CHAPTER ONE

The potential effects of sewage

The impact of boat sewage discharge Grey water discharges Litter

Pollution from a wide variety of human activities impacts upon water quality. Industrial discharges, agricultural run-off, municipal waste and oil spills all contribute to declines in water quality. One important source of aquatic pollution is human sewage discharge which enters the UK's coastal waters from several sources. Water company waste treatment plants are by far and away the largest single source of sewage, discharging millions of gallons of raw and treated sewage into rivers, lakes, estuaries and oceans daily. Another source of human waste discharge is boatgenerated sewage and it is on this issue that the following section concentrates. Craft that spend a large proportion of time in use and away from land require some type of toilet system for dealing with sewage. There is a large variety of different toilet systems available to the boat owner ranging from portable designs to fully installed systems. The choice of system depends on a number of parameters including system cost, the size of the boat, the availability of handling facilities, the type of use to which the boat is subjected and local and national regulations governing the system specification. The systems available include:

portable toilet with integral waste tanks chemical re-circulating toilet sea toilet installed toilets with holding tank systems

It should be stressed that smaller craft with living accommodation are unlikely to have the room to retro-fit a holding tank system. The Impact of Boat Sewage Discharge Installed toilets with holding tank systems tend to have the least potential impact on the environment, providing it is possible to pump out the tank at suitable shore-side pump-out facilities. There are, however, very few of these facilities in coastal areas. As a result, those craft with such systems tend to pump out their tanks at sea. This is

likely to have minimal impact where the operation is performed in open sea areas, well away from land, as the waste will be quickly diluted and dispersed by wave actions and currents. Boats which have holding tanks and use land-side pump-out facilities do not contribute directly to marine pollution. This is, however, outside the control of the boat owner. Toilets which discharge raw or treated sewage overboard may contribute a number of potentially harmful pollutants to the marine environment. The resultant impact depends upon the flow characteristics of the water body and the proximity to sensitive marine features. The effect of raw and treated sewage discharged from boats in fast flushing coastal areas is negligible in the context of its dilute nature and in comparison to sewage discharge from water companies treatment plants. Boat sewage discharge in poor flushing estuarine areas, for example, inlets and bays, however, can have a significant localised impact on the environment. It is difficult to quantify this impact but it is likely to be greatest in areas which already suffer from environmental stresses from other sources such as agricultural run off. Whilst there has been research into the potential impacts of sewage on human health and aesthetic issues in the vicinity of popular anchorage sites and bathing beaches, little research has been carried out into its effect on the natural environment. Biochemical Oxygen Demand - when human waste is discharged into the water, bacteria feed on the organic matter within the sewage. As the organic substances are decomposed by the bacteria, dissolved oxygen in the water is consumed. If large quantities of waste are discharged into the water the bacterias biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) can seriously deplete dissolved oxygen levels in the water. The reduction in dissolved oxygen levels can have serious consequences for fish and other flora and fauna, which depend upon oxygen for survival. High levels of BOD resulting from waste discharge are a particular problem in low flushing areas where water circulates only slowly. However, it should be noted that there are many other significant sources of high BOD including decaying plants and animal wastes. Nutrient Enrichment - human waste discharges contain phosphorus and nitrogen in varying quantities. Phosphorous and nitrogen are nutrients which are essential for plant growth. However, when present in the water in excessive quantities these nutrients can trigger algal blooms which reduce light penetration through the water column. Populations of submerged aquatic vegetation or macrophytes which rely on light transmission for survival can be seriously affected by such blooms. As the algae die, the process of decomposition also increases BOD in a similar way to that of sewage decomposition.

Toxic Chemicals - portable toilet effluent and some holding tank systems contain chemical additives used to disinfect, breakdown and deodorise waste. The most commonly used substances are chlorine, formaldehyde, ammonium and zinc compounds. All these chemicals, if discharged into the water in sufficient concentrations, are toxic to marine life and, therefore, have the potential to affect marine flora and fauna. Grey Water Discharges Grey water discharges originate from onboard sinks, showers and washing machines. These discharges may bring with them potential pollutants in the forms of soaps and detergents, food wastes and dyes. Of these pollutants, detergents are the most significant. Detergents often contain phosphates, which can contribute to nutrient enrichment as described above. Additionally they may contain chlorine which can be toxic to flora and fauna. However, grey water discharges from boats are in a very dilute form and the impacts are likely to be negligible from small craft. Litter Litter, whether on the land or in the water, can cause significant visual impact. In addition, litter which takes a long time to degrade can be harmful to wildlife through ingestion and entanglement. Whilst a very small proportion of the litter found in the marine environment may come from small craft, the vast majority enters coastal waters either from land or commercial vessels further out to sea. The majority of boat owners are unlikely to dispose of rubbish over the side of their craft as it would detract from their own enjoyment of the activity. Provided there are sufficient landside disposal and recycling facilities, litter resulting from small craft is likely to be minimal.

Water microbiology is concerned with the microorganisms that live in water, or can be transported from one habitat to another by water. Water can support the growth of many types of microorganisms. This can be advantageous. For example, the chemical activities of certain strains of yeasts provide us with beer and bread. As well, the growth of some bacteria in contaminated water can help digest the poisons from the water. However, the presence of other disease causing microbes in water is unhealthy and even life threatening. For example, bacteria that live in the intestinal tracts of humans and other warm blooded animals, such

as Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Shigella, and Vibrio, can contaminate water if feces enters the water. Contamination of drinking water with a type of Escherichia coli known as O157:H7 can be fatal. The contamination of the municipal water supply of Walkerton, Ontario, Canada in the summer of 2000 by strain O157:H7 sickened 2,000 people and killed seven people. The intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals also contains viruses that can contaminate water and cause disease. Examples include rotavirus, enteroviruses, and coxsackievirus. Another group of microbes of concern in water microbiology are protozoa. The two protozoa of the most concern are Giardia and Cryptosporidium. They live normally in the intestinal tract of animals such as beaver and deer. Giardia and Cryptosporidium form dormant and hardy forms called cysts during their life cycles. The cyst forms are resistant to chlorine, which is the most popular form of drinking water disinfection, and can pass through the filters used in many water treatment plants. If ingested in drinking water they can cause debilitating and prolonged diarrhea in humans, and can be life threatening to those people with impaired immune systems. Cryptosporidium contamination of the drinking water of Milwaukee, Wisconsin with in 1993 sickened more than 400,000 people and killed 47 people. Many microorganisms are found naturally in fresh and saltwater. These include bacteria, cyanobacteria, protozoa, algae, and tiny animals such as rotifers. These can be important in the food chain that forms the basis of life in the water. For example, the microbes called cyanobacteria can convert the energy of the sun into the energy it needs to live. The plentiful numbers of these organisms in turn are used as food for other life. The algae that thrive in water is also an important food source for other forms of life. A variety of microorganisms live in fresh water. The region of a water body near the shoreline (the littoral zone) is well lighted, shallow, and warmer than other regions of the water. Photosynthetic algae and bacteria that use light as energy thrive in this zone. Further away from the shore is the limnitic zone. Photosynthetic microbes also live here. As the water deepens, temperatures become colder and the oxygen concentration and light in the water decrease. Now, microbes that require oxygen do not thrive. Instead, purple and green sulfur bacteria, which can grow without oxygen, dominate. Finally, at the bottom of fresh waters (the benthic zone), few microbes survive. Bacteria that can survive in the absence of oxygen and sunlight, such as methane producing bacteria, thrive.

There is an innovative way of eradicating heavy metals pollutants in the environment as developed by Israeli scientists. A team of botanists headed by Prof. Elisha Tel-Or at the Hebrew University in Israel, have successfully utilized water plants like the frail looking but clearly healthy Azolla ferns and water lilies to absorb heavy metals without a detrimental effect to the plants themselves. Azolla plants have long life and will absorb copper, cadmium, zinc, chromium and nickel at 500 times their concentration in common sewage or liquefied industrial wastes. The important attribute of Azolla is that it can be used as biofilter rather than just an ornamental plant. This bio-filter can be planted anywhere and can ideally be propagated close to the source of potential pollutant. It can be best effective if it treats a targeted one kind of heavy metal instead of various compounds. The Azolla plant as biofilter has been tested in a number of industrial settings in Israel such as a nickel cadmium battery plant; a lead car battery factory; and a plant facility using chromium. The same also proved effective in reclaiming gold in jewelry making establishment. Not only can the fern prevent pollution but when the Azolla is burned its naturally enriched ash contains 6% gold and 4% platinum which can be retrieved. Another potential use for Azolla bio-filters is to strain out radioactive materials. Tests on radioactive uranium tracing solutions originating in a nuclear research facility were 99% purified after being passed through an Azolla bio filter. The process is expected to significantly reduced the volume of radioactive wastes that must be stored. In addition to, radioactive isotopes can be recovered and recycled in this procedure. Aside from the water plant Azolla, Prof. Tel-Or has also discovered that water lilies (Nymphaea variety) are endowed with anatomical and physiological traits that allow them to literally thrive on water with high concentration of heavy metals such as cadmium, mercury, nickel and cobalt. Under laboratory conditions, the water plant proved capable of absorbing metals at a rate of 16% of its dry weight. A pilot project at Haifa Municipal Waste Water Treatment Plant is being tapped, aims to evaluate the water lilys other potential in an industrial setting.

With the smell of a freshly tossed garden salad and the glassy look of a botanical museum, this Massachusetts wastewater treatment plant will amaze you. It's a greenhouse that turns 4,000 gallons of sewage into sparkling water each day. The system is known as solar aquatics, a process that replicates nature's cleansing action by which plants and microbes purify waste. After years of pilot projects and toiling under skepticism, solar aquatic facilities are sprouting up not only in the US, but around the world. They're also gaining ground on traditional wastewater treatment facilities that can be concrete eyesores with rank lagoons that neighborhoods balk at and city councils dread. The three-year-old plant here in the center of Weston, a small town 15 miles from Boston, serves about 30 businesses. Inside the 70-by-40 foot greenhouse, 16 gravity-fed tanks brew sewage with the help of floating flora. Mint, watercress, primroses, water lilies, cherry tomatoes, and celery, suck up contaminants. Even a few fish and snails help out. Phil Henderson, chief executive officer of Ecological Engineering Associates (EEA), which owns and operates the greenhouse, strolls between the tanks pulling back greenery billowing over the sides. "Not sure how these got here," he says, pointing to the tomatoes. "Don't worry," he smiles, "we don't eat them." Aerated from the bottom of the tank to blend the muck, microbes gradually break down the organic matter as it flows through the process. While the flora only absorbs about 10 percent of the contaminants, their roots provide ideal living conditions and attachment sites for microorganisms. After flowing through the tanks, the sewage is further polished in a man-made marsh in the back of the greenhouse. On top of five feet of rocks sits the marsh where water leaches through the reeds and cattails. Microbial organisms clinging to rocks beneath the marsh pull oxygen off the remaining nitrates in the water, releasing it as gas. In the final stage, the water is pumped into a natural wetland behind the greenhouse. The plant in Weston has the capacity to handle 25,000 gallons of sewage, which is a mere drip compared with most sewage treatment plants, but the benefits are numerous. Thanks to this process, businesses in this white-steepled town are better off. Before the greenhouse was built (right off main street), businesses pumped their wastewater into holding tanks behind their back doors, because the high water table didn't allow for septic

systems. The waste then had to be hauled away, Mr. Henderson says, for 11 to 15 cents per gallon. Now, businesses pay 10 cents per gallon to have Ecological Engineering Associates purify it. "There is progressively increasing interest in natural systems," says Mr. Henderson. "It's an alternative technique that should be looked at and used." There are several advantages:

It produces half or less as much sludge than most industrial plants, which is hauled away only three times a year, much less than municipal facilities. Most residents would rather have a greenhouse next to them than a traditional treatment plant. It is a great learning tool for students and the community.

Henderson says several groups a month visit, from graduate students in land planning to chemistry classes. The facility in Bear River, Nova Scotia, attracted 8,000 tourists in its first year. Solar aquatics isn't a quaint New England phenomenon. EEA has a plant in La Paz, Mexico, one in Metz, France, and several more plants in Canada. A new plant has recently been approved for an environmentally sustainable community in Fredericksburg, Va., that will handle 1 million gallons a day and serve 4,000 households. Living Technologies, another wastewater treatment facility in Burlington, Vt., has installed large systems around the world, from a 10,000 gallons per day (gpd) facility for the National Audubon Society in southwest Florida to a large system that handles more than 200,000 gpd at a pet-food processing plant near Sao Paulo, Brazil. Despite the eco-friendly aspects of solar aquatic facilities, several factors inhibit their development across the country - mainly a reluctance to break away from traditional technology. Henderson says that "consulting engineers are well versed in conventional wastewater treatment plants." When alternative methods such as solar aquatics are proposed, "you end up with a lot of different opinions." He also says city planning systems are rooted in bureaucracy. This makes it difficult for some communities to embrace new wastewater treatment technology. "The decision process to build a wastewater treatment facility is very lengthy and very tedious," says Henderson. But it can be less expensive to build than traditional facilities. Bruce Strong, operations manager at the Weston plant, said the greenhouse operation here cost between $700,000 and $750,000 to build. Other ecological wastewater treatment plant operators agree that the industry has yet to be fully accepted because of the adherence to traditional systems. "It's so new, it's hard to get people living in a bureaucracy to

look outside the box," says Tedann Olsen, Marketing Manager at Living Technologies, which has more than 20 systems worldwide. "It's the way earth has been purifying wastewater forever. Some get it right away, some don't want to bother," she says.