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Index
1. Single Phase Induction Motor 2. Hysteresis Motors 3. Synchronous Reluctance Motors 4. Linear Motors 5. Stepper Motors 6. Switched reluctance motors 7. Torque motors 8. Synchros 9. References Page 2 Page 3 Page 4 Page 5 Page 6 Page 7 Page 8 Page 9 Page 10

SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Single phase induction motors have a copper or aluminum squirrel cage embedded in a cylinder of steel laminations, typical of poly-phase induction motors. Single-phase induction motors are not self-starting without an auxiliary stator winding driven by an out of phase current of near 90o. Rotation may be commenced by manually giving a slight turn to the rotor. This motor may rotate in either direction. Only the starting circuit determines the rotational direction. Efficiency is reduced and the starting torque is very low. Such motors are used in low-power application such as desk fans and record players where low to zero starting torque is required.
Fig 1 Single phase induction motor construction

The single coil of a single phase induction motor does not produce a rotating magnetic field, but a pulsating field reaching maximum intensity at 0o and 180o electrical. Once started the auxiliary winding is optional. The auxiliary winding of a permanent-split capacitor motor has a capacitor in series with it during starting and running. A capacitor-start induction motor only has a capacitor in series with the auxiliary winding during starting. A capacitor-run motor typically has a large non-polarized electrolytic capacitor in series with the auxiliary winding for starting, then a smaller non-electrolytic capacitor during running. The auxiliary winding of a resistance split-phase motor develops a phase difference versus the main winding during starting by virtue of the difference in resistance.

Fig 2 Capacitor-start induction motor.

Fig3 Capacitor-run motor induction motor.

A larger capacitor may be used to start a single phase induction motor via the auxiliary winding if it is switched out by a centrifugal switch once the motor is up to speed. Moreover, the auxiliary winding may be many more turns of heavier wire than used in a resistance split-phase motor to mitigate excessive temperature rise. The result is that more starting torque is available for heavy loads like air conditioning compressors. This motor configuration works so well that it is available in multi-horsepower (multi-kilowatt) sizes. A variation of the capacitor-start motor is to start the motor with a relatively large capacitor for high starting torque, but leave a smaller value capacitor in place after starting to improve running characteristics while not drawing excessive current. The additional complexity of the capacitor-run motor is justified for larger size motors. If an auxiliary winding of much fewer turns of smaller wire is placed at 90o electrical to the main winding, it can start a single phase induction motor. With lower inductance and higher resistance, the current will experience less phase shift than the main winding. About 30o of phase difference may be obtained. This coil produces a moderate starting torque, which is disconnected by a centrifugal switch at 3/4 of synchronous speed. This simple (no capacitor) arrangement serves well for motors up to 1/3 horsepower (250 watts) driving easily started loads.

Hysteresis motor
The hysteresis synchronous motor is so named because it utilizes the phenomenon of hysteresis to produce mechanical torque. Hysteresis motors are normally of the split phase or shaded pole type. Its rotor contains no windings as it is normally a smooth cylinder of hard magnetic materials with a very large hysteresis loop thus HTS materials (Cobalt, chrome, steel) are used in this type of motor because they are intrinsically hysteretic meaning that the magnetic flux cannot move freely throughout the material causing the magnetization and stator fields to be misaligned resulting in a large alignment torque. The rotor is placed within a slotted stator carrying distributed windings designed to produce, as nearly as possible, a sinusoidal space distribution of flux. In single phase motors, the stator windings usually are the permanent-split-capacitor type. The stator then produces a rotating field, approximately constant in space wave form and rotating at synchronous speed. Instantaneous magnetic conditions in the air gap are indicated in Figure 4 for a 2 pole stator. The axis SS' of the stator m.m.f. wave revolves at synchronous speed, because of hysteresis the magnetization of the rotor lags behind the inducing m.m.f. wave, and therefore the axis RR' of the rotor flux wave lags behind the axis of the stator m.m.f. wave by the hysteresis lag angle "a". If the rotor is stationary, starting torque is produced proportional to the product of the fundamental components of the stator m.m.f. and rotor flux and the sine of the torque angle "a". While the rotor is accelerating, the lag angle "a" remains constant if the flux is constant, since the angle "a" depends merely on the hysteresis loop of the rotor and is independent of the rate at which the loop is traversed. The motor therefore develops constant torque right up to synchronous speed. Hysteresis motors can synchronize any load they can accelerate, regardless of the inertia. After reaching synchronism the motors continue to run at synchronous speed and adjust their torque angle to develop torques required by the loads. Hysteresis motors have high resistivity to reduce eddy current loss. Because of its smooth rotor it operates quietly and no magnetic or mechanical vibration occurs. They are limited to small sizes as they have a low efficiency, low power factor, low torque and produce about a quarter of the output of an induction motor with the same dimensions. Hysteresis motors are mainly used in constant speed applications like an electric clock, air conditioners, sound recording and producing instruments. Due to difficulty of controlling rotor losses caused by imperfections in the stator mmf wave, hysteresis motors are limited to small sizes.
Fig 5

They are very advantageous

Fig 5 illustrates the conventional copper wound stator and an YBCO rotor of a prototype superconducting hysteresis motor. induction motor of the same

SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTORS

It starts like an induction motor but runs with a small amount of synchronous torque. The synchronous torque is due to changes in reluctance of the magnetic path from the stator through the rotor as the slots align. This motor is an inexpensive means of developing a moderate synchronous torque. Low power factor, low pull-out torque, and low efficiency are characteristics of the direct power line driven variable reluctance motor. In a reluctance machine the axis of a suitably shaped iron rotor tends to align with the rotating field of the stator. The rotor therefore spins at the same speed as the stator field and forms a synchronous machine. The torque for a motor can be realized by allowing an easy magnetic path (low reluctance) along one axis of the rotor, known as the direct axis, and a difficult route (high reluctance) along the axis perpendicular to this, known as the quadrature axis. This effect can be achieved by simply using an iron rotor that is elongated in one direction, as illustrated in Figure 6

Fig 6.Iron rotor reluctance machine showing direct and quadrature axis flux.

The single-phase induction motor and the single phase-phase synchronous reluctance motors are in concept the same except that some saliency is introduced into the rotor structure by removing some metal at the appropriate places to provide the required number of poles. The stator of the reluctance synchronous motor is the same as that of the split-phase induction motor. As the rotor speeds up and comes close to the synchronous speed the rotor tends to align with the synchronous rotating forward air-gap flux wave and eventually snaps synchronism. The torque of the backward rotating field will affect the performance of the motor. This effect will be similar to an additional shaft load. Synchronous reluctance motors are used in some washing machine designs and are commonly used in the control rod drive mechanisms of nuclear reactors. It is also used in constant speed applications such as recording instruments and timing devices.

Linear induction motor (LIM)

The wound stator and the squirrel cage rotor of an induction motor may be cut at the circumference and unrolled into a linear induction motor. The direction of linear travel is controlled by the sequence of the drive to the stator phases. It is very lightweight relative to the conventional motor, but less accurate in positioning. Lorentz-type actuator is the most common type of operation meaning that the applied force is linearly proportional to the current and the magnetic field. (F=qvB) Linear induction motors consist of a 3 phase coil assembly and a reaction plate. LIMs are very advantageous as it only consists of 2 parts, the coil assembly and reaction plate and is available in a wide range. Since there is no contact between the moving parts it requires little or no maintenance. Tubular linear motors Fig 7 shows an induction linear are more rugged than early flat-bed and U-channel linear motors machine being developed by allowing them to be used in dirty industrial environments such as food Indramat. packaging and machine tools. The tubular construction protects the permanent magnets from the external environment and automatically balances attractive forces so that the motor is easier to integrate into machines. The coil assembly is comprised of a 3-phase winding that is wound and inserted into a steel lamination stack with thermal protection devices. The entire assembly is then encapsulated with thermally conductive epoxy. Steel Angles with mounting holes are provided for mounting the coil assembly to the customers system. The coil assemblies can be used in a single sided or double-sided configuration. The single sided configuration consists of a single coil assembly that is used in conjunction with an aluminum plate backed by a steel reaction plate. The double-sided configuration is where 2 coil assemblies are facing each other, separated by a gap of 6 mm and only an aluminum reaction plate passes thru the gap. Multiple coil assemblies can be used together to produce larger forces. For single sided operation the required reaction plate consists of a 3 mm thick aluminum or a 2 mm thick copper plate that is backed by a 6 mm thick ferrous steel plate. The steel plate can be omitted but the force will be dramatically reduced. For double-sided operation only a conductive plate of copper or aluminum is required. LIMs can also be operated at stall to produce static thrust The 3-phase coil assembly can be directly connected to the AC line for single speed applications or to an adjustable frequency drive for precise variable control of the speed of the motor. The motors are reversible and can also be dynamically braked. The amount of thrust produced by the LIM is proportional to the active surface area of the motor. There is an attractive force between the coil assembly and the steel in the reaction plate only when power is applied to the coil assembly. Multiple coil assemblies can used together to produce larger forces. If the reaction plate is a disc, then rotary motion can be produced. Either the LIM or the reaction plate can move while the other is fixed. In hostile environments a non-magnetic stainless steel barrier can be used between coil assembly and the reaction plate to provide a seal. LIMs are mainly used in conveying systems, crane drives, baggage handling, vision inspection equipment, personal rapid transport systems and theme park rides. It is also used for hypervelocity collisions, as weapons, or as mass drivers for spacecraft propulsion. There are two major categories for designing a linear motor: High Speed acceleration and low speed acceleration.

STEPPER MOTORS:
A stepper motor is a digital version of the electric motor. The rotor moves in discrete steps as commanded, rather than rotating continuously like a conventional motor. When stopped but energized, a stepper (short for stepper motor) holds its load steady with a holding torque. Stepper motors are rugged and inexpensive because the rotor contains no winding slip rings, or commutators. The rotor is a cylindrical solid, which may also have either salient poles or fine teeth. More often than not the rotor is a permanent magnet. Stepper motor coils are wound within a laminated stator, except for can stack construction. There may be as few as two winding phases or as many as five. These phases are frequently split into pairs. Since stepper motors do not necessarily rotate continuously, there is no horsepower rating. If they do rotate continuously, they do not even approach a subfractional hp rated capability. They are truly small low power devices compared to other motors. The torque available is a function of motor speed, load inertia, load torque, and drive electronics as illustrated on the speed vs torque curve. (Figure 8 below) An energized, holding stepper has a relatively high holding torque rating. There is less torque available for a running motor, decreasing to zero at some high speed. This speed is frequently not attainable due to mechanical resonance of the motor load combination. There are three types of stepper motors in order of increasing complexity: variable reluctance, permanent magnet, and hybrid. The variable reluctance stepper has s solid soft steel rotor with salient poles. The permanent magnet stepper has a cylindrical permanent magnet rotor. The hybrid stepper has soft steel teeth added to the permanent magnet rotor for a smaller step angle.

Fig 8: Stepper speed characteristics.

Fig 9: In position 1, the north pole of the rotor's perminant magnet is aligned with the south pole of the stator's electromagnet. Note that multiple positions are alligned at once. In position 2, the upper electromagnet is deactivated and the next one to its immediate left is activated, causing the rotor to rotate a precise amount of degrees. In this example, after eight steps the sequence repeats.

A variable reluctance stepper motor relies upon magnetic flux seeking the lowest reluctance path through a magnetic circuit. A permanent magnet stepper motor has a cylindrical permanent magnet rotor. The stator usually has two windings. Permanent magnet stepper motors require phased alternating currents applied to the two (or more) windings. The hybrid stepper motor combines features of both the variable reluctance stepper and the permanent magnet stepper to produce a smaller step angle. The rotor is a cylindrical permanent magnet, magnetized along the axis with radial soft iron teeth. The stator coils are wound on alternating poles with corresponding teeth. A typical stepper motor can stop at 200 positions per rotation. This feature makes it ideal for control applications like robotics, plotters, cnc machining ect. A stepper motor positions the read-write heads in a floppy drive. They were once used for the same purpose in harddrives. Application wise, the predecessor of the stepper motor was the servo motor.

SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTORS (SRM)

If an iron rotor with poles, but without any conductors, is fitted to a multi-phase stator, a switched reluctance motor, capable of synchronizing with the stator field results. When a stator coil pole pair is energized, the rotor will move to the lowest magnetic reluctance path. A switched reluctance motor is also known as a variable reluctance motor. The reluctance of the rotor to stator flux path varies with the position of the rotor. The relationship between torque and stator current is highly nonlinear making it difficult to control. SRM has no brushes, commutators or permanent magnets. It is a highly efficient, reliable, cost effective motor with a high starting torque. It is also adaptable to very high ambient temperatures. However the SRM phase switching and phase current must be precise to minimize ripple torque. Acoustic and electrical noise may sometimes be heard in SRMs.
Fig 10 Electronic driven variable reluctance motor. Fig 11

Sequential switching (Figure 11) of the stator phases moves the rotor from one position to the next. Variable reluctance motors are poor performers when direct power line driven. However, microprocessors and solid state power drive makes this motor an economical high performance solution in some high volume applications. Though difficult to control, this motor is easy to spin. The stator poles have concentrated winding rather than sinusoidal winding. In order to develop torque in the motor, the rotor position should be determined by sensors so that the excitation timing of the phase windings is precise. Each stator-pole pair winding is excited by a converter phase, until the corresponding rotor pole-pair is aligned and is then de-energized. The stator-pole pairs are sequentially excited using a rotor position encoder for timing. SRMs are used in high volume applications like energy efficient vacuum cleaner motors, fan motors, or pump motors. They are not applicable to low volumes due to complex control issues. A variable reluctance motor is optimized for continuous high speed rotation with minimum ripple torque

Fig 12 switched reluctance motor construction

TORQUE MOTORS:
A limited torque motor, also known as a torque motor, is capable of operating indefinitely while stalled, that is, with the rotor blocked from turning, without incurring damage. In this mode of operation, the motor will apply a steady torque to the load. Torque motors are frameless motors meaning that they dont have housings, bearings or feedback devices. The motor is a kit and part of the machine structure. It can come with a reusable assembly aid called a bridge, which is set at the factory to ensure that the rotor and stator are aligned for assembly. The bridge also keeps the magnetic field within the motor, eliminating the need for special nonferrous assembly areas, and preventing damage to the rotor from metal scraps and loose screws. Torque motors have a relatively large number of magnetic pole-pairs therefore, having many permanent magnets on the rotor meaning that this motor can be built as thin rings. It also means that they can have smooth velocity regulation with low ripple. It is designed as direct drivers, eliminating the need for gearboxes, worm-gear drives and other mechanical-transmission elements and directly coupling the payload to the drive. The most obvious feature of the torque motor is that they can have a large diameter-to-length ratios and short axial dimensions. Large outer and inner diameters results in a motor that is nothing more than a thin ring, therefore, mass can be quite low. The large diameter gives the motor a large lever arm to generate high levels of torque. It also provides ample room along the circumference for powerful rare-earth magnets. An application of a torque motor would be the supply- and take-up reel motors in a tape drive. Another common application is the control of the throttle of an internal combustion engine in conjunction with an electronic governor.

Fig 13: Torque motors are frameless kit motors consisting of a permanent-magnet rotor and laminated stator.

SYNCHROS
A SYNCHRO is constructed a lot like a wound-rotor polyphase AC motor or generator. The rotor is free to revolve a full 360o. On the rotor is a single winding connected to a source of AC voltage. The stator windings are usually in the form of a three-phase Y, although synchros with more than three phases have been built.
Fig 15 Example synchro motor

Fig 14 Transmitter/receiver pair

Fig 16 Modern schematic symbol of a synchro

A synchro resembles a small electrical motor in size and appearance and operates like a variable transformer. Each synchro contains a rotor, similar in appearance to the armature in a motor, and a stator, which corresponds to the field in a motor. It is a position-sensing device much like an RVDT, except that its output signal is much more definite. With the rotor energized by AC, the stator winding voltages will be proportional in magnitude to the angular position of the rotor, phase either 0o or 180o shifted, like a regular LVDT or RVDT. You can think of it as transformer with one primary winding and three secondary windings, each secondary winding oriented at a unique angle. As the rotor is slowly turned, each winding in turn will line up directly with the rotor, producing full voltage, while the other windings will produce less than full voltage. Synchros are often used in pairs. With their rotors connected in parallel and energized by the same AC voltage source, their shafts will match position to a high degree of accuracy. Such "transmitter/receiver" pairs have been used on ships to relay rudder position, or to relay navigational gyro position over fairly long distances. This can be thought of almost as a sort of bridge circuit that achieves balance only if the receiver shaft is brought to one of two (matching) positions with the transmitter shaft. Torque-synchro systems are classified torque because they are mainly concerned with the torque or turning force required to move light loads such as dials, pointers, or similar indicators. Control synchros are used in systems that are designed to move heavy loads such as gun directors, radar antennas, and missile launchers. A positioning servo system using a control synchro system consisting of a servomotor, a servo amplifier, a control transmitter (load) and a control transformer. Other applications needs resolvers with two right-angle components (e.g. the deflection coils of a PPI-scope). Physically, resolvers are similar to synchros, and are used to perform mathematical computations electrically: They are rotary electromechanical devices that provide outputs that are trigonometric functions of their inputs. They are used extensively in analog computers, radar sets, direction and target designation equipment.

Fig 17 Torque (transmitter/receiver) synchro measure

Fig 18 Resolver schematic

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References:

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