INDEX

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Introduction Block diagram Block diagram explanation Circuit diagram PCB layout Working Component List Component descriptions Application Future enhancement Bibliography or References

INTRODUCTION:
An energy meter is a device that measures the amount of electrical energy consumed by a domestic, business, or an electrically-powered device. Electric meters are typically calibrated in billing units, the most common one being the kilowatt hour With energy becoming scarce and costlier, it is essential to accurately measure energy. Accurate Measurement helps to identify and cure energy losses leading to energy conservation. An electronic AC electric energy measuring circuit converts a di/dt analog input signal into a pulse width modulated signal responsive to the amplitude of a current component of an alternating current energy quantity to be measured. The pulse width modulated signal is produced by a first modulator circuit including an integrator circuit deriving both a modulating frequency signal and a current analog signal proportional to the current component. A multiplying circuit receives a voltage analog input signal and applies it to a reference input of a second modulator circuit. The modulating control of the second modulator circuit receives the pulse width modulated signal so that the multiplying circuit produces a variable amplitude and pulse width modulated signal having an average value equal to an average power measurement. An analog to frequency converter including a second integrator circuit receives the output of the multiplying circuit to produce an output pulse representative of a quantized amount of electric energy.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

WORKING:

The meter receives single phase 230 v AC at the input terminal. The step down transformer steps down this 230v into 9v ac. The rectifier circuit converts the AC input into equivalent DC. The capacitor maintains the smooth & constant DC output. The regulator IC 7805 cuts off this DC output to a constant 5v DC output. The 5v supply i.e. +Vcc then reaches the pins 4 & 8 of the 555 timer. The load is connected at pin 6 in the form of a variable resistor. A seven segment LCD display is connected to the 555 timer output at pin 3. The 555 timer is working as an ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR . The output is a square wave which depends upon the load. As we vary the load the frequency of the 555 timer varies which in turn varies the pulse width of the generated square wave. The varying square wave then drives the meter in the form of a digital display.

COMPONENT LIST:

1. A step down transformer 2. A rectifier circuit 3. PCB board 4. A variable resistor(load) 5. 555 timer 6. LCD display 7. Resistor 8. Capacitor

COMPONENT DESCRIPTION:

Resistors Example: Circuit symbol: Function Resistors restrict the flow of electric current, for example a resistor is placed in series with a light-emitting diode (LED) to limit the current passing through the LED. Connecting and soldering The Resistor Resistors may be connected either way round. They Colour Code are not damaged by heat when soldering. Colour Number Resistor values - the resistor colour code Black 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Brown Resistance is measured in ohms; the symbol for Red ohm is an omega . 1 is quite small so resistor values are often given Orange in k and M . Yellow 1 k = 1000 1 M = 1000000 . Green Resistor values are normally shown using coloured Blue bands. Violet Grey White

Each colour represents a number as shown in the table. Most resistors have 4 bands:

The first band gives the first digit.

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The second band gives the second digit. The third band indicates the number of zeros. The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance (precision) of the resistor, this may be ignored for almost all circuits but further details are given below.

This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands. So its value is On circuit diagrams the written 270K. 270000 = 270 k . is usually omitted and the value is

Small value resistors (less than 10 ohm) The standard colour code cannot show values of less than 10 . To show these small values two special colours are used for the third band: gold which means 0.1 and silver which means 0.01. The first and second bands represent the digits as normal. For example: Red, violet, gold bands represent 27 0.1 = 2.7 green, blue, silver bands represent 56 0.01 = 0.56 Tolerance of resistors (fourth band of colour code) The tolerance of a resistor is shown by the fourth band of the colour code. Tolerance is the precision of the resistor and it is given as a percentage. For example a 390 resistor with a tolerance of 10% will have a value within 10% of 390 , between 390 - 39 = 351 and 390 + 39 = 429 (39 is 10% of 390). A special colour code is used for the fourth band tolerance: silver 10%, gold 5%, red 2%, brown 1%.

If no fourth band is shown the tolerance is 20%. Tolerance may be ignored for almost all circuits because precise resistor values are rarely required.

Diodes Example: Circuit symbol: Function

Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol shows the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a valve and early diodes were actually called valves. Forward Voltage Drop Electricity uses up a little energy pushing its way through the diode, rather like a person pushing through a door with a spring. This means that there is a small voltage across a
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conducting diode, it is called the forward voltage drop and is about 0.7V for all normal diodes which are made from silicon. The forward voltage drop of a diode is almost constant whatever the current passing through the diode so they have a very steep characteristic (current-voltage graph). Reverse Voltage When a reverse voltage is applied a perfect diode does not conduct, but all real diodes leak a very tiny current of a few A or less. This can be ignored in most circuits because it will be very much smaller than the current flowing in the forward direction. However, all diodes have a maximum reverse voltage (usually 50V or more) and if this is exceeded the diode will fail and pass a large current in the reverse direction, this is called breakdown. Ordinary diodes can be split into two types: Signal diodes which pass small currents of 100mA or less and Rectifier diodes which can pass large currents. Connecting and soldering

Diodes must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labelled a or + for anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The cathode is marked by a line painted on the body. Diodes are labelled with their code in small print; you may need a magnifying glass to read this on small signal diodes! Small signal diodes can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless you are using a germanium diode (codes beginning OA...) in which case you should use a heat sink clipped to the lead between the joint and the diode body. A standard crocodile clip can be used as a heat sink.

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Rectifier diodes are quite robust and no special precautions are needed for soldering them. Testing diodes we can use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery, resistor and LED) to check that a diode conducts in one direction but not the other. A lamp may be used to test a rectifier diode, but do NOT use a lamp to test a signal diode because the large current passed by the lamp will destroy the diode!

Rectifier diodes (large current) Rectifier diodes are used in power supplies to convert alternating current Diode (AC) to direct current (DC), a process called rectification. They are also used elsewhere in circuits where a large 1N4001 1N4002 current must pass through the diode. Maximum Maximum Reverse Current Voltage 1A 1A 50V 100V

1N4007 1A 1000V All rectifier diodes are made from 100V silicon and therefore have a forward 1N5401 3A 1000V voltage drop of 0.7V. The table shows 1N5408 3A maximum current and maximum reverse voltage for some popular rectifier diodes. The 1N4001 is suitable for most low voltage circuits with a current of less than 1A.

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Capacitors Function Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying DC supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals. Capacitance This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance means that more charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F. However 1F is very large, so prefixes are used to show the smaller values. Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, (micro), n (nano) and p (pico):

means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000F = 1F n means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1F p means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF

Capacitor values can be very difficult to find because there are many types of capacitor with different labelling systems! There are many types of capacitor but they can be split into two groups, polarised and Unpolarised. Each group has its own circuit symbol. Polarised capacitors (large values, 1F +)

Examples:

Circuit symbol:
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Electrolytic Capacitors Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and they must be connected the correct way round, at least one of their leads will be marked + or -. They are not damaged by heat when soldering. There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors; axial where the leads are attached to each end (220F in picture) and radial where both leads are at the same end (10F in picture). Radial capacitors tend to be a little smaller and they stand upright on the circuit board. It is easy to find the value of electrolytic capacitors because they are clearly printed with their capacitance and voltage rating. The voltage rating can be quite low (6V for example) and it should always be checked when selecting an electrolytic capacitor. It the project parts list does not specify a voltage; choose a capacitor with a rating which is greater than the project's power supply voltage. 25V is a sensible minimum for most battery circuits.

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555 Timer Circuits Introduction The 8-pin 555 timer must be one of the most useful chips ever made and it is used in many projects. With just a few external components it can be used to build many circuits, not all of them involve timing! A popular version is the NE555 and this is suitable in most cases where a '555 timer' is specified. The 556 is a dual version of the Example circuit symbol (above) 555 housed in a 14-pin package, the two timers (A and B) share the same power supply pins. The circuit diagrams on this page show a 555, but they could all be adapted to use one half of a 556. Low power versions of the 555 are made, such as the ICM7555, but these should only be used when specified (to increase battery life) because their maximum output current of about 20mA (with a 9V supply) is too low for many standard 555 circuits. The ICM7555 has the same pin arrangement as a standard 555. The circuit symbol for a 555 is a box with the pins arranged to suit the circuit diagram: for example 555 pin 8 at the top for the +Vs supply, 555 pin 3 outputs on the right. Usually just the pin numbers are used and they are not labelled with their function. The 555 and can be used with a supply voltage (Vs) in the range 4.5 to 15V (18V absolute maximum). Standard 555 chips create a significant 'glitch' on the supply when their output changes state. This is rarely a problem in simple circuits with no other ICs, but in more complex circuits a smoothing capacitor (eg. 100F) should be connected across the +Vs and 0V supply near the 555. The input and output pin functions are described briefly below and there are fuller explanations covering the various circuits:

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Astable - producing a square wave Monostable - producing a single pulse when triggered Bistable - a simple memory which can be set and reset Buffer - an inverting buffer (Schmitt trigger)

Datasheets are available from:

DatasheetArchive.com Datasheets.org.uk DatasheetCatalog.com

Inputs of 555

Trigger input: when < 1/3 Vs ('active low') this makes the output high (+Vs). It monitors the discharging of the timing capacitor in an astable circuit. It has a high input impedance > 2M . Threshold input: when > 2/3 Vs ('active high') this makes the output low (0V)*. It monitors the charging of the timing capacitor in astable and monostable circuits. It has a high input impedance > 10M . 1 * providing the trigger input is > /3 Vs, otherwise the trigger input will override the threshold input and hold the output high (+Vs). Reset input: when less than about 0.7V ('active low') this makes the output low (0V), overriding other inputs. When not required it should be connected to +Vs. It has an input impedance of about 10k . Control input: this can be used to adjust the threshold voltage which is set internally to be 2/3 Vs. Usually this function is not required and the control input is connected to 0V with a 0.01F capacitor to eliminate electrical noise. It can be left unconnected if noise is not a problem. The discharge pin is not an input, but it is listed here for convenience. It is connected to 0V when the timer output is low and is used to discharge the timing capacitor in astable and monostable circuits.
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Output of 555 The output of a standard 555 can sink and source up to 200mA. This is more than most chips and it is sufficient to supply many output transducers directly, including LEDs (with a resistor in series), low current lamps, piezo transducers, loudspeakers (with a capacitor in series), relay coils (with diode protection) and some motors (with diode protection). The output voltage does not quite reach 0V and +Vs, especially if a large current is flowing. To switch larger currents you can connect a transistor. The ability to both sink and source current means that two devices can be connected to the output so that one is on when the output is low and the other is on when the output is high. The top diagram shows two LEDs connected in this way. This arrangement is used in the Level Crossing project to make the red LEDs flash alternately.

555 Astable

555 astable output, a square wave (Tm and Ts may be different)

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An astable circuit produces a 'square wave; this is a digital waveform with sharp transitions between low (0V) and high (+Vs). Note that the durations of the low and high states may be different. The circuit is called an astable because it is not stable in any state: the output is continually changing between 'low' and 'high'. The time period (T) of the square wave 555 astable circuit is the time for one complete cycle, but it is usually better to consider frequency (f) which is the number of cycles per second. T = 0.7 (R1 + 2R2) C1 and f = 1.4 (R1 + 2R2) C1

T = time period f = frequency R1 = resistance R2 = resistance C1 = capacitance in farads (F)

in in in in

seconds hertz ohms ohms

(s) (Hz) ( ) ( )

The time period can be split into two parts: T = Tm + Ts Mark time (output high): Tm = 0.7 (R1 + R2) C1 Space time (output low): Ts = 0.7 R2 C1 Many circuits require Tm and Ts to be almost equal; this is achieved if R2 is much larger than R1. For a standard astable circuit Tm cannot be less than Ts, but this is not too restricting because the output can both sink and source current. For example an LED can be made to flash briefly with long gaps by connecting it (with its resistor) between +Vs and the output. This way the LED is on during Ts, so brief flashes are achieved with R1 larger than R2, making Ts short and Tm long. If Tm must be less than Ts a diode can be added to the circuit as explained under duty cycle below Choosing R1, R2 and C1

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R1 and R2 should be range 1k to 1M . It to choose C1 first because capacitors are available in just a few values.

Choose C1 to suit the frequency range you require (use the table as a guide). Choose R2 to give the frequency (f) you requires. Assume that R1 is much smaller than R2 (so that Tm and Ts are almost equal), then you can use: R2 = 0.7 f C1

555 astable frequencies R2 = 10k R2 = 100k C1 R1 = 1k R1 = 10k 6.8kHz 0.001F 68kHz 680Hz 0.01F 6.8kHz 68Hz 0.1F 680Hz 68Hz 6.8Hz 1F 0.68Hz 6.8Hz 10F (41 per min.)

R2 = 1M R1 = 100k 680Hz 68Hz 6.8Hz 0.68Hz 0.068Hz (4 per min.)

in the is best

Choose R1 to be about a tenth of R2 (1k min.) unless you want the mark time Tm to be significantly longer than the space time Ts. If you wish to use a variable resistor it is best to make it R2. If R1 is variable it must have a fixed resistor of at least 1k in series (this is not required for R2 if it is variable).

Astable operation

With the output high (+Vs) the capacitor C1 is charged by current flowing through R1 and R2. The threshold and trigger inputs monitor the capacitor

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voltage and when it reaches 2/3Vs (threshold voltage) the output becomes low and the discharge pin is connected to 0V. The capacitor now discharges with current flowing through R2 into the discharge pin. When the voltage falls to 1/3Vs (trigger voltage) the output becomes high again and the discharge pin is disconnected, allowing the capacitor to start charging again. This cycle repeats continuously unless the reset input is connected to 0V which forces the output low while reset is 0V. An astable can be used to provide the clock signal for circuits such as counters. A low frequency astable (< 10Hz) can be used to flash an LED on and off; higher frequency flashes are too fast to be seen clearly. Driving a loudspeaker or piezo transducer with a low frequency of less than 20Hz will produce a series of 'clicks' (one for each low/high transition) and this can be used to make a simple metronome.

Duty cycle The duty cycle of an astable circuit is the proportion of the complete cycle for which the output is high (the mark time). It is usually given as a percentage. For a standard 555/556 astable circuit the mark time (Tm) must be greater than the space time (Ts), so the duty cycle must be at least 50%: Duty cycle = Tm R1 + R2 = Tm + Ts R1 + 2R2

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To achieve a duty cycle of less than 50% a diode can be added in parallel with R2 as shown in the diagram. This bypasses R2 during the charging (mark) part of the cycle so that Tm depends only on R1 and C1: Tm = 0.7 R1 C1 (ignoring 0.7V across diode) Ts = 0.7 R2 C1 (unchanged) R1 Duty cycle with Tm = diode = Tm + Ts R1 + R2 555 astable circuit with diode across R2

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APPLICATIONS:

Energy calculation at domestic single phase line. Accurate, timely and periodic energy measurement. Better maintenance & lower down time Improvement of efficiency & quality of energy Optimization of production processes

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FUTURE ENHANCEMENT:

The single phase energy meter developed by us is a highly efficient, low loss meter. We look forward to develop this meter into a PREPAID energy meter . The meter will use the recharge vouchers to accommodate bill payments. The customer can check the units used and the credits remaining at any time. The pre-paid metering system will bring down the expenses by bringing down the labour charges as well as the paper cost (bills). The supply will be cut as soon as the customer credit ceases. A recharge voucher can be used to restart the supply.

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ADVANTAGE:

The pre-paid meter will serve the following advantages-

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REFERENCES:

ELECTRONICS FOR YOU(JUNE 2002) PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY
(WALTER C. BOSSHART) INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (MILLMANN & HILLKIES ) WIKIEPEDIA

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