 1/1
balen 3/1
oa*te III/1
.
ApUp> 1/1
bala_yam! oa*te1/1.
3/2

ApUp> balE>3/3 oa*teIII/1.


ApUp>1/1 balen3/1 oa*te III/1 .
ApUpaE1/2 balen3/1 oa*ete III/2.
ApUpa>1/3 balen3/1 oa*Nte III/3 .
In Éave àyaeg> the verb denotes the abstract sense (Éav) of the root (Not ktaR Nor kmR) e.g.
Ahm! jIvaim - I live. (not Éave àyaeg)
mya jIVyte - It is lived by me – this is Éave àyaeg> which means ‘I live’

_vaidg[> - lqœ lkar> - ktRiràyaeg> - prSmEpdm!


‘Word’ = pdm! - in Samskrit, is defined as that meaningful collection of letters which ends in a sup!-àTyy
or it'œ-àTyy. [sup!-it'Ntm! pdm! 1.4.14]
àTyy is a suffix i.e. that is affixed after a xatu (root) or a àaitpidkm! (nominal base) [àTyy 3.1.1 & prí
3.1.2]
The àTyy that is affixed after a xatu is called it'œ-àTyy (personal termination).
The àTyy that is affixed after a àaitpidkm! is called sup!-àTyy (declensional affix).
Therefore –
xatu + it'œ àTyy it'Ntm! pdm! = Finite form of verb
àaitidpidkm! + sup! àTyy subNtm! pdm! = Fully formed noun
[àaitpidkm! (nominal base) to which a sup! àTyy (declensional affix) is added to make it into a
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subNtm! pdm! (fully formed noun)]
àwm pué;> mXym pué;> %Äm pué;>
(Third Person) (Second Person) (First Person)
S D P S D P S D P
prSmEpdm! itp! ts! iH isp! ws! w imp! vs! ms!
AaTmnepdm! t Aatam! H was! Aawam! Xvm! #qœ vih mih'œ
it'œ affixes that are enumerated by Panini in the sutra above are called àk«it àTyy> (primary affixes). The
first nine are called prSmEpd-àTyy> and the second nine are called prSmEpd-àTyy>.
Panini later derives a set of 18 each for each of the 10 modes of conjugation. They are called ivk«it-
(secondary affixes).
prSmEpdI xatu are the xatu which take only prSmEpd -
àTyya>.
AaTmnepdI xatu are the xatu which take only AaTmnepd -
àTyya>.
%ÉypdI xatu are the xatu which take both prSmEpd and
AaTmnepd - àTyya>.
prSmEpdI it'œ àTyya> for the lqœ (present tense) are -
Singular Dual Plural
àwm pué;> (Third
it t> AiNt
Person)
mXym pué;> (Second
is w> w
Person)
%Äm pué;> (First
im v> m>
Person)

gu[ Rules - Process of Conjugation


1. Add the it'œ àTyy to the root. e.g. –
 ÉU to exist ⇒ ÉU + it [ ivkr[m! = separator, separator specific to a group g[ivkr[m! of the first
conjugation is zp! = z! + A + p! [z! & p! are #t! letters -tag letters for information only, hence are
dropped later]
2. Add g[ivkr[m! which is a àTyy, immediately after the roots i.e. between the roots and it'œ àTyy. Here
zp! is the g[ivkr[m! for the First Conjugation
⇒ ÉU + zp! + it
⇒ ÉU + A + it
⇒ Éae + A + it
Now Aae is followed by A therefore Ayav siNx will apply
⇒ Év! + A + it ⇒ Évit (he / she / it exists)

We have seen earlier that –

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 àTyy is that which is added after a xatu
 àTyy is always added after a xatu or after a àitpadkm! only
We can call the àTyy that are added to the roots (to come immediately after the roots) as xatu-àTyy, These
xatu-àTyy are of two kinds -
1. savRxatuk-àTyy = izt!-àTyy - those having z! as #t! + it'œ àTyy (personal terminators) like it,
t>, AiNt. Sutra - it'œ-izt! savRxatukm! 3.4.113
2. AaxRxatuk- àTyy are the rest of the xatu-àTyy. Sūtra AaxRxatuk ze;> 3.4.114.
Only #, %, \, ¤ will take gu[ substitution.
#, %, \, ¤ - long or short, at the final position of the root will take gu[ substitution when a saRvxatuk or
AaxRxatuk àTyy follows immediately
e.g.1 ÉU to exist I.C. prSmEpd - III.P.S.
. ⇒ ÉU (É! + %) + it
. ⇒ ÉU + zp! (izt! – savRxatuk àTyy) + it
. ⇒ Éae + A + it (gu[ has taken place)
. ⇒ Év! + Ait (Ayav siNx has taken place)
. ⇒ Évit
e.g.2 in to lead I.C. prSmEpd - III.P.S.
. ⇒ in (n! + #) + it
. ⇒ in + zp! (izt! – savRxatuk àTyy) + it
. ⇒ ne + A + it (gu[a has taken place)
. ⇒ ny! + Ait (Ayav siNx has taken place)
. ⇒ nyit
e.g.3 ij to conquer I.C. prSmEpd - III.P.S.
. ⇒ ij (j! + #) + it
. ⇒ ij (j! + #) + zp! (izt! – savRxatuk àTyy) + it
. ⇒ je + A + it (gu[a has taken place)
. ⇒ jy! + Ait (Ayav siNx has taken place)
. ⇒ jyit
2.1. The %pxa = penultimate (last but one letter) short #, %, \, ¤ of a root will take gu[ substitution
when savRxatuk àTyy follows –

e.g.1 bux! to know I.C. prSmEpd - III.P.S.


. ⇒ bux! (b! + % + x!) + it
. ⇒ bux! + zp! (izt! – savRxatuk àTyy) + it
. ⇒ baex! + Ait (gu[ has taken place at the penultimate position) ⇒ baexit .
e.g.2 jIv! to live I.C. prSmEpd - III.P.S.
. ⇒ jIv! (j! + $ + v! ) + it
. ⇒ jIv! + zp! (izt! – savRxatuk àTyy) + it
. ⇒ jIv! + Ait (gu[ rules do not apply here)
. ⇒ jIvit
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e.g.3 inNdœ to blame I.C. prSmEpd - III.P.S.
. ⇒ in (n! + # + n! + dœ ) + zp! (izt! – savRxatuk àTyy) + it
. ⇒ inNdœ + zp! (izt! – savRxatuk àTyy) + it
. ⇒ inNdœ + Ait (gu[ rules do not apply here)
. ⇒ inNdit
e.g.4 s& to more I.C. prSmEpd - III.P.S.
. ⇒ s& (s!+ \) + it
. ⇒ s& + zp! (izt! – savRxatuk àTyy) + it
. ⇒ sr! + Ait (gu[ has taken place at the penultimate position)
. ⇒ srit
e.g.5 t¨ to swim I.C. prSmEpd - III.P.S.
. ⇒ t¨ (t! + §) + it
. ⇒ tr! + zp! (izt! – savRxatuk àTyy) + it
. ⇒ tr! + Ait (gu[ has taken place at the penultimate position)
. ⇒ trit
e.g.6 k«;! to pull I.C. prSmEpd - III.P.S.
. ⇒ k«;! (kœ + \ + ;!) + it
. ⇒ k«;! + zp! (izt! – savRxatuk àTyy) + it
. ⇒ k;R! + Ait (gu[ has taken place at the penultimate position)
. ⇒ k;Rit
3. When short ‘A’, not at the end of a pdm!, is followed by a gu[ letter, then the preceding and the
following are together replaced by the following gu[ letter. Sutra Atae gu[e # 6.1.97. This is an
exception to the dI"R siNx.
e.g. Év + AiNt ⇒ ÉviNt .
4. When an A¼ ending in a short A is followed by a savRxatuk àTyy beginning with m! or v! then the
short A at the end of the A¼ is replaced by a dI"R. Sutra Atae dI"aeR yi|, # 7.3.101.
e.g.1 ÉU to exist I.C. prSmEpd - I. Person. Singular.
. ⇒ É (É! + %) + im
. ⇒ ÉU (A¼ ending in a short A) + im ( savRxatuk àTyy beginning with a m!)
. ⇒ Éae + A + im (gu[ has taken place)
. ⇒ Év! + Aim (Ayav siNx has taken place)
. ⇒ Évaim
The collection of letters that precede a àTyy is called A¼ for that àTyy
e.g. ÉU + it – here ÉU is the A¼ for it
ÉU + zp! + it – here ÉU + zp! is the A¼ for it
ram> + su ⇒ ram> - here ram is the A¼ for ‘su’ àTyy
Usage of ktRiràyaeg
Samskrit is a declensional language. There are seven sets of declensional affixes (ivÉi´ i.e. sup!-àTyy) of
three in each set standing for singular, dual and plural. We have seen that there are six kark i.e. factors related
to action. The six kark are assigned six cases in all the àyaeg, For this the basic rules are –
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1. A kark that is denoted by a àTyy always takes the first case.
e.g. Action = eating. Root = oadœ (ICP) Agent (ktaR) = bal Object (kmR) = ApUp
. oadœ + zp! + it ⇒ oadit - ‘it’ denotes the agent
. The boy eats an ApUp.
. bal>1/1 ApUpm! 2/1 oadit III/1
. - The boy eats an ApUp
. balaE 1/2
ApUpm! 2/1
oadt> II/2
. - Two boys eat an ApUp
. bala> 1/3
ApUpm! 2/1
oadiNt III/3
. - The boys eat an ApUp
. Ahm! 1/1
ApUpm! 2/1
oadim . I/2
- I eat an ApUp
. Tvm! 2/1
ApUpm! 2/1
oadis .
II/2
- You eat an ApUp
2. It is used to denote a àaitpidk, in general, i.e. as in a list. e.g. Aj>, gj>, "q>.

Assignment of Cases for the kark


kark ktRiràyaeg kmRi[àyaeg> , Éaveàyaeg
I case as it is denoted by the verb Third case, as it is understood by the verb
ktaR
Therefore, the rule is that the un-denoted ktaR will go in third case
First case because –
 The kmR is denoted by the verb in
II case as it is un-denoted by the verb kmRi[àyaeg
kmR
 there is no kmR in Éave àyaeg
Therefore, the rule is that the un-denoted kmR takes the second case
kr[m! III case because it is un-denoted III case because it is undenoted
sMàdan
IV case because it is un-denoted IV case because it is undenoted
m!
Apadan
V case because it is un-denoted V case because it is undenoted
m!
Aixkr[m! VII case because it is undenoted VII case because it is undenoted

Note: The VI case represents a ‘connection’, hence it is un-denoted.

Declension of – ‘dev’ = Masculine Noun ending with an ‘A’


Questions/Answers Singular Dual Plural
deva
I ktaR ne Nominative who (the doer) dev> devaE
>
deva
II kmR kae Accusative whom, what (result of an action) devm! devaE
n!
se, ke deva_ devE
III kr[m! Instrumental by / with what (action is done) deven
Öara yam! >
sMàdan ke ilye, deva_ deva
IV Dative to, for (given, purpose) devay
m! kae yam! _y>

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Apadan deva_ deva
V se Ablative the origin from, out of, due to devat!
m! yam! _y>
sMbNx devya deva
VI ka, ke, kI Genitive who's (relationship) devSy
m! e> nam!
Aixkr[m devya deve;
VII me<, pr Locative where (in, on), (place of action) deve
! e> u
he
sMbaex he
VIII he, Are Vocative (calling out) he dev deva
n devaE
>

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ivsgR siNx
ivsgR is the result of siNx rules. A ‘r!’ or ‘s!’ at the end of a pdm! becomes a ivsgR under certain
situations.
But here we assume a ivsgR is already present and observe the modifications. A ivsgR depends upon a
preceding vowel for its pronunciation and always has a vowel preceding it. It is pronounced as an aspirated
sound. Therefore the following rules will consider the ivsgR and the vowel that precedes it.
A> + A A>
the A changes to Aae & the following A is
izvae izvae=
1 izv> + Ahm! dropped. (Ref. exception#1 of AyavsiNx)
Ahm! Ahm!
any vowel,
2 A> +
except A
ram
ram> + #CDit
#CDit
nm>
nm> + naray[ay
naray[ay
nra
nra> + AqiNt
AqiNt
g[pit
+ Avtu g[pitrvtu
>
gué> + äüa guéäRüa
AnuSvar siNx
AnuSvar ( a~ ) is a product of a m! or n! under certain circumstances. It is a product of siNx rules.
Rules of AnuSvar
1. The m! at the end of a pd will be replaced by an AnuSvar when followed by a consonant.
e.g. ¢amm! + gCDit = ¢am< gCDit.
Why ‘when followed by a consonant’ ?
1. ¢amm! + gCDit = ¢amm! gCDit. - here m! is followed by a vowel, hence no AnuSvar
2. gCDit + ¢amm! = gCDit ¢amm! . - here no consonant follows, hence no AnuSvar

2. The m! or n! that is Not the end of a pdm! will Also be replaced by an AnuSvar when followed by a
consonant, other than a nasal ('œ , |! , [! , n! , m!) or a semi-vowel (y! , r! , l! , v!) follows.
e.g. pyan!s! + # = pya<is milks / waters nouns
Aa³m! + Sy + te = Aa³<Syte

3. The AnuSvar that is followed by any consonant, other than h! , z! , ;! , s! is replaced by the nasal
belonging to the class of the following consonant.
e.g. 1 ¢amm! + gCDit = ¢am< gCDit ⇒ ¢am¼CDit ⇒ ¢am< gCDit .
e.g. 2 isNc + Ait ⇒ is<cit ⇒ isÂit.
In the above e.g.1 the pronunciation will always be ¢am¼CDit i.e. the AnuSvar takes the phonetic
corresponding to the consonant that follows it.
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4. The above rule #3 is optional when the AnuSvar is at the end of a pdm!.
Note: All vowels have a nasal form. Even the following three semi-vowels have a nasal form as denoted
below –
Semi-Vowel Nasal Form Vowel Nasal Form
y! y~ A A~
l! l~ # #~
v! v~ % %~
An AnuSvar followed by z! , ;! , s! , h! , r! is pronounced as ‘gm’ and written as ‘‡’ (the cNÔ ibNÊ
denotes the vowel and the hlNt denotes that there is no consonant in that place) or ‘ ’. This is used mainly in
the vedas – mainly in the k«:[ yjuveRd, only for Vedic Chanting. There is no rule by Panini for the same.
An AnuSvar followed by z! , ;! , s! , h! , r! which is the first element of the conjunct consonant becomes a
‘Gg!’ (gg). This is also used in the Vedas for Vedic Chanting only. There is no rule by Panini for the same.

idvaidg[> - lqœ - ktRir - prSmEpdm!


(IV Conjugation – Present Tense – Active Voice – Parasmaipada)
The g[ivkr[m! is Zyn!. z! & n! are #t! letters.
e.g. tu;! to please IV.C.P – III.P.S.
⇒ tu;! + Zyn! + it (here Zyn! does not cause gu[)
⇒ tu;! + y + it
⇒ tu:yit
Singular Dual Plural
àwm pué;> / Third tu:yt tu:yi
tu:yit
Person > Nt
mXym pué;> / Second tu:y tu:y
tu:yis
Person w> w
%Äm pué;> / First tu:yai tu:y tu:ya
Person m av> m>
tudaidg[> - lqœ - ktRir - prSmEpdm!
(VI Conjugation – Present Tense – Active Voice – Parasmaipada)
The g[ivkr[m! is z
e.g. tudœ to hurt, to poke VI.C.P – III.P.S
⇒ tudœ + z + it (here z does not cause gu[)
⇒ tudœ + A + it
⇒ tudit
Hence –
Singular Dual Plural
àwm pué;> / Third
tudit tudt> tudiNt
Person

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mXym pué;> / Second
tudis tudw> tudw
Person
%Äm pué;> / First Person tudaim tudav> tudam>

Uses of the àwma ivÉi´>


1. To denote what is denoted by the verb (it'œ - àTyy)
e.g. ram>1/1 vn< 2/1 gCDitIII/1 - denotes the agent
. maedk>1/1 balen1/1 oa*te1/1 - denotes the object
2. It is used to denote a àaitpidka, in general, i.e. as in a list. e.g. Aj>, gj>, "q>.

Uses of the iÖtIya ivÉi´>


1. Used for an un-denoted object – kmR
e.g. bal>1/1 ApUpm! 2/1 oadit III/1
. - The boy eats an ApUp
2. To indicate the objective compliment
e.g. ramm! vIrm! baexam> - We know Rama to be a hero. here ‘we’ is the agent.
3. After indicating movement, “the place to be reached” of the roots that have a sense of movement, called
gTywR xatu , is also called kmR. Basically gTywR xatu are AkmRk i.e. they do not have a kmR ,
but if there is a destination to be reached then that destination is called kmR. This kmR will take Second
Case when un-denoted.
e.g.1. ram> vn< gCDit - kark ivÉi´>
e.g.2. bal> maedkm! oadit - kark ivÉi´>
e.g.3. bala> kªpm! Anu ³IfiNt - %ppd-ivÉi´> - the second case is due to the %ppd (= to
connect) – hence the name.

curaidg[ – X Conjugation
The roots of the X conjugation get a àTyy ‘i[c!’ added to them as soon as they come out of any àTyy. This
i[c! is called curaidg[ or SvaweRi[c! – and has no special meaning.
e.g. cur! to steal => cur! + i[c! – to steal
i[c! Rules
1. A i[c! or i|t! àTyy is an AaxRxatuk as it is neither a izt! nor a it'œ àTyy
2. The actual àTyy is ‘#’ ; ‘[!’ & ‘c!’ are #t! letters.
A àTyy ending in a |! or [! will cause v&iœ because it is a i[t! i.e. it has an #t! letter.
v&iœ Rules
1. A i[c! or i|t! àTyy causes v&iœ substitution of the final (ANTym!) vowel of the A¼.
2. A i[c! or i|t! àTyy causes v&iœ substitution of the penultimate short A of the A¼.
 v&iœ substitution is an Apvad of the gu[! substitution.
Therefore, i[c! being an AaxRxatuk àTyy can also cause gu[ substitution of the final #kœ vowel and
penultimate short #kœ vowel, as seen earlier
Because v&iœ is an Apvad of gu[ it will take precedence
Therefore, i[c! will cause v&iœ where it can – over-riding the possibility of gu[, and when no v&iœ is
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possible then the gu[ or penultimate short #kœ will take places
Prototype of the X Conjugation (v&iœ Of Final Vowel)
x& to owe
⇒ x& + i[c!
Note: Specialty of X Conjugation is that the above results in a new root called snaid xatu.
⇒ xar! + #
⇒ xair + it (xair is the new root)
⇒ xair! + zp! + it ⇒ xare + A + it
⇒ xary! + A + it (Ayav siNx)
⇒ xaryit

Process of the X Conjugation


1. i[c! is added to all the X Conjugation roots, barring a few exceptions.
e.g. x& + i[c!
2. Consider the v&iœ
2.1. of the final vowel => x& + i[c!
2.2. of the penultimate short A.
3. If v&iœ is not possible consider gu[ of penultimate short #kœ (# , % , \ , ¤)
4. The final product of xatu + i[c! (e.g. xair) is given the status of a New Root
5. With the new root continue the conjugation process as for the first conjugation, as below-
5.1. <New Root> + it
5.2. <New Root> + zp! + it
5.3. gu[
5.4.Ayav siNx
5.5. Rule for AiNt
5.6. Rule for im, v>, m>

%TsgR> All savRxatuk and AaxRxatuk cause gu[

Apvad> Among the savRxatuk and AaxRxatuk only i[c! or i|t! cause v&iœ.

%TsgR> When it'œ àTyy denoting the ktaR follows a root the àTyy ‘zp!’ is immediately added after
the root. Sutra ktRir zp! 3.1.68

Apvad> When a it'œ àTyy denoting the ktaR follows a root of the idvaidg[ the àTyy ‘Zyn!’ is added
immediately after the root.
<diagram to be done>

Prototype of the X Conjugation (v&iœ Of Penultimate A )


Ddœ to cover
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⇒ Ddœ + i[c! (v&iœ Of Penultimate A )
⇒ Dadœ + # ⇒ Daid - Status of new root
⇒ Daid + it (Daid is the new root)
⇒ Daid + zp! + it
⇒ Dade + A + it (gu[ of final #kœ )
⇒ Dady! + A + it (Ayav siNx)
⇒ Dadyit

Prototype of the X Conjugation (gu[ of Penultimate #kœ )


kwaid group – a sub-group within the X conjugation, beginning with the root kw! belong to this prototype.
Here the i[c! is unable to cause any v&iœ or gu[
e.g. kw! + i[c! => - to be completed
More Facts About The X Conjugation
 Within the X Conjugation there is a group of roots which take the i[c! optionally. This is optional form
then looks like the form of the I Conjugation root. e.g. AcRyit or AcRit.
 Generally all the roots of the X Conjugation are %ÉypdI i.e. they take both the AaTmnepdI and
prSmEpdI affixes
 Some defined groups will be only AaTmnepdI
Irregular Roots of the First Conjugation
Root Meaning(s) Becomes When Rule III P. S.
1 gm! to go gCD when followed by a izt! gCDit
2 ym! to restrain yCD when followed by a izt! yCDit
3 guh to hide gUh when followed by a izt! gUhit
sd
4 to destroy, to sit, to loosen, to make one reach sIdœ when followed by a izt! sIdit
œ
5 ¼a to smell ij¼ when followed by a izt! ij¼it
6 pa to drink ipb! when followed by a izt! ipbit
7 Swa to stay, to stand itó! when followed by a izt! itóit
d
8 to bite (by a snake for e.g.) dz! when followed by a izt! dzit
<z!
Xm
9 to blow xm! when followed by a izt! xmit
a
10 †z to see, to look pZy! when followed by a izt! pZyit
11 da to give yCD when followed by a izt! yCDit
Regular Roots of the First Conjugation – AaTmnepd
1 bax! to bother, to negate
2 nNdœ to salute
3 ddœ to give
4 Svadœ to taste

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5 laekœ to see, to look
6 sax! to accomplish
7 ðax! to praise
Irregular Roots of the Fourth Conjugation
Root Meaning(s) Becomes When Rule III P. S.
1 idv! to play dIv! when followed by a izt! dIVyit
2 zm! to cease zam! when followed by a izt! zaMyit
3 tm! to desire tam! when followed by a izt! taMyit
4 dm! to cease dam! when followed by a izt! daMyit
5 ïm! to be weary ïam! when followed by a izt! ïaMyit
6 æm! to roam æam! when followed by a izt! æaMyit
7 ]m! to forgive, to endure ]am! when followed by a izt! ]aMyit
8 ¬m! to be tired ¬am! when followed by a izt! ¬aMyit
to rejoice, to be ecstatic,
9 mdœ madœ when followed by a izt! ma*it
to be intoxicated
10 Vyx! to pierce ivx! due to sMàsar[m! ivXyit
11 æ<z! to fall æZyit when followed by a Zyn! æZyit

Irregular Roots of the Sixth Conjugation


Root Meaning(s) Becomes When Rule III P. S.
1 #;! to wish #CD! when followed by a izt! #CDit
2 àCD! to ask p&CDœ when followed by a izt! p&CDit
mucaid Group of Irregular Roots of the Sixth Conjugation -
3 muc! to free, to release, to liberate muí when followed by a izt! muíit
4 k«t to cut k«Nt! when followed by a izt! k«Ntit
5 lup to break luMp! when followed by a izt! luMpit
6 ilMp! to anoint ilMp! when followed by a izt! ilMpit
7 ivdœ to find ivNdœ when followed by a izt! ivNdit
8 isc! to sprinkle isÂ! when followed by a izt! isÂit
9 iodœ to be sad ioNdœ when followed by a izt! ioNdit

Uses of t&tIya ivÉi´>


1. kr[e t&tIy - To indicate an instrument
e.g. devdÄ> m&gm! pZyit Devadatta sees (an) animal
Here – Q. What is seen ? Ans. An animal. Hence m&g> devdÄen †Zyte
2. ktRir t&tIya – To indicate an un-denoted object
e.g. m&g> devdÄen neÇa_yam! †Zyte Devadatta sees (an) animal with his eyes.

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3. sh t&tIya – A noun connected to sh and words meaning sh are used (e.g.sakm! , saxRm!), or the
meaning of sh will take the third case i.e. ‘sh’ may or may not be present but its meaning is evident; then
too the related word will take the third case.
e.g. ram> l]m[en sh vn< gCDit Rama goes to the forest with Lakshmana
ipta puÇe[ (sh) Aap[< gCDit Father goes to the store with the son
4. hetaE t&tIya – The hetu (cause for an action) is put in the third case
5. With ivna - When the AVyy ‘ivna’ (without) is used, the related word takes the third case.
6. With ‘Alm!’ & ‘k«tm!’ - When these two AVyy are used, the related word goes in the third case. Both
are used to negate or stop an action. ‘Alm!’ = ‘k«tm!’ = enough.
e.g. Alm! raednen . Enough of crying. Alm! ivvaden . Enough of argument.
7. To translate expressions like ‘by name’, ‘by nature’, ‘by family’ ‘by birth’ etc.
8. When words that have the meaning of ‘equal to’, like – sm, tuLy, s†Zy, the related word goes in the
third case.
Uses of ctuwIR ivÉi´>
1. sMàdane ctuwIR - The recipient of the act of giving called sMàdanm! takes the fourth case
e.g. n&p> AacayaRy xnm! yCDit.
2. sMàdane ctuwIR – When the roots that have the meaning of ‘to be angry’, ‘to be jealous’, ‘to be
envious’, ‘to betray’ are used, the recipient of these negative emotions is also called sMàdanm! and will
take the fourth case.
e.g. jnk> puÇay k…Pyit The father is angry with the son
ÊyaeRxn> yuixióray Ôuýit Duryodhana betrays Yudhisthra
3. tadWyeR - When an action is done for the sake of someone or something – that someone or something
is put in the fourth case.
e.g.1 vIr> yuœay r[¼[< gCDit He goes to the battlefield for (the sake of) battle
DaÇ> Éaejnay Éaejnaly< gCDit Students go to the dining hall for (the sake of) eating
nr> puÇe_y> kªp< onit Man digs well for (the sake of) his sons
4. With reference to the roots that have sense of movement, the destination which is called kmR can also
take the fourth case, when physical/bodily movement is present. (The other option is the second case).
e.g. devdÄ> ¢am< gCDit optionally-> devdÄ> ¢amay gCDit
5. The fourth case is used for the related word when the following AVyy are used – nms! , SviSt , Svaha
, Svxa , Alm! and v;qœ .
e.g.1 nm> izvay = bending down
e.g.2 n&pay SviSt = let good be, hail!
e.g.3 A¶ey Svaha = offering to the fire
e.g.4 ipt&_y> Svxa = offering to the father
e.g.5 m‘> m‘ay Alm! = enough
e.g.6 A¶ye v;qœ = nm> (vaE;qœ is also used in the zaô )

Uses of pÂmI> ivÉi´>

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1. Apadane pÂmI - The point of origin of the action when movement is involved is called Apadanm!
and takes the fifth case.
e.g. pÇ< v&]at ptit Leaves are falling from the trees
2. hetaE pÂmI - The Éyhetu = cause of fear, is called Apadanm! when the roots having the meaning
of ‘to fear’, ‘to protect’ are used and takes the fifth case
e.g. jn> caerat! ibÉeit People are afraid of thieves
n&p> jnan! caeran! r]it The King protects the people from thieves
3. hetaE pÂmI - The cause for an action, is put in the fifth case. (We have already seen that the same is
used in the third case too (inter-changeably)
e.g. ³aexat! bal< tudit Out of anger he strikes the boy
4. inxar[ye pÂmI - When one has to choose between one of two, the fifth case is used for the one that is
left behind. There is a sense of separation involved here.
e.g. xIr> àeys> ïeyae v&[Ite
The fifth case is also used to indicate comparison to mean ‘greater than’, ‘better than’ etc. and also when
separation is meant, like ‘other than’
e.g. devdÄ> y}dÄat! AaF(tr> Devadatta is richer than Yajnadatta
5. When the following AVyy are used, the related word will take the fifth case
5.1. àakœ = before, to the East (this is a directional word where the meaning ‘before can be in – time,
space, place or direction)
e.g. Éaejnat! àakœ jl< ipbit He drinks water
. kªpat! àakœ mm g&hm! vtRte Before my house there is a well
. pvRtat! àakœ ndI vhit River flows to the east of the mountain
5.2. ANtrm! = after
e.g. Éaejnat! AnNtr< paQzala< gCDit
5.3. Aa = until, since, from, to (limit in both – time & space) [ myaRda = limit, inclusive limit.
AiÉivix> = exclusive limit. Aa refers to either of them]
e.g. Aa kªpat! ]eÇm! devdÄSy The well is within the area of Devadatta
5.4. àÉ&it = since (related to time & space), et cetra (normally used in a compound)
e.g. saemvarat! Ahm! AÇ vsaim Since Monday, I am staying here
. ramaid or ram àÉ&ty> Rama etc.
5.5. bih> = outside, out
e.g. g&hat! bihgRCDit He goes out of the house
5.6. \te = except, ivna = without
e.g. lv[at! \te Éaejn< n éickrm! Food is not tasty without salt
lv[at! ivna Éaejn< n éickrm! Food is not tasty without salt

Uses of ;óI> ivÉi´>


The sixth case is used to indicate a sMbNx> = relationship, between two nouns. Primarily the sixth case
does not indicate any karkm!.
viz. jNy - jnk - sMbNx = produced – producer (masculine) – relationship
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. Sv - Svaim - sMbNx> = possessor – possessed relationship
. jNy - jnnI - sMbNx = produced – producer (feminine) – relationship
e.g. ram> vne neÇa_yam! m&g< pZyit Rama sees an animal, with his eyes, in the forest
. AacayRSy puÇ> n&pSy puÇI< pyR[yt! The son of the teacher married the daughter of the
king
Note : It is better to put the related nouns together – for better understanding.

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Uses of sÝmI ivÉi´>
The seventh case is used to indicate the Aixkr[m! = locus, of the action. Aixkr[m! is of three types –
1. Indicating space - dez>
e.g. bal> ÉUmaE %pivzit The boy sits on the ground
My house stands on the bank of the river Ganga
2. Indicating time – kal>
e.g. àÉate sUyR %deit The sun rises in the morning
raÇaE cNÔ> àkazte The moon shines at night
3. Indicating an object (subject matter) - iv;y>
e.g. devdÄ> Vyakr[e inpu[> Devadatta is an expert in grammar
tÇ ivvekI ïey> v&[Ite

l'œ lkar Imperfect Past Tense


ktRir àyaeg
1. prSmEpdI it'œ àTyya> for the l'œ (Imperfect Past Tense) are -
Singular Dual Plural
àwm pué;> (Third Person) t! tam! An!
mXym pué;> (Second
s! tm! t
Person)
%Äm pué;> (First Person) Am! n m
2. All the rules for conjugation, for the different conjugations, as seen earlier, will apply
e.g. ÉU to exist
⇒ ÉU + t!
⇒ ÉU + zp! (izt! – savRxatuk àTyy) + t! (g[ ivkr[m! )
⇒ Éae + A + t! (gu[ has taken place)
⇒ Év! + A + t! (Ayav siNx has taken place)
⇒ Évt! (here Év is the A¼ )

3. The A¼ of the l'œ lkar gets an augment Aaqœ which has ‘qœ’ as its #t letter. Therefore it is placed at
the beginning of the A¼.
. ⇒ Aqœ + Évt! (adding the Aqœ augment)
. ⇒ AÉvt! (here Év is the A¼ )
similarly –
. ⇒ Aqœ + Évt! (adding the Aqœ augment)
. ⇒ AÉvt! (here Év is the A¼ )

4. Exception: All roots beginning with a vowel take the Aaqœ augment, instead of Aqœ .

5. When the Aaqœ augment is followed by any vowel, the preceding and the following are together
replaced by a letter v&iœ letter. This is an exception to any other siNx rule possible. e.g. –
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#;! to desire
⇒ #;!! + t!
⇒ #CD! + zp! (izt! – savRxatuk àTyy) + t! (g[ ivkr[m! )
⇒ #CD! + A + t!
⇒ Aa + #CD + t! (Ayav siNx has taken place)
⇒ @eCDt!

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%psgaR> are AVyy that can be prefixed to a root and generally they will modify the meaning of the
root. They may – modify the meaning of the root (sometimes taking it far away from its original
meaning) Or they enhance/emphasize the original meaning Or may do nothing. There are 20
%psgaR> belonging to the àaid group.
Placement of %psgaR> All the conjugation processes are to be completed and the %psgaR should be
added to, and if any siNx rules apply, they have to applied. e.g. –
%psga
AwR xatu AwR lqœ l'œ
R>
à much, forth + É he originates àÉvit àaÉvt
pir all around + in to marry pir[yit pyR[yt!
%p towards + ivz! to sit %pivzit %pivzt!

The following are the 20 %psgaR> prefixed to the roots & their me anings –
Meaning of the Meaning of the Verbs with Meaning of the
%psgaR> xatu
%psgaR> xatu %psgaR> Verb
Ait beyond, over ³m to go Ait³amit goes beyond
Aix over, above gm! to go AixgCDit goes up
Anu after, behind k« to do Anukraeit imitates
Ap away from nI to lead Apnyit takes away
Aip / pI war to xa to hold Aipdxait covers
AiÉ towards gm! to go AiÉgCDit comes
Av away, down mn! to think AvmNyte disrespects
Aa up to gm! to go AagCDit comes
%t! / %dœ upon gm! to go %ÌDit goes up
%p towards k« to do %pkaeit obliges
bad, hard to be
Ês / Êr cr! to move Êracrit acts badly
done
in, into, great
in idz! to go inidRzit commands
etc.
out of, away
ins! / inr! gm! to go ingRCDit goes out
from
pra opposed to ij to conquer prajyte defeats
places all
pir all around xa to hold pirdxait
around
à much, forth ù to take away àhrit strikes
àit in opposition to k« to do àitkraeit acts in opposite
reverse to,
iv ³I to buy iv³I[it sells
separate from
together with,
sm! ù to take away s<hrit destroys
full
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su well k« to do sukraeit does well

AaTmnepd - lqœ lkar (Present Tense) – affixes are -


Singular Dual Plural
àwm pué;> (Third Person) te $te ANte
mXym pué;> (Second
se $we Xve
Person)
%Äm pué;> (First Person) @ vhe mhe
e.g. < examples >

AaTmnepd - l'œ lkar (Imperfect Past Tense) – affixes are -


Singular Dual Plural
àwm pué;> (Third Person) t #tam! ANt
mXym pué;> (Second
se $we Xve
Person)
%Äm pué;> (First Person) @ vhe mhe
e.g. < examples >

[Tvm!
‘n!’ is changed to ‘[’ when –
1. In the same word a ‘n!’ is immediately preceded by –
1.1. ‘r!’ e.g. v[R
1.2. ‘;!’ e.g. k«:[
1.3. ‘\’ / ‘§’ e.g. ipt¨[am!
2. A ‘n!’ is immediately preceded by ‘r!’ ,‘;!’, ‘\’ or ‘§’, in the same word when the following letters
intervene -
2.1. All vowels
2.2. y! , r! , m! , h! , k-vgR , p-vgR and Aa'œ & num! augments
3. A n at the end of a pdm! will Not take [Tvm! , as stated in the rules above.

sMàsar[m! (Vocalization)
(sm! = well, properly àsar[m! = expansion. The replacement of a consonant by a vowel is vocalization)
1. The process in which y! , r! , l! , v! are replaced (only Sv will be the replacement) by # , % , \ , ¤
respectively, is called sMàsar[m!.
1.1. This is brought about by a ikt! or i't! àTyy
1.2. Only some specific roots will undergo sMàsar[m!.
e.g. àCD! to ask for
 àCD! (p! + r! + A + c! + D! + A) +it
 àCD! + z + it
 àCD! + A + it
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 (p! + \ + A + c! + D! + A) + Ait
 p&CDit ( y[ siNx )
2. The #kœ vowel that has come by the process of sMàsar[m! is also sMàsar[m!. Only the short #, %
, \ , ¤ will be the sMàsar[m! replacement.
e.g. Vyx! to pierce – IV.C.A.
 Vyx! + it
 Vyx! + Zyn! +it
 ivx!
3. If a root can undergo sMàsar[m! has two y[! letters, then only the second will undergo sMàsar[m!.
4. The mucaid roots belonging to the IV Conjugation will get a n~um! (= n! + %~ + m!) augment
when followed by z. While conjugating the n! (n~um!) will become AnuSvar and then the AnuSvar
will be replaced by the nasal of the class of the letter, except in ip<zit where the AnuSvar remains.

First, Fourth & Sixth Conjugations At A Glance


g[ g[ivkr[m! gu[ gu[ Rule A¼ Rule
I.C. zp! Of the final #kœ , long or short
Yes
_vaid (A) A Penultimate short #kœ The A¼ ends in a A
IV.C Zyn! (z!+y!+A!+n!)
No - Not Applicable -
idvaid (y) The A¼ ends in a A
VI.C. z
No - Not Applicable -
tudaid (A) The A¼ ends in a A
X Conjugation At A Glance – curaidg[ (g[ivkr[m! Of The New Root is zp! )
Proto- v&iœ v&iœ of v&iœ of no change even gu[ of
A¼ ends Sample
Type i[c! of final penultimate penultimate if possibility final
in A Root
# vowel short A short #kœ exists #kœ
x&
I Yes Yes No No No Yes Yes
to owe
]l
II Yes No Yes No No Yes Yes
to wash
cur!
III Yes No No Yes No Yes Yes
to steal
IV.a. Yes No was possible No Yes Yes Yes kw!
Sp&h!
IV.b. Yes No No was possible Yes Yes Yes to long
for
Yes, if
V.a. Yes Yes any of these, if possibility exists Yes
possible
Yes, if
V.b. No No Not Applicable Yes
possible

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Some Roots of the X Conjugation (IV Prototype)
Root pd Meaning Remarks
prSmEp
Xvn to make sound
d
prSmEp
g[ to count
d
prSmEp
rh to give up, to abandon ivrh abandonment, is derived from this root
d
prSmEp pEzne complaining in the ear, is derived
sUc to gossip, to complain in the ear
d from this root
prSmEp
ch to extract by boiling cah> = tea/coffee is derived from this root
d
prSmEp
Éam to be angry
d
AaTmne
yu to have revulsion
pd
AaTmne
g¨ to know
pd
AaTmne
ÉU to gain
pd
An Aadez-skar or a àTyy-skar that is not at the end of a pdm! will be replaced by a ;kar when it is
preceded by an #[! letter or a k… letter.
Aadez-skar is a skar that has come as a replacement. This replacement take place whenever a root
beginning with a ;kar, as listed in the Paniniyan xatu-paQ, is taken for any ài³ya (procedure) a ;kar is
first replaced with a skar and then any other procedure is done. This skar that has come in the place of a
;kar is called an Aadez-skar, e.g. -
óa to stay, to stand
Anu + Swanm! Anuóanm!

àTyy-skar is a skar that belongs to a àTyy.


e.g. ram + su (àTyy)  rame + su => rame;u ,
. ndI + su => ndI;u,

Derivation of †
† - IV.C.A.
It is always preceded by the %psgR - “Aa”
 Aa + † + te
 g[ivkr[m! → Aa + † + z + te
 Aa + † + z + te here z does not cause any gu[
Whenever the affix z follows a \kar> the \ is replaced by ir (r! + #)
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 Aa + iÔ + z + te
The # is replaced by #y'œ = #y! (Sutra #y~'œ Aadez>). This is an exception to y[ siNx.
 Aa + iÔy! + A + te → Aa + iÔyte → AaiÔyte

laeqœ lkar (Imperative Mood) And ivixil'œ lkar (Potential Mood)


Meaning of - laeqœ And ivixil'œ
 Three is a general underlying meaning in both of them i.e. “impelling” someone to do something.
 There are varying grades / degrees of impelling starting from a very polite request to a direct order

ivixil'œ
Sūtra - ivix-inmÙ[-AxIò-sMàî-àawRne;u-il'œ 3.3.161.
The ivixil'œ lkar> is used when the following AwR i.e. moods / expressions / senses are meant –
1. ivix = direct order. e.g. –
kq< k…yaRt!
- he should make the mat Éaejnm! k…yaRt! - he should eat
2. inmÙ[ = appointing someone to a particular job. Here the appointment is also an invitation and not an
order. Here the one being invited is a functionary in the process. For e.g. inviting someone to be the chief
guest for a function. e.g. –
#h Évan! ÉuÃIt
- may your honor eat here (today) Note: One has to be explicit about this being a inmÙ[ in a separate
sentence.
3. AamÙ[ = an invitation which is not compulsory. e.g. –
#h Évan! ÉuÃIt
- may your honor eat here (today) Note: One has to be explicit about this being a AamÙ[ in a separate
sentence.
4. AxIò = special request that a father makes to a teacher requesting to accept his child as a student, or any
such respectful request. e.g. –
AxICDamae ÉvNt< ma[vk< Évan! %pnyet!.
- we very respectfully wish of your honor that you should take this student with you (to teach) after doing
his %pnynm!.
5. sMàî = a respectful request in the form of a question. e.g. -
ik< nu klu Vyakr[m! AxIyIy ?
if it indeed pleases your honor, may I study grammar with you? (this is the same for ‘today’ or any
particular day or at the beginning of a course)
6. àawRna = a very very respectful prayer e.g. -
Évit àawRna Vyakr[m! AxIyIy. – it is my prayer to His Honor that I should study grammar with you.

sUÇ - laeqœ c 3.3.162 (ivix-inmÙ[-AxIò-sMàî-àawRne;u)


laeqœ has additional two meanings, even though they have been given as three.
àE;-AitsgR-àaÝkale;u k«Tya> c 3.3.163
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7. AitsgR = a request accompanied by the sense “Your Honor is free to do as he wishes” i.e. kamacar (to
do as one pleases) – Anu}anm! (permission)
8. àaÝkal = a very respectful or mild request saying “it is time for Your Honor to do this – Please Do”. e.g.
Éaejnm! àaÝkalm!. – it is time to eat.
9. Expressing Doubt. e.g. devdÄ> kdaivt! AagCDet! - Perhaps Devadatta could come
10. Expressing Future. e.g. ñ> devdÄ> AÇ AagCDet! - Tomorrow Devadatta would come.
11. Conditional Statements.
e.g. n&p> AagCDet! cet! jna> AagCDeyu> - If the King comes, people would come
OR
yid n&p> AagCDet! cet! tihR jna> AagCDeyu> - If the King comes, then the people would
come
k«Tya>
1. k«t affixes are those that are added to the xatu to form nouns.
2. k«Tya> are a sub-group of k«t! àTyy.
3. The k«Ty-àTyy are – tVy, AnIy, y. They have the same meaning as the laeqœ i.e. àE; etc.
4. They are always used in kmRi[ (i.e. passive) and Éave àyaeg.
5. They are called potential passive participles.

Atae he> 6.4.105.


The affix ih which is the affix for laeqœ – second person singular is dropped if the the A¼ that preceds this
affix ends in a short A.

Affixes for the First Group of Conjugations – I, IV, VI, X


lkar prSmEpd AaTmnepd
@k iÖ b÷ @k iÖ b÷
à it t> AiNt te $te ANte
lqœ m is w> w se $we Xve
% im v> m @ vhe mhe

à t! tam! An! t $tam! ANt


l'œ m s! tm! t was! $wam! Xvm!
% Am! v m! # vih mih

à ANtam
tu tam! ANtu tam! $tam!
!
laeqœ m ih tm! t Sv $wam! Xvm!
% Aamh
Ain Aav Aam @e AavhE
E

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à $tam $yata
$t! $yu> $t $rn!
! m!
m $ $yawa
ivixil'œ $> $tm! $t! $Xvm!
wa> m!
% $
$v $m $y $vih $mih
yam!

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Adjective - ivze;[>
Blue Flower. Here Blue is ivze;[ (adjective) & Flower is ivze:y (substantive). This
existent object is the locus (Aixkr[m!) for the flower. If two words have the status of
having the same locus, they are said to be in samanaixkr{ym!, Because they are in
samanaixkr{ym! ivze:y and ivze;[ will agee in number, gender and in case endings
– always. e.g. –
,1,1, ,6,1,
ram> mm imÇ<,1,1, gCDit,3,1, Rama, my friend, goes.
 Every object is the Aixkr[m! for the namêp (name & form)
 The purpose of a ivze;[ is to separate one member of a species from the other member of the same
species
 In English ivze;[ = Adjective ivze:y = Substantive

Gender - il¼
In the Samskrit language, gender is assigned primarily to words. As a general understanding in the world goes,
surely animate beings have gender that is recognizable physically. That has representation in the language. e.g.
puÇ (son), puÇI (daughter)
But words have gender of their own, irrespective of the physical gender of the object they denote. e.g.
imÇm! friend is always Neuter, irrespective of the friend being a male or female
 ram> mm imÇm! – Rama is my friend. Also sIta mm imÇm! – Sitaa is my friend
 Wife = ÉayaR -,ôI,. dara> -,pu0,. klÇm! -,n0,.
Note: dara> (though plural means only one wife) and Aapa> (water/s) – decline only in plural.

Some words have inyt-il¼ - fixed gender like –


 words ending in "|!-àTyy are always masculine
 words ending in i´n!-àTyy are always feminine
 words ending in Lyuqœ-àTyy are always neuter
Others are Ainyt-il¼ - words with no fixed gender. Among these the masculines and neuters will decline as
such without any other being added to them. But most nouns when declined in feminine will get any one of
the feminine affixes (ôI-àTyy) – or ('Ip!, 'I;!, 'In!) added to them, to make them feminine.

\karNt-zBda>
 t&c!-àTyaNt zBda> - All agent nouns formed by adding the agent àTyy (ktRir-zp! ) t&c! which is a
k«t-àTyy, to all the 2000 roots will take this t&c! and form agent nouns. for e.g.-ktaR, Éae´a,
àmata etc. They will decline like net&. In feminine, these will add a feminine affix $ and will decline
like ndI.e.g. net& - $ #kaey[ic 6.1.77 neÇI.
 Derived from %[aid-àTyy .
 By adding %[aid, t&c!, t&n!

List of \karNt-zBda>
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Declines
# zBd AwR àTyy
Like
a particular \iTvg! , a poet who sings in praise of the king in
1 zSt& ipt&
his court
2 zaSt& one who rules, King, $ñr , \iTvg! ipt&
a charioteer, a doorkeeper, a man born of a Vaishya man &
3 ]Ä& net&
Shudra woman
4 ]aeÄ& musl>, pestle (the big one used to pound grain etc.) ipt&
5 àzaSt& a particular \iTvg! , King, $ñr net&
6 %Úet& a particular \iTvg! ipt&
7 àithtR& a particular \iTvg! ipt&
8 %Ìat& a particular \iTvg! who sings/recites samved in the ritual net&
9 hNt& a thief, bandit ipt& t&c!
10 mNt& a learned man ipt& t&c!
The following words are inpaittm! (placed as such)
11 nÝ& grandson net&
12 neò& a particular \iTvg! net&
13 Tvò& ivñkmaR net&
14 haet& a particular \iTvg! net&
15 paet& a particular \iTvg! net&
16 æat& brother ipt&
17 jmat& son-in-law ipt&
18 mat& mother ipt&
19 ipt& father ipt&
20 Êiht& daughter ipt&
21 Svs& sister net&
22 yat& the relationship between the wives of brothers ipt&
àitàSwat
23 a particular \iTvg! ipt&
&
24 àStaet& a particular \iTvg! ipt&
25 z<St& a particular \iTvg! ipt&
26 nnaNÎ sister of husband (both elder or younger) ipt&
27 dev& younger brother of husband ipt&
28 sVyeò& charioteer ipt&
The following two have not been defined by Panini
29 dSt& one who causes destruction ipt&
30 AÝ& a y} i.e. a vedic ritual ipt&

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sup! àTyy
@k vcnm! iÖ vcnm! b÷ vcnm!
Case ivÉi´
With #t! Less #t! With #t! Less #t! With #t! Less #t!
First àwma su~ s! AaE js! As!
Second iÖtIya Am! AaEqœ AaE zs! As!
Third t&tIya qa Aa _yam! iÉs!
ctuwI
Fourth 'e @ _yam! _ys!
R
Fifth pÂmI 'is~ As! _yam! _ys!
Sixth ;óI 's! As! Aaes! Aam!
Seventh sÝmI i' # Aaes! sup! su
Indicate svRnam All others are - AsvRnam
sUÇ- Hla< jz> ANte 8.2.39 will apply
Swan* Swan

Cases of mét! Derivation (incomplete)


Case # Noun Affix Rule(s) Final Word
S mét! + s! → drop s! → mét!
I D mét! + AaE → → métaE
P mét! + As! → méts! & then final s! becomes visgR → mét>
S mét! + Am! → métm! → métm!
AaEq
II D mét! + → → métaE
œ
P mét! + iÉs! → → mét>
S mét! + Aa → mét! + Aa → méta
_yam médœ_yam
III D mét! + → mét!_yam! - Hla< jzae=Nte,8.2.39 →
! !
P mét! + _ys! → mét!_ys! - Hla< jzae=Nte,8.2.39 → médœiÉ>
S mét! + @ → mét! + @ → méte
_yam médœ_yam
IV D mét! + → mét!_yam! - Hla< jzae=Nte,8.2.39 →
! !
P mét! + _ys! → mét!_ys! - Hla< jzae=Nte,8.2.39 → médœ_y>
S mét! + As! → → mét>
_yam médœ_yam
V D mét! + → mét!_yam! - Hla< jzae=Nte,8.2.39 →
! !
P mét! + _ys! → mét!_ys! - Hla< jzae=Nte,8.2.39 → médœ_y>
S mét! + As! → → mét>
VI D mét! + Aaes! → → métae>
P mét! + Aam! → → métam!

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S mét! + # → → méit
D mét! + Aaes! → → métae>
VII
sup! → mét!su → Hla< jzae=Nte,8.2.39 -
P mét! + méTsu
→ médœsu → oir c, 8.4.55 →

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Hence –
Singular Dual Plural
I ktaR Nominative mét! métaE mét>
II kmR Accusative métm! métaE mét>
m
Instrumenta médœ
III kr[m! méta édœi
l _yam!
É>
m
sMàdan médœ
IV Dative méte édœ_
m! _yam!
y>
m
Apadan médœ
V Ablative mét> édœ_
m! _yam!
y>
sMbNx métae méta
VI Genitive mét>
m! > m!
Aixkr[m métae méTs
VII Locative méit
! > u
sMbaex
VIII Vocative mét! métaE mét>
n
Sūtra → Hla< jzae=Nte 8.2.39. (s<ihtayam! pdSy)
Hla<,6,3, jz>,1,3, ANte,7,1, s<ihtayam!,7,1, pdSy,6,1,
pdSy,6,1, ANte,7,1, (vtRmananam!) = Hlam!,6,3, (Swane) jz>,1,3, s<ihtayam!,7,1, (Aadez> ÉviNt)
pdSy = at the end of the word ANte = at the end (Swane) = that exits
(vtRmananam!)= Hlam! = in the place of Hl! jz> (Aadeza ÉviNt) = jz!! (Panini’s àTyahar)
(Panini’s àTyahar) are the substitutes
 The Hl! letters at the end of a pdœ are replaced by jz! letters, as follows –
• z! → j!
• ;! → 'œ
• s! → dœ
• h! → g! - However, this is not seen as h! has separate rules
oir c 8.4.55. (Hla< cr! s<ihtayam!)
s<ihtaya<,7,1, iv;ye Hla<,6,3, Swane cr!,1,1, (Aadez> Évit)
When any Hl! letter is followed by a or! letter it is replaced by a cr! letter.
Cases of net& - Derivation (incomplete)
Case # Noun Affix Rule(s) Final Word
S net& + s! → → neta
I D net& + AaE → net& AaE → netaraE
P net& + As! → → netar>

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S net& + Am! → → netarm!
AaEq
II D net& + → → netaraE
œ
P net& + iÉs! → → net¨n!
S net& + Aa → #kaey[ic 6.1.77. → net!r! + Aa → neÇa
_yam net&_yam
III D net& + → →
! !
P net& + _ys! → → net&iÉ>
S net& + @ → #kaey[ic 6.1.77. → net!r! + @ → neÇe
_yam net&_yam
IV D net& + → →
! !
P net& + _ys! → → net&_y>
S net& + As! → \t> %t! 6.1.111. → netus! → netu>
_yam net&_yam
V D net& + → →
! !
P net& + _ys! → → net&_y>
S net& + As! → \t> As! 6.1.111. → netus! → netu>
VI D net& + Aaes! → #kaey[ic 6.1.77. → net!r! + Aaes! → neÇae>
P net& + Aam! → → net¨[am!
S net& + # → → netir
VII D net& + Aaes! → #kaey[ic 6.1.77. → net!r! + Aaes! → neÇae>
P net& + sup! → → net&;u
\t> %t! 6.1.111. ('is-'sae Ait @k> pUvRpryae> s<ihtayam!)
s<ihtayam!,7,1, \t>,7,1, %t!,6,1, 'is-'sae,6,2, Ait,7,1, @k>,7,1, pUvRpryae>,6,2,
s<ihtayam!,7,1, \t>,7,1, 'is-'sae,6,2, Aate,7,1, pUvRpryae>,6,2, (Swane) @k>,1,1, %t!,1,1, (Aadez>
Évit)
When \kar preceds Akar of 'is and 's! follows, then %kar is the single replacement in the place of the
preceding and the following.

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