SAA HB 107-1998

UNDERSTANDING STANDARDS

First published as SAA HB1071998.

 Standards Australia Users of this Handbook are reminded that copyright subsists in all Standards Australia publications. Except where the Copyright Act allows and except where provided for below, no publication produced by Standards Australia may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system in any form or transmitted by any means without prior permission in writing from Standards Australia. Permission may be conditional on an appropriate royalty payment. Requests for permission should be directed to the head office of Standards Australia.

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Preface
This Handbook was developed by Standards Australia in response to the ever-increasing number of requests for assistance on the use and application of Standards. Many of the more common problems that were encountered could have been resolved if the user had enjoyed a greater understanding of the concepts and practices behind Standardization. The objective of this Handbook is therefore to help the user to comprehend and interpret the requirements, recommendations and associated matter to be found in Standards, so that Standards Australia publications can achieve maximum effectiveness. Users are invited to contact Mr Denis Dawkins on (02) 9746 4732 with any comments they might have or suggestions for topics or problems to be included in future editions of the Handbook.

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Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1 Standardization ............................................................................................................................ 1 What is it? ................................................................................................................................................................ 1 What is it for? ......................................................................................................................................................... 2 Standards Australia Publications ................................................................................................ 3 Australian Standards .............................................................................................................................................. 3 Other Publications ................................................................................................................................................. 3 Types of Standards ...................................................................................................................... 4 Background ............................................................................................................................................................ 4 Mandatory Standards ............................................................................................................................................ 5 Performance Standards ........................................................................................................................................ 6 Notes, Commentaries, Warnings ................................................................................................ 7 Notes ....................................................................................................................................................................... 7 Commentaries ........................................................................................................................................................ 7 Warnings and Cautions ......................................................................................................................................... 7 Preface/Foreword ........................................................................................................................ 8 Scope Clause ................................................................................................................................ 8 New Materials Clause ........................................................................................................... ......9 Application Clause ............................................................................................................. .......... 9 Referenced Documents Clause ...................................................................................................9 The Standard in Context ........................................................................................................ ... 10 Parts, Sections and Clauses .................................................................................................... ... 11 Separation into Parts ........................................................................................................................................... 11 Sections .................................................................................................................................................................. 11 Clauses, Subclauses and Items ........................................................................................................................... 11 Numbering of Figures, Tables and Equations ........................................................................ 12 Figures and Tables ............................................................................................................................................... 12 Equations .............................................................................................................................................................. 12 Tables and Diagrams ................................................................................................................. 13 Lists ............................................................................................................................................ 14 Appendices ..................................................................................................................... ............ 14 International Standards ........................................................................................................ ..... 15 Equivalence and Local Variations ..................................................................................................................... 15 Presentation........................................................................................................................................................... 15 Numbering ........................................................................................................................................................... 16

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Understanding Standards
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INTRODUCTION

ustralian Standards are a special kind of publication. They may only be books to some people, but when used in regulations or contracts, they actually become part of that parent document. This means that special care has to be taken in their preparation and in the drafting of their content.

For a Standard to be effective, a number of rules need to be followed about the words to be used, the order in which they appear and their hierarchy. This Handbook aims to explain these rules, so that readers can understand Standards better! The Standard used to illustrate the issues discussed in this handbook is AS/NZS2904:1995, Damp-proof courses and flashings. It is not necessary, however, to purchase this Standard, as the appropriate references have been reprinted in this Handbook. Full details of the forms and drafting techniques used in the writing of Standards can be found in SAA MP15.21990, Standards Australia Style Manual, Part 2: Drafting of Australian Standards.
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STANDARDIZATION

What is it?

hat is a Standard and what is Standardization?

In a British Standard, BS 0.1:1991, A standard for standards, Part 1: Guide to general principles of standardization, such terms are defined. A Standard is defined as
document, established by consensus and approved by a recognized body, that provides, for common and repeated use, rules, guidelines or characteristics for activities or their results, aimed at the achievement of the optimum degree of order in a given context.

Standardization is defined as
activity of establishing, with regard to actual or potential problems, provisions for common and repeated use, aimed at the achievement of the optimum degree of order in a given context.

Consensus is defined as
general agreement, characterized by the absence of sustained opposition to substantial issues by any important part of the concerned interests and by a process that involves seeking to take into account the views of all parties concerned and to reconcile any conflicting arguments.

The nature of these definitions confirms the need for a Handbook to explain the use of Standards.
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A dictionary defines the word standard as

An accepted or approved example against which other things may be judged or measured.

Standards have been around a long time. From the earliest societies to the present day, there have been physical standards for weight and measurea single reference point against which all other weights and measures in a society can be checked. As writing developed, written Standards evolved which set down mutually agreed standards for products and services in fields such as agriculture, ship construction, building and weapons manufacture. Relics from ancient civilizations such as Babylon and early Egypt provide ample evidence that standardization was being consciously applied to such activities as far back as seven thousand years ago. Now, after the industrial and technological revolution of the past 200 years, a more focused definition of a Standard is used
A Standard is a published document which sets out technical specifications or other criteria necessary to ensure that a material or method will consistently do the job it is intended to do.

Australian Standards have been written on a huge range of subjectsover 6000 in fact, ranging from keeping termites out of your house to childrens bicycle helmets. In simple terms, Standards are technical books prepared by committees with expertise over a wide range of issues related to the subject of the proposed Standard. The development of the Standard proceeds only if there is general agreement among the committee members. This is called consensus and results in a Standard that is acceptable to a majority of potential users, rather than one prepared by, say, a committee of manufacturers that might prefer a higher price for a product, or a committee of consumers that may not understand the costs involved in providing a safe or environmentally friendly product. The other half of the Standards-preparation equation is known as transparency. This means that the process is open to everybody and that everything the committee does in the preparation of the Standard is open, above-board and available to the general public for comment. What is it for? Standardization provides enormous social and economic benefits. Safety, interchangeability, quality, reliabilitythe list is endless, e.g.:
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Traffic lightsthroughout the world, red means stop, green means go. Credit cardsall credit cards fit in all automatic teller machines (ATMs) and most of them can be used anywhere in the world to withdraw cash in the local currencyif you have the money in your account! 35 mm filma cassette of 35 mm film purchased anywhere in the world will fit a 35 mm camera purchased anywhere in the world. Keyboardsa top line of A B C D E . . . might seem logical, but what acceptance would it have against the odd, but universally accepted, Q W E R T Y . .?

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STANDARDS AUSTRALIA PUBLICATIONS

tandards Australias output is not restricted to Australian Standards. In fact, Australian Standards themselves are often variously referred to as Standards, Codes, Guides and Glossaries. Many Australian Standards are now published jointly with Standards New Zealand as Australian/New Zealand Standards (AS/NZS). Brief descriptions of the various publications and the prefix used with their numbers are as follows: Australian Standards # Standard (AS)a document that has been prepared using the full transparency and consensus process. # Interim Standard (AS)a temporary or provisional Standard which has a specified life-span (usually two years) that can be extended as required. Interim Standards are designated by INT immediately following their number. Other Publications # Supplement (Supp)a commentary, wall chart, colour chart or other form of additional requirement or information related to a Standard. # Glossary (AS)a Standard that brings together a set of interrelated definitions which form the bulk of the Standard. # Specification (AS)a Standard that details a set of requirements with which a product, material or process must comply, where compliance with the Standard is claimed. # Method (AS)a Standard that sets out a formalized way of doing something, e.g. method of measurement, determination, verifying compliance with a specific requirement, analysis, specifying, evaluating. In some Standards that are specifications, a method is presented in the form of an Appendix to the Standard. # Handbooks (HB)Handbooks are not Australian Standards. They have numbers prefaced by HB (as opposed to AS) and are intended to be easy-to-read, user-friendly books. They are available on a range of subjects, and are sometimes related to a Standard. Handbooks are usually prepared by staff members of Standards Australia or consultants. They do not have the same degree of transparency, consensus or editorial constraints as a Standard, but will normally have benefited from a review by an appropriate group of experts. Handbooks are written in an informal manner, as a source of information and are generally not intended for use in regulations and contracts. # Miscellaneous publications (MP)a publication that is neither a Standard nor a Handbook. MPs can be developed by committees through the transparency and consensus process, by staff members or by consultants. # Draft for comment (DR)a draft Standard that is issued for comment by the general public, prior to its adoption and issue as an Australian Standard.

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TYPES OF STANDARDS
Background

efore we get into the actual reading and understanding of the Standard, it is worthwhile looking at how Standards are used, and how different sorts of Standards are written to suit these particular needs.

Most Standards are pretty technical, and are based on the assumption that the reader has an appropriate knowledge of the subject. In some cases, for example the major design Standards, the user needs to be very familiar with the subject and may even need to have an appropriate degree or other similar qualification. Other Standards may be much more straightforward, the reader needing only a basic knowledge of the subject. Some specific types of Standards are as follows: Product Standardsspecify characteristics of properties (including dimensions) or design and construction or composition that will ensure acceptable performance, reliability, durability, finish, or other characteristics of a product necessary to ensure its suitability for the purpose envisaged by puchasers or users of the product concerned. Design Standardsdesign Standards (or Codes of Practice), a basic element of nearly all engineering and building projects, are a means by which the essence of long experience and research in design is expressed in a concise and readily available form. They are largely concerned with safety. Classic examples are Codes for steel structures, for concrete structures, or for boilers and other pressure vessels. Such Codes are normally written in mandatory language, making them suitable for adoption by reference in regulations (see below). Safety Standardsprovide guidance on safety in health, life and property matters, e.g structural plant and equipment, occupational health and safety, and personal safety and health. Test methodsset out the steps to be followed to determine the properties of a product or system and to establish conformity with a specification, which would usually be found in a product Standard.

Some Standards are written in mandatory form, others are written either using the word should throughout, rather than shall, or using a mix of the two forms. Guides and Codes are intended to be used mainly as reference material by experienced people who are carrying out a design or preparing some other document. The Guide or Code provides them with information and alternatives to which they apply their expertise. However, in some instances where it is essential that a particular Clause or Section of the Guide or Code be followed, shall can be used. It is good practice in Guides or Codes not to use shall and should in the same paragraph, as confusion as to the strength of the intent can arise. Across these specific groupings, two more general concepts of standardization have emerged Mandatory Standards and Performance Standards.

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Mandatory Standards The fact that a Standard exists doesnt mean that it has to be followed, even though it would normally represent the best, or optimum way of doing something. However, Standards often used in a way that requires that they be followed. When this happens, they are called Mandatory Standards and it helps if they are written in a special way. The term Mandatory Standard is a bit misleading, as it suggests that everybody has to comply with it. This isnt the case as, after all, the Standard is only a book. However, if it is referenced or called up in a regulation, or written into a contract, it actually becomes part of that regulation or contract. This means that when we know a Standard is going to be used in this way, we have to make sure it is written to suit this application. The main thing to make sure of in a Mandatory Standard is that you are totally clear what you have to do to comply with itall the requirements are indicated by the word shallyou shall do this or something shall be done. The word should is not used to express a requirement, as it implies there is a degree of choice, nor are ambiguous statements, or recommendations (which may or may not be taken up). In some Standards, the following definitions of shall and should are included: Shallindicates that a statement is mandatory. Shouldindicates a recommendation. It is not necessary to follow a recommendation (should), to comply with the Standard. It is interesting to note that although shall is used by most Standards bodies, including the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the British Standards Institution (BSI), to specify a mandatory requirement, must is widely used in legal and regulatory documents. Mustis not used to indicate a requirement. In Standards language must is considered to be a statement of fact, e.g.
The floor must be black.

This doesnt mean that the floor shall be black, it means that the floor is likely to be black, i.e. the black cat is nearly invisibletherefore the floor must be black. Mayis normally used to indicate an option, either of which satisfies the requirements of the Standard. Consider the following:
The peg may be round or square, depending on the shape of the hole into which it is to be placed.

A Note might then go on to provide information on how this might be achieved (see Page 7). It is important to understand that to comply with the Standard, you have to satisfy the Clause, but you do not have to satisfy the Note. On the other hand, you should be aware that any information or guidance in a Note may be considered to be the best or optimum way of satisfying the Clause. This means that if you dont follow the advice in a Note, under duty of care responsibilities, and something goes wrong, you may have to demonstrate how your alternative method is at least equivalent to any guidance contained in the Note. In a number of Mandatory Standards, particularly in the building area, the following statement appears in the Preface, telling users about the status of Notes:
This Standard utilizes Notes to some of the Clauses. They are located in smaller point size immediately following the Clause. These Notes are for information and guidance only and compliance with them is not a requirement of the Standard.

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Performance Standards Performance-based regulations and Standards are becoming very popular, mainly because they permit a great deal more flexibility in how compliance can be achieved and allow for future use of new materials and methodsbut what is a Performance Standard? A Performance Standard, or for that matter a performance regulation, is one in which the desired outcome is specified, but no particular way of achieving that outcome is required. The desired outcome can be as broad as
The building shall withstand all the loads to which it may be subjected over its life.

or as specific as
When tested in accordance with Test Method TM1, the material shall not break.

Performance requirements in regulations tend to be non-specific, like the first example above. This gives the maximum opportunity for a wide range of alternative methods of compliance it also makes it difficult for the regulator to assess whether or not the proposal actually satisfies the performance requirement. On the other hand, performance requirements in Standards tend to be quite specific and are usually accompanied by a clear method of demonstrating compliance. This is often called a verification method and will usually be a test method, or a specified calculation or procedure. In a Standard, the performance requirements would normally be set out in Clauses in the Standard, with verification methods either in Appendices or in separate Parts to the Standard (see Page 11). In addition to performance requirements and verification methods, regulations and Standards often include deemed to comply or deemed to satisfy methods. As the expressions suggest, these are ways of satisfying the performance requirements that the regulators or committee have decided are acceptable and have deemed them to provide an acceptable level of performance. These solutions are a bit like a recipe and can be based on tests, calculations, traditional methods or the committees collective expertise. If a user follows them exactly, nothing more needs to be done to satisfy the performance requirements. Examples of these three terms, taken from AS/NZS 2904, are as follows: Performance requirement
6.2 Impermeability to water When tested in accordance with AS/NZS 4347.1, damp-proof courses and flashings shall show no moisture due to penetration on the exposed surface of the membrane.

Verification method
AS/NZS 4347.1Damp-proof courses and flashingsMethods of test Method 1: Determination of water permeability

Deemed to satisfy
7.1 General Materials specified in this Clause shall be deemed to satisfy the performance requirements for damp-proof courses and flashings given in Clauses 6.2 to 6.7, except where otherwise stated.
NOTE: The provisions in this Clause (7) are intended to apply to materials that are in common use as damp-proof courses or flashings at the time of publication of this Standard. Other materials, combinations or thicknesses may also be used, provided that they satisfy the requirements of Clauses 6.2 to 6.8 and Table 2.

Within Mandatory and Performance Standards, it is common to use Notes and Commentaries to provide additional information. It is important to remember that you do not need to comply with a Note or a Commentary to comply with the Standard.
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NOTES, COMMENTARIES, WARNINGS

Notes Where it is necessary to provide some additional information or maybe make a suggestion, this is done by using a Note. For example, AS/NZS 2904, Clause 5.1, reads as follows:
5.1 Suitability and maintenance-free life Damp-proof courses and flashings shall be suitable for their particular application. They shall be manufactured from materials which ensure a substantial maintenance-free life for these components, when installed in or on buildings.
NOTE: This will generally be achieved by compliance with the relevant performance requirements set out in Clause 6. As failure of a damp-proof course in a building may cause great difficulties and expenses in rectification, it is considered essential that damp-proof courses should have a long, maintenance-free life.

The Clause states that the damp-proof course shall be manufactured from materials . . . etc. The Note gives some advice on the importance of a proper damp-proof course. Single Notes are not numbered, more than one are simply numbered 1, 2, 3. Commentaries Commentaries are provided in some Standards to provide some insight into the reasoning behind a specific Clause or perhaps some information on how the requirements may be applied. A Commentary is usually contained in an Informative Appendix or, if it is long and comprehensive, in a separate publication to the Standard, usually called a Supplement. Commentaries can also be included in the body of the Standard, but when this happens, they are printed in italics and enclosed in a panel to separate them from the rest of the Standard. Commentaries do not have to be followed to comply with the Standard, so when they are used, it is normal to include a paragraph in the Preface of the Standard to explain their use. This is particularly important where the Commentary is printed in a panel in the body of the Standard, in which case the following paragraph is used in the Preface:
This Standard incorporates a Commentary on some of the Clauses. The Commentary directly follows the relevant Clause, is designated by C preceding the Clause number and is printed in italics in a panel. The Commentary is for information only and compliance with it is not a requirement of the Standard.

In most cases, each panel of Commentary directly relates to a specific Clause in the Standard. Consequently, the Commentary paragraph numbers are the same as the numbers of the corresponding Clauses, only prefaced by a C, e.g. Paragraph C1.2 is the Commentary on Clause 1.2. This applies regardless of whether the Commentary is in a panel following the Clause, in an Appendix or in a Supplement. Warnings and Cautions Sometimes it is necessary to include Warnings or Cautions in a Standard. Warnings are used when there is the possibility of injury or death to persons if the Clause or Paragraph isnt complied with, and Cautions are used if non-compliance with the text could result in damage to equipment or machinery. Both notices are kept separate from normal text. In the case of a Warning, the text is printed in bold and in capitals, and for a Caution, it is printed in capitals only (i.e., no bold).

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PREFACE/FOREWORD

ome Standards have both Preface and Foreword, others only have a Preface. So what are they, and what is the difference?

The Preface is where information on the history of the Standard is found and also includes the name of the committee responsible for its preparation. The history of the Standard may include details of previous editions, amalgamations with other Standards and changes to the responsible committees. Other information in the Preface can include explanation of some of the content in the Standard, together with explanations of Notes, Commentaries, Normative and Informative Appendices and the like. For example, part of the Preface of AS/NZS 2904, reads as follows:
This Standard was prepared by the Joint Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand Committee BD/29 on Damp-proof Courses and Flashings, to supersede AS 29041986. It is issued as a Joint Standard. The performance requirements are based on the appropriate test methods from previous Standards, updated and metricated. An impact test originally used for polyethylene has been applied to all dampproof courses and flashings to provide a suitable level of robustness.

Another important feature that should be included in the Preface, or alternatively in a separate Clause in the Standard, is the Objective of the Standardi.e., why it was written. The Objective of AS/NZS 2904 is expressed as follows:
The Objective of this Standard is to provide manufacturers and users of damp-proof courses and flashings with specifications covering the manufacture and performance of damp-proof courses and flashings for use in building applications.

Some Standards also include a Foreword. Forewords are generally used to provide background information about the subject of the Standard, and not necessarily about the Standard itself. AS/NZS 2904 does not have a Foreword. AS 1428.1, Design for access and mobility, Part 1: General requirements for accessBuildings incorporates a detailed Foreword explaining how access provisions for people with disabilities have been developed around the world over recent years.
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SCOPE CLAUSE

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s the name suggests, the Scope Clause tells users of the Standard what the content relates to and, often more importantly, what it does not cover.

In AS/NZS 2904, the Scope tells users that the Standard covers damp-proof courses in walls, but not under concrete slabs, where such courses are known as vapour barriers. It is interesting to note that in AS/NZS 2904, part of this information is contained in a Note to the Clause (see page 7).

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NEW MATERIALS CLAUSE

his Clause is an interesting one as it says, in effect, that the Standard can not prevent the use of materials that are not directly referred to in the Standard.

Most people would agree that such a Clause is not necessary. However, it sometimes appears, so that there will be absolutely no doubt on the matter of new materials. Another similar Clause which used to appear, but is not so common nowadays, relates to new or innovative designs, and suggests that the opinion of the committee be sought on compliance with the Standard. This Clause is now discouraged, particularly where the Standard is used in performance-based regulations, as the responsibility for compliance with these regulations lies with the regulatory authority, not the Standards Australia committee.
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APPLICATION CLAUSE

he Application Clause is another interesting element. The intention is that the committee responsible for the preparation of the Standard provides guidance on how and where it anticipates the Standard will be used.

There is no Application Clause in AS/NZS 2904, but there could have been one saying that the Standard is intended to be referenced in building regulations or in a specification for the manufacture and testing of materials to be used as damp-proof courses. The Application Clause is usually only for guidance, as the user of a Standard can not be restricted in any way in their use of the Standard.
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REFERENCED DOCUMENTS CLAUSE

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he Referenced Documents are exactly what the Clause title suggestsa list of the documents that are referenced in the Standard.

The two main things to remember about the Referenced Documents Clause are as follows: It is not a bibliography and only lists Standards and similar publicationsother books and technical papers will be listed in a bibliography, usually at the end of the Standard or in an Appendix. It only lists documents that are actually referred to in the Standardit is not a list of all Standards that relate to the parent Standard.

It is also important to note that Standards in the Referenced Documents do not have their year of publication shown. This means that the referenced Standard will always be the latest edition, and will include the correct amendments.

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It is for this reason that another Standards reference or call-up in the parent Standard only specifies the number of the Standard, and not the particular Clause or Section in which the relevant details are provided. The normal way to make such a reference more specific is to describe the Clause of the referenced Standard. For example in AS/NZS 2904, Clause 7.2.1(b) refers to AS 1566, which is a general manufacturing Standard on copper and copper alloys, but specifically refers to material designation 110 or 122, rather than to the Clause which provides the details. In this way the reference will always be valid, even if Clause numbers are changed in a future amendment or a new edition of the Standard is published. AS/NZS 2904, Clause 7.2.1(b) reads as follows:
(b) Copper Material not less than 99.9% copper, complying with the requirements for material designation 110 or 122 given in AS 1566.

So in effect, the referenced document is really just a form of shorthand. It allows the Standard to refer to another Standard, using only the Standard number and precludes the need to reprint extracts from other Standards, which, although it may seem convenient to some users, does introduce the potential for confusion, should the printed extract differ from a later edition of the referenced Standard. All documents listed in Referenced Documents Clauses in all Australian and Joint Australian/ New Zealand Standards are available for reference in Standards Australias Information Centres in Sydney and Melbourne.
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THE STANDARD IN CONTEXT

It can be very misleading to look in the Contents or Index for a particular subject, find the page and follow the requirements. A number of Standards are arranged with alternative methods of compliancebut the alternatives are often based on specified conditions spelled out in an earlier Section of the Standard. AS/NZS 2904 is an example of a performance-based Standard. It incorporates performance requirements in Clause 6, where the required performance of the dampproof courses (DPC) with regard to a number of properties (e.g. impermeability, resistance to tear) is specified. Test methods to establish the performance of the DPC material are published as separate, short Standards and a series of deemed-to-comply materials are listed in Clause 7, giving common DPC materials in terms of thickness, weight and the like, to suit various applications. If a user read only Clause 7, they would think that all DPCs had to be like those specified in this Clause. They would miss the fact that a performance-based Standard allows for any material, as long as it satisfies the specified requirements. This situation can also occur when alternative ways of satisfying the Standard are available. For example, in the Wind Code (AS 1170.2), two methods of working out wind loads are provided, simplified and detailed. Clause 2.2 details the limitations for the use of the simplified procedure, consequently, if a user begins at Clause 2.3 and starts to work through the procedure without first reading Clause 2.2, it may well not satisfy the Standard. Normative Appendices (see Page 14) also need to be read in context. Although a Normative Appendix is an integral part of the Standard, it may only be relevant in particular situations for example, if it is a test method. It is therefore essential to check the reference (or call-up) to the Appendix in the Standard.
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ne of the most important things about a Standard is that it needs to be read as a total entity.

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PARTS, SECTIONS AND CLAUSES

Separation into Parts

n Standards language, a Part of a Standard is published as a separate booka Section is a division within that book. When a Standard covers a number of different aspects of a subject, it is often best for those aspects to be published separately, particularly where different groups of people would be the end users.

For example, in AS/NZS 2904, the methods of test for the various properties of damp-proof courses are published as a separate StandardAS/NZS 4347. But AS/NZS 4347 itself is published as a series of 10 different Parts, one for each test method. This is because not many testing laboratories have the facilities for carrying out all of the tests. In fact, AS/NZS 2904 and AS/NZS 4347 are themselves separate because the requirements in AS/NZS 2904 tend to be used by designers or specifiers and the test methods in AS/NZS 4347 by the testing laboratories. When this format is used, the title and number of each Part reflects both the generic subject matter of all of the Parts and the specific details of the Part in question. Using the test methods of AS/NZS 4347 as an example, the general title is Damp-proof courses and flashingsMethods of test. Part 2 is Determination of water permeability. The number is shown as AS/NZS 4347.2. It is important to note that where this system is used, there is never just a Standard with the number AS/NZS 4347, although there may be a AS/NZS 4347.0 but this Standard is usually just a list of all the Parts in the series and is normally free of charge. The same concept is applied to Standards used in regulations. In most cases the regulations specify the minimum levels needed to provide an acceptable degree of performance at an acceptable cost. Often, however, users of the Standard wish to specify a higher level of performance than the minimum required by regulations. In these cases it is common to produce a Part 1 which specifies minimum or essential levels of performance and a Part 2 which specifies enhanced levels. This concept is known as tiering of Standards. Sections It is common for Standards to be divided up into Sections. The Clauses that we have looked at so far are often put in Section 1, as Scope and General. The main reason for dividing a Standard into Sections is that in a number of Standards, particularly the more complex ones, different Parts will be relevant to different users. For example, there might be a Design Section, an Installation Section and a Testing Section. There might even be some test methods as Appendiceswhich brings us to the matter of Normative and Informative Appendices, which are dealt with on page 14. Section headings are printed in capitals. Clauses, Subclauses and Items In a Standard, the major paragraphs are called Clauses and given a number so that they can be easily referred to. (Some Standards have line numbers, but this is the exception rather than the rule.) As would be expected, there is a standard way of presenting and numbering the Clauses in a Standard.
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Main Clause headings are printed in capitals, in bold type, and are numbered consecutively beginning with 1 if there are no Sections in the Standard. Where Sections are involved, the first Clause in Section 1 would be 1.1, the second in Section 2 would be 2.2, and so on. The next level of Clause is known as a subclause (but still usually referred to in print as a Clause!) The heading is printed in lower case letters in bold type, with an initial capital on the first word only. The text of the Clause follows on the same line as the heading. The number follows the same logic as for main Clauses, but with one additional digit, e.g. 1.2, or 1.2.1, depending on whether or not there are Sections in the Standard. The next level of Clause has a heading printed in italics. It is preferable not to use Clause headings involving more than four levels, i.e. 4.5.1.1. is okay, but any more is not. In a list, the components are called Items. If the list Items have headings, these headings are set in italics. The first level is designated (a), (b), (c) etc., the next (i), (ii), (iii) and the next (A), (B), (C) and so on. Needless to say, we try not to have a long string of numbers and letters 4.1.2.4(a)(ii)(A) is perfectly legal, but not very user-friendly.
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NUMBERING OF FIGURES, TABLES AND EQUATIONS

Figures and Tables

he first thing to remember about Figures and Tables (and Appendices) is that they have to be referenced or called up from the body of the Standardthey dont just exist as a separate entity. See the following example, from AS/NZS 2904:

7.1 General Materials specified in this Clause shall be deemed to satisfy the performance requirements for damp-proof courses and flashings given in Clauses 6.2 to 6.7, except where otherwise stated.
NOTE: The provisions in this Clause (7) are intended to apply to materials that are in common use as damp-proof courses or flashings at the time of publication of this Standard. Other materials, combinations or thicknesses may also be used, provided that they satisfy the requirements of Clauses 6.2 to 6.8 and Table 2.

Without the reference in Clause 7.1, Table 2 would be meaningless. In AS/NZS 2904 there are only two Tables and they are simply numbered Table 1 and Table 2. The same could apply if there were only a few Figures. The problems arise when there are a large number of Tables and Figuresit is unusual to number them consecutively because, particularly in the drafting stage, one or two might be deleted then all the numbers and more importantly the cross references, will need to be changed. The preferred format is either to number Tables and Figures consecutively by Section, e.g. 4.1, 4.2 (first Table in Section 4, second Table in Section 4) and so on, or to give them the same number as the Clause they are called up from. In the latter case, if more than one Figure or Table is called up from Clause 4.1, the format would be Figure 4.1(A), 4.1(B) etc. or 4.1.1, 4.1.2. Equations In Standards an Equation is never called a formula! Equations are numbered in sequence in the Clause in which they occur by just a string of three dots and a number. For example, the second Equation in a Clause would simply be referred to as Equation 2, Clause 4.1.

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TABLES AND DIAGRAMS

part from the numbering issues, Tables and diagrams (or Figures, as diagrams are called in Standards) often contain issues that can cause confusion.

In a Mandatory Standard, we have already seen that requirements are contained in Clauses, expressed with a shall, and information contained in Notes uses should. However, Tables and Figures have the capacity to bend this rule a little, as it is acceptable to include mandatory requirements in the Notes to a Table or Figure. The Preface will usually include the following statement, often in conjunction with the statement on Notes:
However, in some instances, Notes which are written in mandatory form (i.e shall is used) are included to specific Figures or Tables. Compliance with these Notes is a requirement of this Standard.

This means that if shall is used in a Note to a Table or Figure, you must follow that requirement to comply with the Standard. If should is used, compliance is recommended, but not essential. Another thing that can cause problems in a Table (and in normal text) is the use of the symbols >, $,<, #, meaning greater than, greater than or equal to, less than, and less than or equal to, respectively. The following example from AS/NZS 4438, Height adjustable swivel chairs, illustrates this. The height of the seat has to be adjustable enough to cover the range 420mm above the floor, or lower, to 515mm or higher. For example, a seat that goes down to 420mm and up to 515mm is okay, but one that only goes down to 421mm is not.
TABLE 3.2 DIMENSIONAL REQUIREMENTS CRITERIA SEAT (a) Height Height adjustment range (b) Depth (i) non-adjustable (ii) adjustable millimetres DIMENSIONAL RANGE 420 to 515 100 440 480

380 380

to to

As well, the range of adjustment from lowest to highest position can be either exactly 100mm, or more than 100mm. This may seem to be a difficult way to express a range of measurements, but if we just said adjustable in the range 420 to 515mm it is not totally clear if a height above the floor of exactly 420 mm or 515 mm is within this range or not.

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LISTS

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here are two main forms of lists used in Standards. In both cases, individual requirements or issues are called Items. The two forms are as follows:

The one that is usually preceded by ........ as follows: In this form, all of the Items in the list are complete sentences and each of the requirements can stand alone and need to be included or excluded depending on what the item says, e.g.
The material shall be manufactured as follows: (a) It shall be either black or blue. (b) If it is blue, it shall be striped.

The other is really just an extension of the introductory sentence and is prefaced by a dash, i.e. This list will either be a series of additional issues or a series of alternatives and is usually written with the and or the or only appearing before the last Item, e.g.
The material shall be (a) black or blue; (b) striped; and (c) cut into squares.

This means that the material has to be black or blue and striped and cut into squares. If we use or instead of and it changes the meaning to black or blue or striped or cut into squares, i.e. squares of bright blue material are acceptable. In some documents the and or the or are repeated at the end of each Item. This is not normal practice in Standards.
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APPENDICES

ll Appendices in a Standard are classified either as Normative or Informative. Once again, the following paragraph will usually appear in the Preface.

The terms Normative and Informative have been used in this Standard to define the application of the Appendix to which they apply. A Normative Appendix is an integral part of a Standard and compliance with such an Appendix is a requirement of the Standard. An Informative Appendix is only for information and guidance and compliance with it is not a requirement of the Standard.

A Normative Appendix is part of the Standard and, depending on how it is called up, needs to be followed to comply with the Standard. Normative Appendices are called up from a Clause in the main part of the Standard. They are usually test methods or procedures related to the main content of the Standard, but not necessarily something that applies in all cases. Hence, it is essential to check where the Appendix is called up in the Standardit may only be if a test is required, or some other procedure that can be omitted if some other Clauses are followed.
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However, once the Appendix is called up, it must be followed in exactly the same way as the rest of the Standardrequirements are written with shall, not should. On the other hand, Informative Appendices are, as the name suggests, for information or guidance only and do not need to be followed to comply with the Standard. It is for this reason that Informative Appendices are called up from a Note in a mandatory Standard. Commentaries are often presented as Informative Appendices.
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INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS

he policy of Standards Australia is to base Australian Standards on International Standards to the maximum extent feasible. This means that Australian Standards should be direct adoptions of International Standards unless there are good reasons to the contrary.

The major sources of International Standards are the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) for electrical and electronic Standards, the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) for non-electrical subjects, Standards published by other recognised international bodies, and Standards published by national Standards bodies that may have become de facto International Standards through widespread usage. Equivalence and Local Variations Although the intent is to use the International Standard to the fullest extent possible, there is often the need, for one reason or another, to incorporate changes or alterations. ISO and IEC have identified three levels of international equivalence. These definitions are as follows: # Identical toa Standard that is identical in technical content and in presentation to an International Standard, except that it has had a Foreword added, and may have undergone minor alterations to the parent title. # Equivalent (technically equivalent) toa Standard that is equivalent in technical content to an International Standard but not fully corresponding in presentation. It may contain minor technical deviations, including additional informative elements and minor editorial changes. # Based on (but not equivalent to)a Standard that is not equivalent in technical content to an International Standard although it is based on that Standard, i.e. it contains major technical deviations and editorial deviations from the International Standard. The key consideration is whether or not a product designed to comply with the International Standard would automatically meet the equivalent Australian Standard, and vice versa. If this is the case the Australian Standard is normally referred to as being technically equivalent to the International Standard. In such cases the option is available to demonstrate this equivalence by showing the International Standards number on the cover of the Australian Standard. Presentation The preferred method of presenting International Standards as Australian Standards is to photographically or electronically reproduce the International Standard and add a Preface which sets out the international origin of the document and any local variations, and the reasons for these variations. If there are extensive variations these may be more appropriately located in a new appendix to the Standard.
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Where this is not feasible, for example where a number of small International Standards are being combined, the Standard may be recast in the normal style of an Australian Standard. Any technical variations from the International Standard must still be listed in the Preface or in an Annex. The most important point to note is that the extent of equivalence to the International Standard must be immediately apparent to the reader and any local variations must be highlighted. Under no circumstances are the two approaches ever mixed. The original text of the adopted Standard is not to be modified without the document being completely recast in the local style, otherwise the reader could be misled into thinking that the local variations are indeed part of the parent document, particularly where only a Section of the Standard might be looked at without reference to the Preface or Annex. Numbering A two-line number system is used on the cover of a Standard to indicate Australian Standards which are full text adoptions of an International Standard, including those incorporating minor technical changes as described earlier. The cover of the Standard shows the local number and year of publication on the first line and the number and year of publication of the parent International Standard immediately below, as in the following example:
AS/NZS 4189.1:1994 ISO/IEC 1646.1:1993

This is known as two-line dual numbering, which is the common and preferred method. There are a few instances where the number of the International Standard is so widely known and used, e.g. ISO 9000, that a locally assigned number would not generally be recognized. In such a case, the International Standards number and prefix may be incorporated as part of the Australian Standards designation, as follows:
AS/NZS ISO 9000:1994

This is known as single-line dual numbering and because of the potential for confusion with numbers in the normal AS or AS/NZS sequence, it is only used in special cases. The date quoted is the year of adoption of the Standard. If single-line dual numbering is used but the Standard is adopted locally in a different year to the year of publication of the parent International Standard, this fact is acknowledged in the line below the designation. Taking a fictitious example of an IEC Standard published in 1992, but not adopted in Australia until 1994, the display on the cover would be as follows:
AS/NZS IEC 1234:1994 (IEC Edition 1992)

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Notes

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Notes

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