Irrational Numbers

Is α such that α2 = 2 a rational number ?

Suppose α ∈ Q , then write α = m/n ⇒ m2 = 2n2 . Also suppose that

m, n have no common factors. Then 2 is a factor of m2 and hence of m,
so m = 2p. So, 2p2 = n2 and hence 2 is a factor of n. Consequently, 2 is
a common factor of both m and n. This is a contradiction. Thus γ 6∈ Q .

How do we extend Q to include such irrational numbers ?

Sections of Rational Numbers

The set Q of rational numbers may be divided into two classes L and R
such that :

(i) Neither class is ∅.

(ii) Each member of Q belongs either to L or to R .

(iii) Every member of L < every member of R .

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 Sections of Rational Numbers
Sections are of three types only :

(i) L ={α : α < β} and R ={γ : γ ≥ β}. Here L has no greatest

member but R has a least member β.

(ii) L ={α : α ≤ β} and R ={γ : γ > β}. Here R has no least member
but L has a greatest member β.
√
(iii) Consider an irrational number, say 2 = ζ. L ={α : α < ζ} and R
={γ : γ > ζ}. Here L has no greatest member.
√
If possible, say 0 < δ < 2 be the greatest member. Let
δ 0 = (4 + 3δ)(3 + 2δ), then

2 − δ2
2−δ 02
= > 0 ⇒ δ 02
< 2 and δ 0
∈L
(3 + 2δ)2

Again,
0 2(2 − δ 2 )
δ −δ = > 0 ⇒ δ0 > δ
3 + 2δ
This is impossible if δ is the greatest member.
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 Sections of Rational Numbers
Similarly we can show that R has no least member

(iv) If L has a greatest member and R has a least member, then since
there exists at least one rational number between them, this does
not belong to either class. This is impossible.

We shall consider only classes where L has no greatest member.

Thus a set of rationals constitute a Lower class L if

All rationals do not belong to it.

It has no greatest member.

Any rational which is less than any member of L also belongs to it.

All rationals which do not belong to L belong to R

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 Real Numbers
Let (L ,R ) be a section of rational numbers. We shall say that such a
section corresponds to a real number. If R has a least member α, then
we shall say that this α corresponds to a real rational number α̂ = (L ,R ).
If R has no least member, we shall say that it corresponds to an
irrational number. The set of sections is called the set of real numbers <

How can we think of a section as a number ?

Let x=(L 1 ,R 1 ) and y=(L 2 , R 2 ) then :

If L 1 ⊂ L 2 then x < y.

If L 2 ⊂ L 1 then y < x.

If L 2 =L 1 then x = y.

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 Real Numbers
Since L 1 ⊂ L 2 , L 2 ⊂ L 3 ⇒ L 1 ⊂ L 3
This implies : x < y, y < z ⇒ x < zi Transitivity

If x = (L ,R ), and α ∈ L and β ∈ R , then there exists two real,

rational numbers α and β such that

α̂ < x and β̂ ≥ x

Let α̂=(L 1 ,R 1 ) and β̂=(L 2 ,R 2 )

α and β are the least members of R 1 and R 2 .
α ∈ L , so every rational < α is also in L .
L 1 consists of all rationals < α,
But α ∈ L , but not L 1 , so L 1 ⊂ L ⇒ α̂ < x.

If β is the least member of R , then L and L 2 are identical and β̂ = x

If not, then again L ⊂ L 2 ⇒ x < β̂.

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 Real Numbers
Between two real numbers lie an infinite number of real rational
numbers

Let x = (L 1 ,R 1 ) and y = (L 2 ,R 2 ), and for definiteness say, x < y

or L 1 ⊂ L 2 . Then there are an infinite number of rational numbers
which belong to L 2 and not to L 1 , and thus to R 1 .
Let γ be one of these rationals which is not the least member of R 1
if there are any.
x < γ̂ < y. Hence the result.

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 Addition of Real Numbers
If x = (L 1 ,R 1 ) and y = (L 2 ,R 2 ) then x + y is defined to be (L ,R ),
where L consists of the set of all rational numbers of the type α + β
where α ∈ L 1 and β ∈ L 2 .

Clearly all rational numbers do not belong to L .

Let α = α1 + α2 and β < α. Then we can always write β = α − γ
where γ is a positive rational number.
β = α1 + α2 − γ = (α1 − γ) + α2 . The first expression < α1 and thus
belongs to L 1 . The second belongs to L 2 . Thus it belongs to L . Thus
any rational number which is less than a member of L is also a
member of L .
Since L 1 and L 2 have no highest member, same is true for L .
Thus (L ,R ) is a a section

If If x = (L 1 ,R 1 ) then the section (L 2 ,R 2 ) where L 2 consists of all

the negatives of members of R 1 except that of the least member (if
any) is defined as −x.

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 Multiplication of Real Numbers
We define x − y as x + (−y)

If x = (L 1 ,R 1 ) and y = (L 2 ,R 2 ) are both positive, then L 1 and L 2

both contain some positive rational numbers.
Construct a section (L ,R ) such that L consists of all negative real
numbers, rational number 0 and all positive rational numbers
obtained by multiplying a member of L 1 and one of L 2 . We define
the section (L ,R ) as x · y

If x > 0 but y < 0 then we define x · y = −x · (−y).

If x < 0 and y < 0 then x · y = (−x) · (−y)

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 Division of Real Numbers
If x = (L ,R )> 0, then the section (L 1 , R 1 ) where L 1 consists of all
negative numbers, zero, and reciprocal of all members of R except
the smallest member if any, is define to be 1/x or x−1 .

If x < 0 then we define x−1 as −(−x−1 ).

We define x/y to be x · y −1

The entire set of axioms about the rational numbers also holds for real
numbers. The set of sections with addition and multiplication also forms
a field. We call it the field of real numbers <.

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 Section of Real Numbers
The set of sections or real numbers may itself be sectioned in exactly the
same way. The only difference is then, every real number < x ∈ L and
every real number > x ∈ R . The number x may belong to either class.

Dedekind’s Theorem

If the set of real numbers be divided into two classes such that (i)
Neither class is empty (ii) Every real number belongs to a class (iii) Every
member of L < every member of R , then either L has a greatest
member or R has a least member.

This theorem is also stated alternatively as : For rational numbers it is

possible that neither L has a greatest member nor R has a least
member. Thus, it is possible that there is a gap between the classes
constructed out of the set of rational numbers. However, this alternative
is not possible in a section of real numbers. We say that the rational
numbers are dense but the real numbers are both dense and
continuous or compact.
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