Branches of Oceanography 1. Physical Oceanography - study of the motions of seawater, particularly waves currents and tidal motion. 2. Chemical Oceanography - chemistry of seawater and reactions between the atmosphere and hydrosphere. More recently looks at how changes in seawater temperature (El Nino) and salinity affect global climate. 3. Biological Oceanography - study of life in the oceans, includes marine biology and ecology. 4. Geological Oceanography - study of the shape and geologic features of the ocean floor.
accumulate on the ocean floor as "fining upward" sequences of sedimentary rocks. 4. Abyssal plain - the ocean floor (covers about 30% of the earth's surface). The average water depth is around 5000 meters. Consists of a layer of unconsolidated sediment underlain by sedimentary rock and pillow basalt (Figure).
Lithogenous sediment - derived from the weathering of continental rocks and volcanic eruptions. Biogenous sediment - comprised of the remains of organisms. When the sediment contains 30% or more organic material it is termed ooze. Oozes are further subdivided into calcareous oozes, which are only found in water depths less than 3000 meters, and siliceous ooze that occur throughout the deeper portions of the ocean basin. Hydrogenous sediment - precipitated directly from seawater. Most common type of hydrogenous sediment is a manganese nodule. How and why they form remains something of a mystery, but probably requires a
Composition of Seawater
Ion Chlorine Sodium Sulfate Magnesium Calcium Potassium Others 1.92 1.07 0.25 0.13 0.04 0.04 0.02 wt %
TOTAL
3.47
The average salinity of seawater is 3.47% but oceanographers choose to report salinities in parts per thousand (ppt). Since wt% is the same as parts per hundred, all we need to do is multiply by 10. This gives a value of 34.7 ppt for average salinity. Ocean water is very homogeneous but locally the salinity can vary from 33 ppt near the Poles to 41 ppt in arid, enclosed basins such as the Red Sea. Scientists recognize the ocean is actually comprised of a series of layers (Figure). These layers represent differences in water temperature and salinity. The layering is a function of geographic latitude and water depth. The three layers are:
Surface Zone - warmest water. Does not extend beyond 50 north or south of the equator. Is only about 2% of the ocean's volume. In this zone the water is thoroughly mixed due to thermal energy from the Sun. This zone does not extend below the depth to which appreciable sunlight penetrates seawater (a few hundred meters). Transition Zone (pycnocline) - density changes rapidly with depth. Since density of seawater is a measure of salinity and temperature we are looking at the zone in which the effect both are changing. This zone is also absent near the poles. About 18% of all seawater. Extends to a depth of 1800 meters.
Deep Zone - 80% of all seawater. Temperature and salinity are very uniform and show little or no local variation.
Tides
Tides are caused by the gravitational attraction of the moon and the sun (Figure). Although the mass of the moon is much less than that of the sun it is also much closer and hence its tidal pull is about twice that of the sun. A tidal day lasts 24 hours and 53 minutes, the time for the moon to make one complete revolution about the earth. However, the complete tidal cycle takes 19 years because of two complications:
the moon and earth have elliptical orbits so their distance from one another and the sun varies. Since tidal forces are due to the pull of gravity and the force of gravity is inversely proportional to distance the height of tides will be a function of distance to the sun and moon. Further, tidal forces can be additive when the sun and moon are aligned relative to earth producing very high (Spring) tides (Figure).
the tilt of earth's axis also effects the position of the sun and moon with respect to the equator. This causes local variation in tidal height as a function of latitude and season (Figure).