A S M Hefzul kabir Assistant professor Dept.

of Geography & Environment Jagannath University, Dhaka Rajan Chandra Ghosh 2nd Batch,3rd Year,2nd Semester Dept. of Geography & Environment Jagannath University, Dhaka

Date of Submission:
Introduction:

29th March, 2011

Water resource management addresses the interaction of the supply, timing and quality of natural resources with the demands for services such as water for food (irrigation), water for energy, water for the environment and water for domestic use (water supply and sanitation). Effective management of these resources is critical to farmers, the energy sector, the environment and populations at large. The sustainable management of water resources has a new urgency in the face of growing populations, increased economic development which is spurring demand for more and better food, and increased hydrologic variability caused by climate change

Water resources management is now a global concern, the main purpose of which is to provide adequate water for humans and the natural environment. The water management includes water utilization, water source conservation, monitoring and preservation of water quality. In this paper the overall status of water resources of Bangladesh and its utilization in different areas with emphasis to conservation is described based on available information. The natural subsystem of water resources system are: 1) the interlinked system of rivers, estuaries, canals, khals (smaller than rivers in size) etc. 2) the floodplain 3) wetlands 4) haor, baor, beel (local names of different kinds of ponds filled with stagnant rain water), lakes etc. 5) ponds 6) inter tidal lands and water 7) groundwater aquifers. However, other than rivers, the natural reservoirs are scarce and thereby water conservation in rainy season for dry season use is limited.

Water Resources:
Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful to humans. Uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. Virtually all of these human uses require fresh water. 97% of water on the Earth is salt water, and only 3% is fresh water of which slightly over two thirds is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen fresh water is mainly found as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air. Fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the world's supply of clean, fresh water is steadily decreasing. Water demand already exceeds supply in many parts of the world and as the

world population continues to rise, so too does the water demand. Awareness of the global importance of preserving water for ecosystem services has only recently emerged as, during the 20th century, more than half the worlds wetlands have been lost along with their valuable environmental services. Biodiversity-rich freshwater ecosystems are currently declining faster than marine or land ecosystems. The framework for allocating water resources to water users (where such a framework exists) is known as water rights.

Importance of water resources:

In Agriculture In Industry In Transport

In Trade Land Fertility In Tourism In Electricity

Sources of Fresh Water:

Surface Water
Surface water is water in a river, lake or fresh water wetland. Surface water is naturally replenished by precipitation and naturally lost through discharge to the oceans, evaporation, evapotranspiration and sub-surface seepage. Although the only natural input to any surface water system is precipitation within its watershed, the total quantity of water in that system at any given time is also dependent on many other factors. These factors include storage capacity in lakes, wetlands and artificial reservoirs, the permeability of the soil beneath these storage bodies, the runoff characteristics of the land in the watershed, the timing of the precipitation and local evaporation rates. All of these factors also affect the proportions of water lost. Human activities can have a large and sometimes devastating impact on these factors. Humans often increase storage capacity by constructing reservoirs and decrease it by draining wetlands. Humans often increase runoff quantities and velocities by paving areas and channelizing stream flow.

The total quantity of water available at any given time is an important consideration. Some human water users have an intermittent need for water. For example, many farms require large quantities of water in the spring, and no water at all in the winter. To supply such a farm with water, a surface water system may require a large storage capacity to collect water throughout the year and release it in a short period of time. Other users have a continuous need for water, such as a power plant that requires water for cooling. To supply such a power plant with water, a surface water system only needs enough storage capacity to fill in when average stream flow is below the power plant's need. Nevertheless, over the long term the average rate of precipitation within a watershed is the upper bound for average consumption of natural surface water from that watershed. Natural surface water can be augmented by importing surface water from another watershed through a canal or pipeline. It can also be artificially augmented from any of the other sources listed here, however in practice the quantities are negligible. Humans can also cause surface water to be "lost" (i.e. become unusable) through pollution. Brazil is the country estimated to have the largest supply of fresh water in the world, followed by Russia and Canada.

Under River Flow

Throughout the course of the river, the total volume of water transported downstream will often be a combination of the visible free water flow together with a substantial contribution flowing through sub-surface rocks and gravels that underlie the river and its floodplain called the hypothetic zone. For many rivers in large valleys, this unseen component of flow may greatly exceed the visible flow. The hyporheic zone often forms a dynamic interface between surface water and true ground-water receiving water from the ground water when aquifers are fully

charged and contributing water to ground-water when ground waters are depleted. This is especially significant in karst areas where pot-holes and underground rivers are common.

Ground Water
Sub-surface water, or groundwater, is fresh water located in the pore space of soil and rocks. It is also water that is flowing within aquifers below the water table. Sometimes it is useful to make a distinction between sub-surface water that is closely associated with surface water and deep sub-surface water in an aquifer (sometimes called "fossil water"). Sub-surface water can be thought of in the same terms as surface water: inputs, outputs and storage. The critical difference is that due to its slow rate of turnover, sub-surface water storage is generally much larger compared to inputs than it is for surface water. This difference makes it easy for humans to use sub-surface water unsustainably for a long time without severe consequences. Nevertheless, over the long term the average rate of seepage above a sub-surface water source is the upper bound for average consumption of water from that source.

The natural input to sub-surface water is seepage from surface water. The natural outputs from sub-surface water are springs and seepage to the oceans. If the surface water source is also subject to substantial evaporation, a sub-surface water source may become saline. This situation can occur naturally under endorheic bodies of water, or artificially under irrigated farmland. In coastal areas, human use of a sub-surface water source may cause the direction of seepage to ocean to reverse which can also cause soil salinization. Humans can also cause sub-surface water to be "lost" (i.e. become unusable) through pollution. Humans can increase the input to a sub-surface water source by building reservoirs or detention ponds.

Desalination
Desalination is an artificial process by which saline water (generally sea water) is converted to fresh water. The most common desalination processes are distillation and reverse osmosis. Desalination is currently expensive compared to most alternative sources of water, and only a very small fraction of total human use is satisfied by desalination. It is only economically practical for high-valued uses (such as household and industrial uses) in arid areas. The most extensive use is in the Persian Gulf.

Frozen Water
Several schemes have been proposed to make use of icebergs as a water source, however to date this has only been done for novelty purposes. Glacier runoff is considered to be surface water. The Himalayas, which are often called "The Roof of the World", contain some of the most extensive and rough high altitude areas on Earth as well as the greatest area of glaciers and permafrost outside of the poles. Ten of Asias largest rivers flow from there, and more than a

billion peoples livelihoods depend on them. To complicate matters, temperatures are rising more rapidly here than the global average. In Nepal the temperature has risen with 0.6 degree over the last decade, whereas the global warming has been around 0.7 over the last hundred years.

Fig: Sub-Surface water travel time

Uses of fresh water

Uses of fresh water can be categorized as consumptive and non-consumptive (sometimes called "renewable"). A use of water is consumptive if that water is not immediately available for another use. Losses to sub-surface seepage and evaporation are considered consumptive, as is water incorporated into a product (such as farm produce). Water that can be treated and returned as surface water, such as sewage, is generally considered non-consumptive if that water can be put to additional use.

Agricultural
It is estimated that 69% of worldwide water use is for irrigation, with 15-35% of irrigation withdrawals being unsustainable. It takes around 3,000 litres of water, converted from liquid to vapour, to produce enough food to satisfy one person's daily dietary need. This is a considerable amount, when compared to that required for drinking, which is between two and five litres. To produce food for the 6.5 billion or so people who inhabit the planet today requires the water that would fill a canal ten metres deep, 100 metres wide and 7.1 million kilometres long that's enough to circle the globe 180 times.

Fig: Agricultural Land

Industrial
It is estimated that 22% of worldwide water use is industrial. Major industrial users include power plants, which use water for cooling or as a power source (i.e. hydroelectric plants), ore and oil refineries, which use water in chemical processes, and manufacturing plants, which use water as a solvent. The portion of industrial water usage that is consumptive varies widely, but as a whole is lower than agricultural use. Water is used in power generation. Hydroelectricity is electricity obtained from hydropower. Hydroelectric power comes from water driving a water turbine connected to a generator. Hydroelectricity is a low-cost, non-polluting, renewable energy source. The energy is supplied by the sun. Heat from the sun evaporates water, which condenses as rain in higher altitudes, from where it flows down.

Pressurized water is used in water blasting and water jet cutters. Also, very high pressure water guns are used for precise cutting. It works very well, is relatively safe, and is not harmful to the environment. It is also used in the cooling of machinery to prevent over-heating, or prevent saw blades from over-heating. Water is also used in many industrial processes and machines, such as the steam turbine and heat exchanger, in addition to its use as a chemical solvent. Discharge of untreated water from industrial uses is pollution. Pollution includes discharged solutes (chemical pollution) and discharged coolant water (thermal pollution). Industry requires pure water for many applications and utilizes a variety of purification techniques both in water supply and discharge.

Fig:Uses of Water.

Household
It is estimated that 8% of worldwide water use is for household purposes. These include drinking water, bathing, cooking, sanitation, and gardening. Basic household water requirements have been estimated by Peter Gleick at around 50 liters per person per day, excluding water for gardens. Drinking water is water that is of sufficiently high quality so that it can be consumed or used without risk of immediate or long term harm. Such water is commonly called potable water. In most developed countries, the water supplied to households, commerce and industry is all of drinking water standard even though only a very small proportion is actually consumed or used in food preparation.

Recreation
Recreational water use is usually a very small but growing percentage of total water use. Recreational water use is mostly tied to reservoirs. If a reservoir is kept fuller than it would otherwise be for recreation, then the water retained could be categorized as recreational usage. Release of water from a few reservoirs is also timed to enhance whitewater boating, which also could be considered a recreational usage. Other examples are anglers, water skiers, nature enthusiasts and swimmers. Recreational usage is usually non-consumptive. Golf courses are often targeted as using excessive amounts of water, especially in drier regions. It is, however, unclear whether recreational irrigation (which would include private gardens) has a noticeable effect on water

resources. This is largely due to the unavailability of reliable data. Additionally, many golf courses utilize either primarily or exclusively treated effluent water, which has little impact on potable water availability

. Some governments, including the Californian Government, have labelled golf course usage as agricultural in order to deflect environmentalists' charges of wasting water. However, using the above figures as a basis, the actual statistical effect of this reassignment is close to zero. In Arizona, an organized lobby has been established in the form of the Golf Industry Association, a group focused on educating the public on how golf impacts the environment. Recreational usage may reduce the availability of water for other users at specific times and places. For example, water retained in a reservoir to allow boating in the late summer is not available to farmers during the spring planting season. Water released for whitewater rafting may not be available for hydroelectric generation during the time of peak electrical demand.

Environmental
Explicit environmental water use is also a very small but growing percentage of total water use. Environmental water usage includes artificial wetlands, artificial lakes intended to create wildlife habitat, fish ladders , and water releases from reservoirs timed to help fish spawn, or to restore more natural flow regimes. Like recreational usage, environmental usage is non-consumptive but may reduce the availability of water for other users at specific times and places. For example, water release from a reservoir to help fish spawn may not be available to farms upstream.

Fig: Environmental Management

World Water Supply and Distribution:

Food and water are two basic human needs. However, global coverage figures from 2002 indicate that, of every 10 people:

roughly 5 have a connection to a piped water supply at home (in their dwelling, plot or yard); 3 make use of some other sort of improved water supply, such as a protected well or public standpipe; 2 are unserved; In addition, 4 out of every 10 people live without improved sanitation. At Earth Summit 2002 governments approved a Plan of Action to: Halve by 2015 the proportion of people unable to reach or afford safe drinking water. The Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report (GWSSAR) defines "Reasonable access" to water as at least 20 liters per person per day from a source within one kilometer of the users home. Halve the proportion of people without access to basic sanitation. The GWSSR defines "Basic sanitation" as private or shared but not public disposal systems that separate waste from human contact.

As the picture shows, in 2025, water shortages will be more prevalent among poorer countries where resources are limited and population growth is rapid, such as the Middle East, Africa, and parts of Asia. By 2025, large urban and peri-urban areas will require new infrastructure to provide safe water and adequate sanitation. This suggests growing conflicts with agricultural water users, who currently consume the majority of the water used by humans. Generally speaking the more developed countries of North America, Europe and Russia will not see a serious threat to water supply by the year 2025, not only because of their relative wealth, but more importantly their populations will be better aligned with available water resources. North Africa, the Middle East, South Africa and northern China will face very severe water shortages due to physical scarcity and a condition of overpopulation relative to their carrying capacity with respect to water supply. Most of South America, Sub-Saharan Africa, Southern China and India will face water supply shortages by 2025; for these latter regions the causes of scarcity will be economic constraints to developing safe drinking water, as well as excessive population growth. 1.6 billion people have gained access to a safe water source since 1990. The proportion of people in developing countries with access to safe water is calculated to have improved from 30 percent in 1970 to 71 percent in 1990, 79 percent in 2000 and 84 percent in 2004. This trend is projected to continue.

Integrated Water Resources Management:

Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) has been defined by the Technical Committee of the Global Water Partnership (GWP) as "a process which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources, in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems." Operationally, IWRM approaches involve applying knowledge from various disciplines as well as the insights from diverse stakeholders to devise and implement efficient, equitable and sustainable solutions to water and development problems. As such, IWRM is a comprehensive, participatory planning and implementation tool for managing and developing water resources in a way that balances social and economic needs, and that ensures the protection of ecosystems for future generations. Waters many different usesfor agriculture, for healthy ecosystems, for people and livelihoodsdemands coordinated action. An IWRM approach is an open, flexible process, bringing together decision-makers across the various sectors that impact water resources, and bringing all stakeholders to the table to set policy and make sound, balanced decisions in response to specific water challenges faced. It has been agreed to consider water as an 'finite and economic commodity taking into account of affordability and equity criteria', in order to emphasize on its scarcity in the Dublin Statement: 1. Fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource, essential to sustain life, development and the environment. 2. Water development and management should be based on a participatory approach, involving users, planners and policy makers at all levels. 3. Women play a central part in the provision, management and safeguarding of water. 4. Water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be recognized as an economic good, taking into account of affordability and equity criteria. One of the major fields of focus has been to increase women's involvement in drinking water and sanitation projects, especially in the developing countries. International Water Management Institute (IWMI), UNESCO and International Water and Sanitation Centre are some of the institutes that have undertaken research in this area.

World Wide Water Resources Management (Current Vulnerability):

With higher temperatures, the water-holding capacity of the atmosphere and evaporation into the atmosphere increase, and this favours increased climate variability, with more intense precipitation and more droughts (Trenberth et al., 2003). The hydrological cycle accelerates (Huntington, 2006). While temperatures are expected to increase everywhere over land and during all seasons of the year, although by different increments, precipitation is expected to increase globally and in many river basins, but to decrease in many others. In addition, as shown in the Working Group I Fourth Assessment Report, Chapter 10, Section 10.3.2.3 (Meehl et al., 2007), precipitation may increase in one season and decrease in another. These climatic changes lead to changes in all components of the global freshwater system.

Surface Waters and Runoff Generation

Changes in river flows as well as lake and wetland levels due to climate change depend on changes in the volume, timing and intensity of precipitation (Chiew, 2007), snowmelt and whether precipitation falls as snow or rain. Changes in temperature, radiation, atmospheric humidity, and wind speed affect potential evapotranspiration, and this can offset small increases in precipitation and exaggerate further the effect of decreased precipitation on surface waters. In addition, increased atmospheric CO2 concentration directly alters plant physiology, thus affecting evapotranspiration. Many experimental (e.g., Triggs et al., 2004) and global modeling studies (e.g., Leipprand and Gerten, 2006; Betts et al., 2007) show reduced evapotranspiration, with only part of this reduction being offset by increased plant growth due to increased CO2 concentrations. Gedney et al. (2006) attributed an observed 3% rise in global river discharges over the 20th century to CO2-induced reductions in plant evapotranspiration (by 5%) which were offset by climate change (which by itself would have decreased discharges by 2%). However, this attribution is highly uncertain, among other reasons due to the high uncertainty of observed precipitation time series.

Different catchments respond differently to the same change in climate drivers, depending largely on catchment physiogeographical and hydrogeological characteristics and the amount of lake or groundwater storage in the catchment. A number of lakes worldwide have decreased in size during the last decades, mainly due to human water use. For some, declining precipitation was also a significant cause; e.g., in the case of Lake Chad, where both decreased precipitation and increased human water use account for the observed decrease in lake area since the 1960s (Coe and Foley, 2001). For the many lakes, rivers and wetlands that have shrunk mainly due to human water use and drainage, with negative impacts on ecosystems, climate change is likely to exacerbate the situation if it results in reduced net water availability (precipitation minus evapotranspiration).

Figure . Change in annual runoff by 2041-60 relative to 1900-70, in percent, under the SRES A1B emissions scenario and based on an ensemble of 12 climate models.

Ground Water
Groundwater systems generally respond more slowly to climate change than surface water systems. Groundwater levels correlate more strongly with precipitation than with temperature, but temperature becomes more important for shallow aquifers and in warm periods.

Figure . Examples of current vulnerabilities of freshwater resources and their management; in the background, a water stress map based on Alcamo et al. (2003a).

Floods and Droughts

Disaster losses, mostly weather- and water-related, have grown much more rapidly than population or economic growth, suggesting a negative impact of climate change (Mills, 2005). However, there is no clear evidence for a climate-related trend in floods during the last decades (Table 3.1; Kundzewicz et al., 2005; Schiermeier, 2006). However, the observed increase in precipitation intensity (Table 3.1) and other observed climate changes, e.g., an increase in westerly weather patterns during winter over Europe, leading to very rainy lowpressure systems that often trigger floods (Kron and Bertz, 2007), indicate that climate might already have had an impact on floods. Globally, the number of great inland flood catastrophes

during the last 10 years (between 1996 and 2005) is twice as large, per decade, as between 1950 and 1980, while economic losses have increased by a factor of five (Kron and Bertz, 2007). The dominant drivers of the upward trend in flood damage are socioeconomic factors, such as increased population and wealth invulnerable areas, and land-use change. Floods have been the most reported natural disaster events inAfrica,Asia and Europe, and have affected more people across the globe (140 million/yr on average) than all other natural disasters (WDR, 2003, 2004). In Bangladesh, three extreme floods have occurred in the last two decades, and in 1998 about 70% of the countrys area was inundated (Mirza, 2003; Clarke and King, 2004). In some river basins, e.g., the Elbe river basin in Germany, increasing flood risk drives the strengthening of flood protection systems by structural means, with detrimental effects on riparian and aquatic ecosystems (Wechsung et al., 2005)

Droughts affect rain-fed agricultural production as well as water supply for domestic, industrial, and agricultural purposes. Some semi-arid and sub-humid regions of the globe, e.g., Australia (see Chapter 11, Section 11.2.1), western USA and southern Canada (see Chapter 14, Section 14.2.1), and the Sahel (Nicholson, 2005), have suffered from more intense and multiannual droughts, highlighting the vulnerability of these regions to the increased drought occurrence that is expected in the future due to climate change .

Water Quality
In lakes and reservoirs, climate change effects are mainly due to water temperature variations, which result directly fromclimate change or indirectly through an increase in thermal pollution as a result of higher demands for cooling water in the energy sector. This affects oxygen regimes, redox potentials,1 lake stratification, mixing rates, and biota development, as they all depend on temperature. Increasing water temperature affects the self-purification capacity of rivers by reducing the amount of oxygen that can be dissolved and used for biodegradation.Atrend has been detected in water temperature in the Fraser River in British Columbia, Canada, for longer river sections reaching a temperature over 20C, which is considered the threshold beyond which salmon habitats are degraded (Morrison et al., 2002). Furthermore, increases in intense rainfall result inmore nutrients, pathogens, and toxins being washed into water bodies. Chang et al. (2001) reported increased nitrogen loads from rivers of up to 50% in the Chesapeake and Delaware Bay regions due to enhanced precipitation.

Numerous diseases linked to climate variations can be transmitted via water, either by drinking it or by consuming crops irrigated with polluted water. The presence of pathogens in water supplies has been related to extreme rainfall events (Yarze and Chase, 2000; Curriero et al., 2001; Fayer et al., 2002; Cox et al., 2003; Hunter, 2003). In aquifers, a possible relation between virus content and extreme rainfall has been identified (Hunter, 2003). In the USA, 20 to 40% of water-borne disease outbreaks can be related to extreme precipitation (Rose et al., 2000). Effects of dry periods on water quality have not been adequately studied (Takahashi et al., 2001), although lower water availability clearly reduces dilution. At the global scale, health problems due to arsenic and fluoride in groundwater are more important than those due to other chemicals (United Nations, 2006).Affected regions include India, Bangladesh, China, North Africa, Mexico, and Argentina, with more than 100 million people suffering from arsenic poisoning and fluorosis (a disease of the teeth or bones caused by excessive consumption of fluoride) (United Nations, 2003; Clarke and King, 2004; see also Chapter 13, Section 13.2.3).

Fig: Fresh Water & Dirty Water One-quarter of the global population lives in coastal regions; these are water-scarce (less than 10% of the global renewable water supply) (Small and Nicholls, 2003;MillenniumEcosystem Assessment, 2005b) and are undergoing rapid population growth. Saline intrusion due to excessive water withdrawals fromaquifers is expected to be exacerbated by the effect of sea-level rise, leading to even higher salinisation and reduction of freshwater availability (Klein and Nicholls, 1999; Sherif and Singh, 1999; Essink, 2001; Peirson et al., 2001; Beach, 2002; Beuhler, 2003). Salinisation affects estuaries and rivers (Knighton et al., 1992; Mulrennan and Woodroffe, 1998; Burkett et al., 2002; see also Chapter 13). Groundwater salinisation caused by a reduction in groundwater recharge is also observed in inland aquifers, e.g., in Manitoba, Canada (Chen et al., 2004).

Water quality problems and their effects are different in type and magnitude in developed and developing countries, particularly those stemming from microbial and pathogen content (Lipp et al., 2001; Jimnez, 2003). In developed countries, flood-related water-borne diseases are usually contained by well-maintained water and sanitation services (McMichael et al., 2003) but this does not apply in developing countries (Wisner and Adams, 2002). Regretfully, with the exception of cholera and salmonella, studies of the relationship between climate change and micro-organism content in water and wastewater do not focus on pathogens of interest in developing countries, such as specific protozoa or parasitic worms (Yarze and Chase, 2000; Rose et al., 2000; Fayer et al., 2002; Cox et al., 2003; Scott et al., 2004). One-third of urban water supplies in Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, and more than half in Asia, are operating intermittently during periods of drought (WHO/UNICEF, 2000). This adversely affects water quality in the supply system.

Erosion and Sediment Transport

Rainfall amounts and intensities are the most important factors controlling climate change impacts on water erosion (Nearing et al., 2005), and they affect many geomorphologic processes, including slope stability, channel change, and sediment transport (Rumsby and Macklin, 1994; Rosso et al., 2006). There is no evidence for a climate-related trend in erosion and sediment transport in the past, as data are poor and climate is not the only driver of erosion and sediment transport. Examples of vulnerable areas can be found in north-eastern Brazil, where the sedimentation of reservoirs is significantly decreasing water storage and thus water supply (De Araujo et al., 2006); increased erosion due to increased precipitation intensities would exacerbate this problem. Human settlements on steep hill slopes, in particular informal settlements in metropolitan areas of developing countries (United Nations, 2006), are vulnerable to increased water erosion and landslides.

Water use, Availability and Stress

Human water use is dominated by irrigation, which accounts for almost 70% of global water withdrawals and for more than 90%of global consumptive water use, i.e., the water volume that is not available for reuse downstream (Shiklomanov and Rodda, 2003). In most countries of the world, except in a few industrialised nations, water use has increased over the last decades due to demographic and economic growth, changes in lifestyle, and expanded water supply systems. Water use, in particular irrigation water use, generally increases with temperature and decreases with precipitation. There is no evidence for a climate-related trend in water use in the past. This is due to the fact that water use is mainly driven by non-climatic factors and to the poor quality of water-use data in general and time series in particular. Water availability fromsurface sources or shallow groundwater wells depends on the seasonality and interannual variability of streamflow, and safe water supply is determined by seasonal low flows. In snow-dominated basins, higher temperatures lead to reduced streamflow and thus decreased water supply in summer (Barnett et al., 2005), for example in SouthAmerican river basins along the Andes, where glaciers are shrinking (Coudrain et al., 2005). In semi-arid areas, climate change may extend the dry season of no or very low flows, which particularly affects water users unable to rely on reservoirs or deep groundwater wells (Giertz et al., 2006)

Currently, human beings and natural ecosystems inmany river basins suffer from a lack of water. In global-scale assessments, basins with water stress are defined either as having a

per capita water availability below 1,000m3/yr (based on long-termaverage runoff) or as having a ratio of withdrawals to long-term average annual runoff above 0.4. These basins are located in Africa, the Mediterranean region, the Near East, SouthAsia, Northern China, Australia, the USA,Mexico, north-eastern Brazil, and the western coast of SouthAmerica (Figure 3.2). Estimates of the population living in such severely stressed basins range from 1.4 billion to 2.1 billion (Vrsmarty et al., 2000;Alcamo et al., 2003a, b; Oki et al., 2003a; Arnell, 2004b). In water-scarce areas, people and ecosystems are particularly vulnerable to decreasing and more variable precipitation due to climate change. For example, in the Huanghe River basin in China (Yang et al., 2004), the combination of increasing irrigation water consumption facilitated by reservoirs, and decreasing precipitation associated with global El Nio-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events over the past half century, has resulted in water scarcity (Wang et al., 2006). The irrigation-dominated Murray-Darling Basin in Australia suffers fromdecreased water inflows to wetlands and high salinity due to irrigation water use, which affects aquatic ecosystems (Goss, 2003; see also Chapter 11, Section 11.7).

Current Adaptation
At the FourthWorldWater Forumheld inMexico City in 2006, many of the involved groups requested the inclusion of climate change in IntegratedWater ResourcesManagement (WorldWater Council, 2006). In some countries (e.g., Caribbean, Canada, Australia, Netherlands, UK, USA and Germany), adaptation procedures and risk management practices for the water sector have already been developed that take into account climate change impacts on freshwater systems.

Figure . Illustrative map of future climate change impacts on freshwater which are a threat to the sustainable development of the affected regions.1: Bobba et al. (2000), 2: Barnett et al. (2004), 3: Dll and Flrke (2005), 4: Mirza et al. (2003) 5: Lehner et al. (2005a) 6: Kistemann et al. (2002).

Water Resources Management in Bangladesh:

Water resources management is now a global concern, the main purpose of which is to provide adequate water for humans and the natural environment. The water management includes water utilization, water source conservation, monitoring and preservation of water quality. Water Resources Management aims at managing the tasks required to generate water and produce water related goods and services for the benefits of the society as a whole. It includes physical intervention, related financial management, institutional arrangement, legislation, and regulations. Water Resources System (WRS) consists of various components of the natural system, human made infrastructure, and the institutional arrangements to regulate and control the availability and access of users to these components. In Bangladesh agriculture is the principal economic activity and the main user of water. Water also has domestic, commercial and industrial use. The in-stream flows and water storage support fisheries, forestry, navigation, pollution control, salinity control, nature conservation and recreational facilities. The natural subsystems of WRS of the country are: (a) the inter-linked system of rivers, estuaries, canals, khals etc; (b) the floodplain; (c) wetlands; (d) haors, baors, beels, lakes; (e) ponds; (f) inter tidal lands and water; and (g) groundwater aquifers

Sources of Water in Bangladesh :

In Bangladesh, the sources of water are surface water and ground water. Both the sources may be fresh or saline.

Surface Water
Surface water sources are categorized as rainfall, transboundary flow, water on standing water bodies (water storage in reservoir, water bodies such as river, lake and pond), water on seasonal wetlands, and in-stream storage. These are describes below:

 i)Rainfall :
Average annual rainfall of the country is about 2360 mm (1960-1997). Regional distribution of annual rainfall is shown in Table 1.

This table shows that northwest and southwest region of the country receives less rainfall compared to other parts. About 20% of the average annual rainfall occurs in dry season (November-May) in northwest region but the monthly distribution of this amount is highly uneven.

ii) Transboundary flow :

Bangladesh shares 57 transboundary rivers, 54 incoming from India, 3 from Myanmar. Among the rivers, the Ganges, the Brahmaputra and the Meghna drain about 1.08 million sq.km., 0.58 million sq.km. and 0.09 million sq.km. respectively. Total annual volume of water that enters into the country from the transboundary rivers is about 1000 billion cubic meter. Though this amount seems high, its contribution in the critical month of February is only 1% of the total showing the vulnerability of the transboundary flow to meet the water demand during dry season. Striking features of the transboundary flow is the difference between the peak flow and the lean flow as shown in Table 2.

In almost all the shared rivers, except the three major rivers, no flow situation prevails during driest period of the year. Crucial issue of the transboundary flow is the diminishing values of the lean season inflow to Bangladesh. Due to indiscriminate and unilateral upstream withdrawal of water of common rivers during lean period when the country needs it (in absence of any rainfall), a water crisis situation is prevailing in Bangladesh. The southwest part (Ganges Dependent Area)

of the country is the most affected region due to upstream withdrawal of the Ganges at Farakka where irreversible environmental degradation is happening. Peak monsoon flow is often causing flood in Bangladesh. In normal year, about 20% of the country is inundated which in extreme cases may rise up to 60% (example 1987, 1988, 1998 flood).

iii) Water on standing water bodies :

In addition to natural rivers, water is retained in localized low pockets (beels/baors) and ponds in dry season. Kapatai lake is the lonely reservoir in the country that has storage capacity. Total volume of such standing water bodies is about 0.61 billion cubic meter.

iv) Water on seasonal wetlands :

Floodplains (about 80% of the total area of the country) become seasonal wetlands during monsoon (July-October) because of slow drainage of huge transboundary flow and local rainfall excess. The seasonal wetlands remain inundated from a few days to as long as several months (May-November). Estimated volume of water stored in these seasonal wetlands/floodplains is about 2.69 billion cubic meter. This seasonal storage has virtually no contribution during dry season.

v) In-stream water storage :

The numerous channels criss-crossing the entire country, in flowing stage, store water till these are completely dries. Estimated volume of channel storage is of the order of 0.5 billion cubic meters.

Ground Water
The main source of ground water is the recharge from surface water. Most of the areas of Bangladesh have been formed from the sedimentary alluvial and deltaic deposits of three major rivers. These alluvial deposits have formed mainly an unconfined aquifer for most of the area of the country. Groundwater was supposed to be one of the major natural resources of the country except the safe drinking water supplies. But the presence of Arsenic in shallow aquifer has completely changed the situation. It is estimated that about 16% of present population of 123.15 million is exposed to arsenic contamination exceeding Bangladesh standard (0.05 mg/l). About 74452 sq.km. of groundwater use area (about 50% of the country) is unsuitable for use by hand tubewells (as a source of drinking water according to WHO standard) due to arsenic.

Water availability and problems :

Surface Water availability and Problems
The natural surface water resources in Bangladesh are mainly derived through the major river systems and their tributaries. The flow distribution characteristic in the river system is a combination of upstream inflows and run-off generated from rainfall within Bangladesh. In the southern regions, the distribution is also affected by tidal conditions. Surface water is abundant in the wet season in Bangladesh. An estimated 795,000
3

million cubic meter (Mm ) of surface water is discharged per year through the GangesBrahmaputra system, in the downstream of the confluence of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra.
2

This is equivalent to 5.52m deep water over a land area of 144,000 km . There are other rivers discharging surface water into the Bay of Bengal. In dry season country suffers from acute shortage of both surface and groundwater (BUET, 2004). Bangladesh experiences four main types of floods: monsoon floods from the major rivers; local flooding due to drainage congestion, flash floods in the eastern and northern rivers; floods caused by high tides and storm surges in the coastal areas. During the JuneSeptember monsoon, Bangladesh receives about 80% of annual precipitation, averaging 2300mm, but varying from as little as 1200mm in the west to over 5000mm in the east. Runoff from adjacent riparian is generated by rainfall which averages 5000mm over the Himalayas, and exceeds 10,000mm over the Meghalaya plateau north to Sylhet. Together inflows and rainfall causes peak floods in the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers in the period July-August, and on average 22% of the country is flooded annually. Drought is also a problem in Bangladesh, particularly in the North West regions during the spring where there are few surface water resources, and agricultural production is heavily reliant on groundwater resources. However, drought is not only confined to the dry season, and scanty rainfall during the monsoon, as happened in 1994, but also severely affects floodplain fisheries and late monsoon aman rice. Groundwater recharge for the following dry season is also adversely affected.

Groundwater Availability and Problems

Groundwater is the main source of water supply in urban and rural areas of Bangladesh. Except for few hilly regions Bangladesh is entirely underlain by water bearing aquifers at depths varying from zero to 20m below ground surface. Groundwater in Bangladesh is available in adequate quantity, but the availability of groundwater for drinking purposes has become a problem for the following reasons (BUET, 2004): Arsenic in groundwater; Excessive dissolved iron; Salinity in the shallow aquifers in the coastal areas; Lowering of groundwater level; Rock/stony layers in hilly areas; So, it may be said that in spite of heavy rainfall, readily accessible groundwater and large river systems in this country, at present water scarcity for drinking purpose is the major problem in Bangladesh due to arsenic contamination in groundwater and surface water pollution by point sources and non-point sources.

Water resources development

On an annual basis, the water theoretically available to Bangladesh is huge in relation to demands. The annual rate of reference crop evapotranspiration (ET0) is around 1500 mm/year and the annual average rainfall is some 2200mm. In addition, a volume of some 1010 Billion
3

m enters the country in the 57 rivers which cross its border with India and Myanmar, which
2

corresponds to a further 6800mm over its surface of 147,570 km , for a total of 9000mm, four times ET0. Regional balance of rainfall and evapotranspiration as presented in Table 4 shows water abundance in wet season and shortage in dry season.

The surface water available for development in the regional rivers in the dry season (November to May) was estimated by the Master Plan Organization (MPO) for the period 19891990 as shown in Table 5.

These figures are small when divided by the net cultivable area (NCA in Mha) in each region, and compared with ET0 as shown in Table 6. In the South West, the surface water available in March of 7 mm and the dependable rainfall of 27 mm, together amount to only 22% of ET0. However, there is a large groundwater reservoir, which is replenished by monsoon rainfall and flooding, and is tapped by shallow tubewells (STW) in the dry season.

Water Demand and Supply :

Demands arise from several factors such as, natural (evapotranspiration), water supply, irrigation, fisheries and livestock, industrial, navigation and the environment (demands for salinity control). Proportion of total water demands, as projected for 2025, is estimated to be: instream-56%, agriculture-32%, environment-9% and water supply-3%. So, consumptive use comes to be 44%. Environmental flow requirements according to IUCN as stated by Saleh (2003) should at least be 30% of the worlds river flows so as to maintain a fair condition of freshwater ecosystems. If we compare the rainfall and reference crop evapotranspiration we can see the situation of water demand and supply. The reference crop evapotranspiration and rainfall during the critical months (when it exceeds the rainfall) is given region-wise in Table 7, which shows that supply of water in the driest periods in the whole country is much less than demands.

Water demand for agriculture amounts to about 70% of the global withdrawal; for Bangladesh, the figure is about 80% (November to March withdrawal). Water use in Bangladesh agriculture has increased by 2.73 times in 2001 relative to 1991 according to IRRI as reported by Saleh (2003). Water balance, on yearly basis, shows a clear deficit for the entire country. This picture would be alarming if the same is done for driest period of the year. In the absence of significant storage for water in Bangladesh, water balance calculations are normally made on a monthly basis. Table 8 shows the projected demand and supply in the month of March in 2018 according to MPO (1991). Still the projected water supply is found to be less than demand.

A Brief History of Water Resource Management and the Emergence of Current Policy:

Water Sector Development 1947-1988

Prior to the partition of the subcontinent in 1947 there had been no national scale government-led water sector development in what is now Bangladesh. However, public investment in water resources development dates back to the pre-British period. During this time the then Bengal had a kind of public works programme for the construction of local infrastructure such as small reservoirs to reduce the adverse impact of flood and to ensure water for irrigation during dry seasons. Following devastating floods in 1954 and 1955 a United Nations mission (the Krug Mission) investigated the possibilities for water resources development in East Pakistan. On the UN missions recommendations, the East Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority (EPWAPDA) was created in 1959. The Authority was responsible for the planning, design, operation and management of all water development schemes. The real beginning of water sector planning in what is now Bangladesh was marked by the completion in 1964 of a 20-year Water Master Plan, prepared by EPWAPDA with USAID assistance. It envisaged a strategy of massive flood control and drainage to be followed by irrigation in a later phase. However, in actual implementation of the plan, much emphasis was put on the construction of embankments and polders over much of the country (Rogers et al., 1994), and construction began in earnest. The activities carried out under the Master Plan brought about immediate results, however and laterevaluations noted the rapid rate of decline in performance, especially in terms of operation and maintenance, of much of this infrastructure. In particular the increases in agricultural production (the main objective of the interventions) failed to materialise as predicted (Datta, 1999).

The orientation of all water sector development to this time was almost exclusively aimed at achieving the goal of increasing agricultural production to achieve national self-sufficiency. This bias towards agriculture meant that solutions tended to be in the form of flood control drainage and irrigation (FCDI) projects. In reality, emphasis was placed on flood control mainly and much attention was given to the improvement of drainage and irrigation. Development during this period was strictly sectoral with very little inter-sectoral communication. Instead agencies pursued their own, separate and often conflicting interests. Then, as is still the case today, the majority of staff at EPWAPDA (now Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB)) were civil engineers and the organisation was inclined to seek structural engineering solutions at the expense of all alternatives. In the absence of other organisations to act as advocates for non-structural development of the Nation's water resources (especially where structural ones were inappropriate or costly) water resources management in Bangladesh became synonymous with flood control, drainage and irrigation. Following independence in 1971, the EPWAPDA was restructured and responsibilities concerning planning and management of water resources was handed over to the newly created BWDB. The country gained support from several agencies immediately following independence, including the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) in 1972. The IBRD, which had undertaken a study in 1969-70, reviewed the investment and performance of the water sector and submitted its findings in a report titled Land and Water Sector Study in 1972. The study recommended a strategy of extensive minor irrigation in winter using low lift pumps (LLP) and tube-wells (TW) and for flood control small-scale, low-cost, quick-gestation flood control projects in shallow flooded areas. This was a major deviation in the strategy followed since 1964. Although not officially accepted by the Government of Bangladesh (GoB), the IBRD report was endorsed by donors and as such guided their investment pattern.1 The emphasis on minor irrigation and privatisation resulted in a dramatic increase in irrigated area. However, the implementation of large-scale water control projects was not totally abandoned, with a further 1,963 km of embankments and 8,000 hydraulic structures added and 1,000 river closures taking place in the 1980s alone (Hughes et al., 1994; WSIP, 2000). In 1974 Bangladesh was once again hit by a severe flood that renewed interest in flood control and drainage. The country was still recovering from the war and in need of a means of rapidly improving its agricultural production. The government of the day held consultations with many donors and several new initiatives began. One of these was the Early Implementation Project, undertaken in collaboration with the Government of the Netherlands (GoN). In the meantime, the construction of Farakka Barrage on the Ganges in India at about 20 km upstream from the Bangladesh border was completed in 1974 for directing Ganges water into the Hooghly river for the stated purpose of improving navigability around Kolkata (then called Calcutta) port. For the test run of the barrage, a sharing arrangement with India was made in 1975 for diverting 11,000 to 16,000 cubic feet per second (cusecs) of water between April 21 and May 31, 1975 leaving about 44,000 cusecs for Bangladesh. However, India continued the unilateral withdrawal at a higher level in 1976 without any agreement and that severely affected Bangladesh in the dry season. Bangladesh took the issue to the United Nations General Assembly and finally an agreement with India was concluded in 1977 for five years.

Following the recommendations of 1972 IBRD study, minor irrigation through LLPs and STWs spread extremely rapidly. The potential for LLP was soon exhausted due to lack of surface water availability but growth of STW continued remarkably. Before long conflicts amongst various water users surfaced in the form of fish versus LLP irrigation and domestic hand tubewells versus STW irrigation on the one hand and drastic reduction of flow in the Ganges on the other. Against this backdrop, a joint Government of Bangladesh and World Bank (WB) Mission reviewed and made detailed recommendations for institutional reforms and the need for a new Master Plan. By the early eighties, the pressures of a burgeoning population and expanding agricultural and industrial sectors had brought about the recognition of the need for long-term comprehensive water resources development. The country also faced new challenges due to the expiring of the Ganges treaty. In 1982, Bangladesh had no choice but to sign a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with India on the issue of the sharing of Ganges water. Against this backdrop, in 1983 the National Water Resources Council (NWRC) was established as an interministerial body. Later in the same year the Master Plan Organisation was created and entrusted with the task to draft the first National Water Plan (NWP). Development of the plan was a lengthy process requiring the collection of large quantities of baseline information. As a result, the first National Water Plan (Phase I) was not completed until 1986. An assessment was made in the plan document on the availability of water from various sources and the plan also projected the future demand for water by different sectors. The NWP was extended (Phase II) in 1986 and was completed in 1991. During this phase, a substantial volume of information was generated. This included the development of a number of planning models and analytical tools for defining and evaluating strategies. During this phase the country was divided up (initially) into 173 catchments. These were grouped into 60 planning areas, and further aggregated into five regions (Northeast, North-west, South-east, South-west and South-central). One important outcome of this process was a baseline assessment of water resources of the country. The water balance model (for both surface water and groundwater) was made in an effort to determine the extent of surface water and groundwater reserves. This assessment was one of the first to look at all aspects of water resource utilisation in the country. The model predictions took into account the future development of irrigation, fisheries, navigation as well as environmental needs. Both phases of the NWP recognised the importance of fisheries and recommended several basic policies to strengthen fisheries institutions, improve the design of water control structures for providing fish migration, improve the management of FCDI projects to enhance fish production, and the need to reserve certain water bodies for fisheries development (World Bank, 1997, p.54). Also during this period the Master Plan Organisation (MPO) prepared a draft water code and outlined proposals to institutionalise the process of planning and development of water resources (World Bank, 1997). These recommendations reflected the views of the day of both government and the donor community. To recast the NWP within the appropriate intersectoral focus, the MPO was restructured as the Water Resources Planning Organisation (WARPO) in 1991 with the mandate to "evolve national policies and strategies for utilization and conservation of water by all" (GoB, 1999, p15).

Water Sector Development - The FAP Era

During the second phase of the NWP Bangladesh experienced two severe floods in 1987 and 1988, the latter of which was the worst in living memory. The flood at peak time covered approximately 65 percent of the country. These floods caused massive infrastructural damage, loss of crops and the deaths of nearly 1,700 people (Haggart et al., 1994). The event brought the issue of flood control and flood management to international forums and led to renewed, and greatly increased, levels of assistance. In the year proceeding the floods, four studies, undertaken by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the Japanese, the French and the Americans were undertaken. Additional studies were also undertaken by Bangladesh in collaboration with India, Bhutan, Nepal and China (WB, 1987). The World Bank took the lead in coordinating the programme on behalf of the donor agencies and in July 1989, the World Bank and the GoB recommended an integrated approach for flood mitigation based on the concept of 'controlled flooding' to be implemented over the next 20-30 years. In December of the same year, in a meeting held in London, representatives of the Government of Bangladesh and the donors endorsed the plan for the Flood Action Plan (FAP). The FAP was seen as a five-year rolling plan that would be reviewed every two years. The first five-year study phase of the project (1990-95) was financed by 16 major donor countries and multilateral agencies and originally involved 11 main components and an additional 15 support studies. Various plans of action were put forward by different donor countries ranging from improved flood forecasting and warning systems to high cost embankment schemes aimed at changing the entire hydrological regime of the country. With time, the original 26 components were subdivided and new off-shoots developed to the point that by September 1992 the FAP consisted of 30 separate components (Adnan et al., 1992). These regional and supporting studies were to be managed by a newly established Flood Planning Coordination Organisation (FPCO). However, even during the formulation stage of the FAP there was criticism of the Plan by pressure groups, some donors and civil society as a whole. At that time Bangladesh was governed by a military dictatorship, which suppressed the scope for the active participation of civil society in these processes. The FAP was never debated in Parliament and no public consultation was carried out prior to project implementation. In its early years FAP could be seen as the continuation of planning in the traditional modus operandi of the BWDB but on a much grander scale. As it continued so did the criticism, especially by non-governmental organisations (NGOs) although the criticism was by no means confined to them. The Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council (BARC) was also critical to the point that President Ershad had the Executive Vice Chairman sacked for his critical views2. Over the next few years the campaign against the FAP gathered momentum with public displays of dissatisfaction becoming more frequent. Despite its shortcomings FAP did set in motion several processes of change. The Plan brought about "unaccustomed scrutiny of the water sector that exposed hydrological

flaws, doubtful economic viability, environmental shortcomings and other problems that had been accumulating for several decades" (Rogers et al., 1994, p. 3). The combination of the poor results of FAP project evaluation studies and pressure from donors and NGOs led to the realisation of the need for a participatory approach to water development. At the second conference on the FAP, in 1992, the FPCO was determined to produce a set of guidelines for participation in management projects. The GoB and the BWDB were largely opposed to this. However, after extensive debate, it was agreed that guidelines needed to be established and that these would describe local people as the partners of professionals in water management. This conclusion represented a radical departure from existing approaches (Hanchett, 1997). In 1995 the FAP final report, the Bangladesh Water and Flood Management Strategy (BWFMS), was approved by the GoB and the implementation strategy laid out in the Bangladesh Water and Flood Management Strategy Report in 1995 was also endorsed by the associated donor agencies. Following the recommendation of the BWFMS, the institutional arrangements for planning of water resources were reviewed leading to the merging of the FPCO into an expanded WARPO in 1996. In parallel to the FAP, the BWDB was continuing its work on existing programmes. One such programme was the Systems Rehabilitation Project (SRP), which aimed to rehabilitate some of the 80 BWDB projects that were partly or wholly dysfunctional. The project aimed to rehabilitate the whole system rather than simply the infrastructural elements such as embankments or sluices. The project, which started in 1992, was largely unsuccessful (Soussan and Datta, 1997). However, here too people's participation was gaining increasing credibility as an essential element for the success of the project, and after a review by the World Bank in 1994, the project reduced its number of sub-projects and introduced participatory elements to the work. The approach adopted was based on the formation of water user organisations (WUOs). However, this approach was also criticised as being unrepresentative. The approach was that most of the WUOs consisted only of farmers rather than representatives of all water users (farmers were defined as the project beneficiaries as the projects economic rate of return was based on assumptions about increases to crop outputs that better flood control would bring). However, as with the FAP, through its mistakes SRP did serve to draw attention to several areas requiring improvement. The SRP showed that the structure of the BWDB was incompatible with the needs of small-scale rehabilitation and also went some way to changing the attitudes of BWDB staff to people's participation. The NWP I and II set out projections of resources and demands for the period up to 2005 and 2010 respectively using complex water balance models. The plans were based on estimates of the net cropped area and area that could be irrigated in each of the five regions, plus the available groundwater and surface water resources in each. Both Plans also emphasised the "With low literacy rates and limited exposure to the outside world, rural people are not adequately equipped to find and suggest solutions to all of their problems." BWDB official at the FAP conference, March 1992 "Your idea regarding women's participation is not correct for the overall national interest" BWDB official at the FAP conference, March 1992 role of minor irrigation with LLPs and STWs. In response to this, in 1992 the National Minor Irrigation Development Project (NMIDP) was launched by the Ministry of Agriculture with the principal

objective of consolidating the transition of minor irrigation from a supply driven public sector to a demand driven private sector one, and has been generally successful in identifying affordable options. There has been widespread growth throughout Bangladesh of minor irrigation in part through the promotion by NMIDP but arguably more as a result of the privatisation, obvious benefits of the technology and through the reduction in government taxes on the equipment.

The Call for Restructuring the Water Sector

In recent years the pressure for the restructuring of the water sector has grown. The GoB responded to this initially through the Bangladesh Water and Flood Management Strategy, which proposed the formulation of a national water management plan and the institutional strengthening of water sector organisations. It also openly recognised that there are considerable limitations on an approach to water management involving widespread large hydrological engineering intervention. However, it still placed great emphasis on floods compared to the Nation's dry season scarcity problems, which many considered to be of an equal if not greater problem. That said, it did recognise the inadequacy of the existing institutional framework for meeting the needs of the sector and proposed restructuring. Also during this period guidelines for people's participation, project assessment and environmental impact assessment were developed by FPCO. The Bangladesh Water and Flood Management Strategy recommended peoples participation as mandatory from the inception phase, and environmental impact assessment (EIA) as an integral part of planning. These guidelines went through a screening and testing phase which led to the Ministry of Water Resources issuing the Guidelines for People's Participation (GPP) for all water development projects in 1994. At the same time the GoB also made EIAs mandatory for all new or revised water sector projects prior to submission to the Executive Committee of the National Economic Council (ECNEC), the highest authority for approving projects. Since this time, to varying degrees, the guidelines have been applied in the management of water sector projects implemented by the BWDB. The Local Government Engineering Department (LGED) also prepared guidelines on how to involve local people in water projects. A number of projects including SRP, and the Compartmentalization Pilot Project (CPP) also developed GPPs. As a result, different agencies developed slightly different sets of procedures to ensure stakeholder participation. This is particularly true in the case of the suggested institutional arrangements of the beneficiaries both in terms of registered or unregistered groups. As part of the decentralisation process the GoB drafted new legislation relating to the new responsibilities delegated to local government institutions. This culminated in the enactment of the Upazila Parishad Act in 1998. Schedule 2 of the Act specifically deals with the water resources sector development, in particularly relating to planning and management of smallscale water resources schemes below 1,000 hectares.

The New National Water Policy

In response to the Government's Bangladesh Water and Flood Management Strategy Report the World Bank produced its report "The Steps Towards the New National Water Plan" (World Bank, 1997). This described a structure for the water sector (covering both surface and ground water). These initiatives which essentially described the need for a coherent water strategy for water resource exploration, use and management, led the GoB to begin the process of drafting a National Water Management Plan (NWMP) and National Water Policy (NWPo). This process involved the revival of the dormant National Water Resources Council (NWRC). The NWRC led the NWPo development process and led to the first National Water Policy being published in January 1999. The NWPo goal is stated as being: "to ensure progress towards fulfilling national goals of economic development, poverty alleviation, food security, public health and safety, a decent standard of living for the people and protection of the natural environment" (GoB, 1999). Whilst it is beyond the scope of this paper to analyse the Policy in minutiae, it is useful to set out the policys broad aims and objectives. These are stated as: "The water policy of the government aims to provide direction to all line agencies working with the water sector, and institutions that relate to the water sector in one form or another, for achievement of specified objectives. These objectives are broadly: To address issues related to the harnessing and development of all forms of water and ground water and management of these resources in an efficient and equitable manner. To ensure the availability of water to all elements of society including the poor and the underprivileged, and to take into account the particular needs of women and children.

To accelerate the development of sustainable public and private water delivery systems with appropriate legal and financial measures and incentives, including delineation of water rights and water pricing.

To bring institutional changes that will help decentralise the management of water resources and enhance the role of women in water management.

To develop a legal and regulatory environment that will help the process of decentralisation, and sound environmental management, and will improve the investment climate for the private sector in water development and management.

To develop a state of knowledge and capability that will enable the country to design future water resources management plans by itself with economic efficiency, gender

equity, social justice and environmental awareness to facilitate achievement of the water management objectives through broad public participation" (GoB, 1999). It is acknowledged in the new NWPo that the existing legislation on water management requires supplementing in a number of key areas (GoB, 1999, p21). It is the intention of the Government that the policy will be given effect through a National Water Code (NWCo) which will outline the specific provisions of the water policy required to facilitate implementation. The views of government are to enact this NWCo by revising and consolidating the laws governing ownership, development, appropriation, utilisation, conservation and protection of water resources. for providing policy directives for co-ordination across sectors. However, it is the responsibility of WARPO to determine the means by which the broad policy aims in the NWPo are to be implemented and the Policy itself implies the framework within which this is to be achieved is through the NWMP. A detailed analysis of the Policy is beyond the scope of this paper3, but the general consensus within Bangladesh and internationally was that the policy was a significant landmark that reflected a major shift in the approach to water resources management within government circles. In particular, the dominance of floods as the issue and infrastructure as the solution is challenged by the new policy that prioritises a range of issues and recognizes the importance of, in particular, institutional change. However, whilst in general the policy must be viewed positively there are some queries and concerns. For example, the policy states that "Water will be considered an economic resource and priced to convey its scarcity value" (GoB, 1999, p. 16). The argument of scarcity value definitely has merits, as the experiences suggest that desirable practices relating to rationale use of water emerges when all users perceive and do recognise the scarcity value. However, it could be argued that in the policy though the principles are laid out, the efficacy of it to a great degree remained open for varied interpretations, which may not be easy to address at implementation. Similarly, on pricing of surface and ground water the policy stated that " rates are to reflect where possible, the cost of delivery" (op cit., p. 16). The whole issue of pricing of water thus becomes crucial. Even in a situation where principles are clearly laid down, complexities crop up on calculation of costs, particularly when major water investment are in the form of flood control and drainage. The pricing of irrigation water is not simple either when argument of scarcity value is applied. As in the Bangladesh context, at times scarcity value of water could greatly exceed the cost of delivery which is often taken as a basis for pricing. Thus it could be safely argued that the NWPo has just laid down the basic principles. The complexity of various issues and concepts has not fully been addressed, but the NWPo has created a framework for continuing debate and discussions to resolve them in the process. The policy also talks of standards of effluent disposal in common watercourses being set by WARPO in consultation with the Department of the Environment (DOE). However, review of WARPOs activities since the formulation of NWPo suggest that WARPO is too

occupied with the drafting of NWMP and has very little time and/or expertise to address other issues which in the NWPo are indicated as an integral part of WARPOs mandate. Further, interviews with the senior WARPO officials gives the indications that the WARPO as yet, has no powers or capacity to act as a regulator and there is no other agency mandated to do so. Despite shortcomings such as these, most stakeholders seem generally pleased with the position the Policy has taken. However, of most concern is the fact that the policy is yet to be endorsed by the Parliament or backed by an Executive Order. As a result, no agency including BWDB and LGED or the Ministries of Fisheries and Livestock or Roads and Highways is at present obliged to submit their plans and projects to WARPO even though this is seen as an integral part of the policy. As such, the NWPo in Bangladesh shares with many other policies in many parts of the world the characteristic of being a good document that reflects significant changes to the dominant approach, but also of being limited in terms of the details through which the policy intentions will be implemented or the capacities of the institutions to enact crucial pieces of the policy.

National Water Policy

Planning and Management of Water Resources
The Government recognizes that the process of planning and managing water resources requires a comprehensive and integrated analysis of relevant hydrological, topographical, social, political, economic, environmental and institutional factors across all related water-using sectors. The intricate nature of drainage systems within the country requires that activity for planning and management of the nation's river systems is undertaken within the context of hydrological regions. The principal river systems create natural boundaries for these regions. The hilly areas of the east form another hydrological region. Henceforth, to address these issues the policy of the Government will be as follows: a. The Water Resources Planning Organisation (WARPO) will delineate the hydrological regions of the country, based on appropriate natural features, for planning the development of their water resources. b. WARPO will prepare, and periodically update, a National Water Management Plan (NWMP) addressing the overall resource management issues in each region and the whole of Bangladesh, and providing directions for the short, intermediate, and long runs. The plan will be executed by different agencies as determined by the Government from time to time. c. The NWMP and all other related plans will be prepared in comprehensive and integrated manner, with regard for the interests of all water-related sectors. The planning methodology will ensure co-operation across sectors and people's participation in the process.

Within the macro framework of the NWMP:

d. Sector agencies of the Government and local bodies will prepare and implement subregional and local water-management plans in conformance with the NWMP and approved Government project appraisal guidelines. The Executive Committee of the National Water Resources Council (ECNWRC) will resolve any interagency conflict in this regard. e. The Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) will implement all major surface water development projects and other FCDI projects with command area above 1000 hectares. The Local Government will implement FCDI projects having a command area of 1000 hectares or less after identification and appraisal through an interagency Project Appraisal Committee. Any interagency dispute will be resolved by means prescribed by the Government. f. The participation of all project affected persons, individually and collectively, will be ensured in the planning, design, implementation, and operation and maintenance (O&M) of publicly funded surface water resources development plans and projects. Local Governments (Parishads) will be the principal agencies for coordinating these efforts. Community level selfhelp groups (private) and Non-Government Organisations will also be relied on to assist in the participatory process.

The Government will further:

g. Frame rules, procedures, and guidelines for combining water-use and land-use planning h. Frame, and periodically revise, the rules, procedures and guidelines on all aspects of water management i. Make social and environmental assessments mandatory in all plan development

Through its responsible agencies, the Government will:

j. Undertake comprehensive development and management of the main rivers through a system of barrages and other structural and non-structural measures k. Develop water resources of the major rivers for multipurpose use, including irrigation, fisheries, navigation, forestry, and aquatic wildlife l. De-silt watercourses to maintain navigation channels and proper drainage

m. Delineate water-stress areas based on land characteristics and water availability from all sources for managing dry season demand n. Take steps to protect the water quality and ensure efficiency of its use

o. Develop early warning and flood-proofing systems to manage natural disasters like flood and drought p. Designate flood risk zones and take appropriate measures to provide desired levels of protection for life, property, vital infrastructure, agriculture and wetlands. In this regard the following principles will guide future action: i. Regions of economic importance such as metropolitan areas, sea and air ports, and export processing zones will be fully protected against floods as a matter of first priority. Other critical areas such as district and upazila towns, important commercial centers, and places of historical importance will be gradually provided reasonable degree of protection against flood. In the remaining rural areas, with the exception of those already covered by existing flood control infrastructure, the people will be motivated to develop different flood proofing measures such as raising of platform for homesteads, market places, educational institutions, community centers, etc., and adjusting the cropping pattern to suit the flood regime. ii. In future all national and regional highways, railway tracks, and public buildings and facilities will be constructed above the highest ever-recorded level of flood in the country. This principle will also apply in cases of reconstruction of existing structures of this nature. iii. All plans for roads and railways embankment will adequately provide for unimpeded drainage. q. Undertake survey and investigation of the problem of riverbank erosion and develop and implement master plans for river training and erosion control works for preservation of scarce land and prevention of landlessness and pauperisation. r. Plan and implement schemes for reclamation of land from the sea and rivers.

Conclusions :
Due to its geographical location, Bangladesh experiences water abundance in the wet season and lack in dry season. These are two major conflicts in water resources management of the country. These two major conflicts can be overcome by conserving required amount of water

in the wet season by building more barrages across the rivers as well as by dredging or by developing the rivers and spilling additional amount. In fine in the long run,we can say that -water resource is an important matter for the development of any country. so the adjustable development of water resource and its management system with the whole world brings a proper prograss and success in BANGLADESH.

References :
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