Lect 08

Process Modeling
ICT Programme, Mahidol University SCCS365 Information Systems Analysis and Design
Process Modeling
g and DFDs
Process modeling – a technique used to organize and
document a system’s processes.
– Flow of data through processes
– Logic
– Policies
– Procedures
Data flow diagram

g (DFD)
( )–ap process model used to
depict the flow of data through a system and the work or
processing performed by the system. Synonyms are
bubble chart
chart, transformation graph
graph, and process model
model.
– The DFD has also become a popular tool for business
process redesign.
8-2
Simple
p Data Flow Diagram
g
8-3
External Agents
g
External agent – an outside person, unit,
system, or organization that interacts with
y
a system. Also called an external entity.
y
– External agents define the “boundary” or
scope of a system
y beingg modeled.
– Almost always one of the following:
• Office, department,
p division. Gane and Sarson shape
• An external organization or agency.
• Another business or another
information system.
• One of system’s end-users or managers
DeMarco/Yourdon shape
p
8-4
– Named
N d with
ith d
descriptive,
i ti singular
i l noun
Data Stores
Data store – stored data intended for later
use. Synonyms
S are file
fil and
d database.
d t b
– Frequently implemented as a file or database.
– A data store is “data
data at rest”
rest compared to a data
flow that is “data in motion.”
– Almost always one of the following:
• Persons (or groups of persons)
• Places
• Objects
j
• Events (about which data is captured) Gane and Sarson shape
• Concepts (about which data is important)
– Data stores depicted on a DFD store
all instances of data entities
(depicted on an ERD)
– Named
N d with
ith plural
l l noun
8-5 DeMarco/Yourdon shape
Process Concepts
p
Process – work performed by a system in
response to incoming data flows or
conditions A synonym is transform.
conditions. transform
– All information systems include
processes - usuallyy many
p y of them
– Processes respond to business
events and conditions and transform Gane and Sarson shape
p
d t into
data i t useful
f l information
i f ti
– Modeling processes helps us to understand the
interactions with the system's
system s environment
environment, other
systems, and other processes.
– Named with a strong action verb followed by object
8-6
clause describing what the work is performed on/for .
The System
y is Itself a Process
8-7
Process Decomposition
p
Decomposition – the act of breaking a system
into sub-components. Each level of abstraction
reveals more or less detail.
8-8
Decomposition
p Diagrams
g
Decomposition
p
diagram – a tool
used to depict
p the
decomposition of
a system.
y Also
called hierarchy
chart.
8-9
Types
yp of Logical
g Processes
Function – a set of related and ongoing activities of a
business.
business
– A function has no start or end.
Event – a logical unit of work that must be completed

as a whole. Sometimes called a transaction.
– Triggered
gge ed by a discrete
d sc ete input
put a
and
d is
s co
completed
p eted when
e pprocess
ocess
has responded with appropriate outputs.
– Functions consist of processes that respond to events.
Elementary process – a discrete, detailed activity or

task required to complete the response to an event.
Also called a primitive process
process.
– The lowest level of detail depicted in a process model.
8-10
Data Flows & Control Flows
Data
D t fl
flow – data
d t th
thatt is
i iinputt tto or
output from a process.
– A data flow is data in motion Data flow name
– A data flow may also be used to
represent the creation, reading, deletion,
or updating
pdating of data in a file or database
(called a data store).
Composite
p data flow – a data flow
that consists of other data flows.
Control flow name
Control flow – a condition or
nondata event that triggers a
process.
– Used sparingly on DFDs
DFDs.
8-11
Data Flow Packet Concept
p
• Data that should travel together
g should be
shown as a single data flow, no matter how
many physical documents might be included.
8-12
Composite and Elementary
Data Flows
Composite
p
flow
Elementary
flows
Junction indicates that

any given order is an
8-13
instance of only one of
the order types.
Data Flows to and from Data
Stores
8-14
Rules for Data Flows
• A data flow
should never go
unnamed.
• In logical
modeling, data
flow names
should describe
the data flow
without
describing the
implementation
• All data flows
must begin
and/or end at a
process
process.
8-15
Common Process Errors on
DFDs
8-16
Data Conservation
Data conservation – the p practice of
ensuring that a data flow contains only
data needed by y the receiving
gpprocess.
– Sometimes called starving the processes.
– New emphasis
p on business pprocess
redesign to identify and eliminate
inefficiencies.
– Simplifies the interface between those
processes.
– Must
M t precisely
i l ddefine
fi ththe d
data
t composition
iti
of each data flow, expressed in the form of
data structures.
structures
8-17
Data Structures
Data attribute – the smallest p
piece of data that
has meaning to the users and the business.
Data
D t structure
t t – a specific
ifi arrangementt off data
d t
attributes that defines an instance of a data flow.
• The data attributes that comprise a data flow are
organized into data structures.
• Data
D t flows
fl can be
b described
d ib d iin tterms off th
the ffollowing
ll i
types of data structures:
– A sequence or group of data attributes that occur one after
another.
– The selection of one or more attributes from a set of attributes.
– The repetition of one or more attributes.
attributes
8-18
Data Structure for a Data Flow
DATA STRUCTURE ENGLISH ENTERPRETATION
ORDER
ORDER= An instance of ORDER consists of:
ORDER NUMBER + ORDER NUMBER and d
ORDER DATE and
ORDER DATE+ Either PERSONAL CUSTOMER NUMBER
[ PERSONAL CUSTOMER NUMBER, or CORPORATE ACCOUNT
CORPORATE ACCOUNT NUMBER
NUMBER]+ and SHIPPING ADDRESS (which is
SHIPPING ADDRESS=ADDRESS+ equivalent to ADDRESS)
(BILLING ADDRESS=ADDRESS)+ and optionally: BILLING ADDRESS
1 {PRODUCT NUMBER+ (which is equivalent to
ADDRESS)
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION+ and one or more instances of:
QUANTITY ORDERED
ORDERED+ PRODUCT NUMBER and
PRODUCT PRICE+ PRODUCT DESCRIPTION and
PRODUCT PRICE SOURCE+ QUANTITY ORDERED and
EXTENDED PRICE } N+ PRODUCT PRICE and
SUM O
SU OF EXTENDED PRICES+
C S PRODUCT PRICE SOURCE and
PREPAID AMOUNT+ EXTENDED PRICE
and SUM OF EXTENDED PRICES and
(CREDIT CARD PREPAID AMOUNT and
NUMBER+EXPIRATION DATE) optionally: both CREDIT CARD NUMBER
(QUOTE NUMBER) and EXPIRATION DATE
ADDRESS= An instance of ADDRESS consists of:

(POST OFFICE BOX NUMBER)+ optionally: POST OFFICE BOX NUMBER
STREET ADDRESS+ and
STREET ADDRESS and
CITY+ CITY and
[STATE MUNICIPALITY]+
[STATE, Either STATE or MUNICIPALITY
8-19
(COUNTRY)+ and optionally: COUNTRY
POSTAL CODE and POSTAL CODE
Data Structure Constructs
Data Structure Format by Example English Interpretation
(relevant portion is boldfaced (relevant portion is boldfaced)
Sequence of Attributes - The WAGE AND TAX An instance of WAGE AND
sequence data structure STATEMENT= TAX STATEMENTS consists
indicates one or more TAXPAYER of:
attributes
tt ib t th
thatt may ((or must)
t) IDENTIFICATION NUMBER+
NUMBER TAXPAYER
be included in a data flow. TAXPAYER NAME+ IDENTIFICATION NUMBER
TAXPAYER ADDRESS+ and
WAGES TIPS,
WAGES, TIPS AND TAXPAYER NAME and
COMPENSATION+ TAXPAYER ADDRESS and
FEDERAL TAX WAGES, TIPS AND
WITHHELD+… COMPENSATION and
FEDERAL TAX WITHHELD
and…
Selection of Attributes - The ORDER
ORDER= An instance or ORDER
selection data structure allows (PERSONAL CUSTOMER consists of:
you to show situations where NUMBER, Either PERSONAL
different sets of attributes CORPORATE ACCOUNT CUSTOMER NUMBER or
describe different instances of NUMBER)+ CORPORATE
8-20 the data flow. ORDER DATE+… ACCOUNT NUMBER; and
ICT Programme, Mahidol University ORDER
SCCS365 Information DATE and…
Systems Analysis and Design
(continued)
Repetition of Attributes - The POLICY NUMBER+ An instance of CLAIM consists
repetition data structure is POLICYHOLDER NAME+ of:
used to set off a data attribute POLICY HOLDER POLICY NUMBER and
or group of data attributes that ADDRESS+ POLICYHOLDER NAME
may (or must) repeat 0 {DEPENDENT NAME+ and
th
themselves
l a specific
ifi number
b DEPENDENT’S POLICYHOLDER ADDRESS
of time for a single instance of RELATIONSHIP} N+ and
the data flow. 1 {EXPENSE zero or more instance of:
The minimum number of DESCRIPTION+ DEPENDENT NAME and
repetitions is usually zero or SERVICE PROVIDER+ DEPENDENT’S
one. EXPENSE AMOUNT} N RELATIONSHIP and
The maximum number of one or more instances of:
repetitions may be specified as EXPENSE
“n” meaning “many” where the DESCRIPTION and
actual number of instances SERVICE PROVIDER
varies for each instance of the and
8-21 data flow. EXPENSE ACCOUNT
(concluded)
Optional Attributes - The CLAIM= An instance of CLAIM consists
optional notation indicates that POLICY NUMBER+ of:
an attribute, or group of POLICYHOLDER NAME+ POLICY NUMBER and
attributes in a sequence or POLICYHOLDER POLICYHOLDER NAME
selection date structure may ADDRESS+ and
not be included in all ( SPOUSE NAME+ POLICYHOLDER
instances of a data flow. DATE OF BIRTH)+… ADDRESS and
Note: For the repetition data optionally SPOUSE NAME
optionally,
structure, a minimum of “zero” and
is the same as making the DATE OF BIRTH and…
entire repeating group
“optional ”
“optional.”
Reusable Attributes - For DATE= Then, the reusable structures
groups of attributes that are MONTH+ can be included in other data
contained in many data flows, DAY+
DAY flow structures as follows:
it is desirable to create a YEAR+ ORDER=ORDER
separate data structure that NUMBER…+DATE
can be reused in other data INVOICE=INVOICE
structures
structures. NUMBER +DATE
NUMBER…+DATE
PAYMENT=CUSTOMER
8-22 NUMBER…+DATE
Data Types
yp and Domains
Data attributes should be defined by
y data
types and domains.
Data type - a class of data that be stored

in an attribute
attribute.
– Character, integers, real numbers, dates,
pictures,
i t etc.
t
Domain – the legitimate values for an

attribute.
8-23
Diverging and Converging
Data Flows
Diverging
g g data flow – a data flow that splits
p
into multiple data flows.
– Indicates data that starts out naturally as one flow,
b t is
but i routed
t d tto different
diff t destinations.
d ti ti
– Also useful to indicate multiple copies of the same
output going to different destinations
destinations.
Converging data flow – the merger of multiple

data flows into a single packet.
– Indicates
d cates data from
o multiple
u t p e sou
sources
ces tthat
at ca
can ((must)
ust)
come together as a single packet for subsequent
processing.
8-24
Diverging and Converging
Data Flows
8-25
When to Draw Process Models
• Systems analysis (primary focus of this
course)
– Model existing system including its
limitations
– Model
M d l ttargett system’s
t ’ logical
l i l requirements
i t
– Model candidate technical solutions
– Model the target technical solution
8-26
Classical Structured Analysis
R l practiced
Rarely ti d anymore b
because cumbersome
b & ti
time-consuming
i
1. Draw top-down physical DFDs that represent current

physical implementation of the system.
2 Convert
2. C t physical
h i l DFD
DFDs tto llogical
i l equivalents.
i l t
3. Draw top-down logical DFDs that represent improved
system.
system
4. Describe all data flows, data stores, policies, and
procedures in data dictionary or encyclopedia.
encyclopedia
5. Optionally, mark up copies of the logical DFDs to
represent alternative physical solutions
solutions.
6. Draw top-down physical DFDs representing target
solution.
8-27
Modern Structured Analysis
(More Commonly Practiced)
1. Draw context DFD to establish initial project scope.
2. Draw functional decomposition diagram to partition
the system into subsystems.
3. Create event-response or use-case list for the system
to define events for which the system must have a
response.
response
4. Draw an event DFD (or event handler) for each event.
5 Merge event DFDs into a system diagram (or
5. (or, for
larger systems, subsystem diagrams).
6. Draw detailed,, primitive
p DFDs for the more complex
p
event handlers.
7. Document data flows and processes in data
dictionary.
8-28
Context Data Flow Diagram
g
• Context data flow diagram - a process
model used to document the scope for a
system. Also called the environmental
model.
8-29
Structured Analysis Diagram
Progression (1 off 3)
8-30
8-31
8-32
Example: SoundStage Context
DFD
8-33
SoundStage Functional
Decomposition Diagram
• Break system into
sub-components
to reveal more
d il
detail.
• Every process to
be factored
should be
factored into at
least two child
processes.
• Larger systems
might be factored
into subsystems
8-34
and functions.
Events and Use Cases
• External events are initiated by external agents. They
result in an input transaction or data flow.
• Temporal events are triggered on the basis of time

time,
or something that merely happens. They are indicated
by a control flow.
• State events trigger processes based on a system’s

change from one state or condition to another. They
are indicated
i di t d bby a control
t l flflow.
• Use case – an analysis tool for finding and identifying

business events and responses.
8-35
• Actor – anything that interacts with a system.
SoundStage Partial Use Case
List
Actor/ Event Trigger Response
External Agent
g ( Use Case))
(or
Marketing Establishes a new New Member Generate Subscription Plan
membership Subscription Confirmation.
subscription
p pplan to Program
g Create Agreement in the
entice new members. database.
Marketing Establishes a new Past Member Generate Subscription Plan
membership Resubscription Confirmation.
resubscription
b i ti planl tto P
Program Create Agreement in the
lure back former database.
members.
(time) A subscription plan (current date) Generate Agreement Change
expires. Confirmation.
Logically delete Agreement in
database.
Member Joins club by New Generate Member Directory
subscribing. Subscription Update Confirmation.
Create Member in database.
Create first Member Order and
8-36 Member Ordered Products in
database.
SoundStage Partial
Event Decomposition Diagram
8-37
Event Diagrams
g
Event diagram – data flow diagram that
depicts the context for a single event.
– One diagram for each event process
– Depicts
• Inputs from external agents
• Outputs to external agents
• Data stores from which records must be "read
read."
Data flows should be added and named to
reflect the data that is read.
• Data stores in which records must be created,
deleted, or updated. Data flows should be
named to reflect the update
update.
8-38
Simple
p Event Diagram
g
8-39
Event Diagram
g ((more complex)
p )
8-40
Temporal
p Event Diagram
g
8-41
System
y DFD
8-42
System
y DFD ((concluded))
8-43
Balancing
g
Balancing - a concept that requires that
data flow diagrams at different levels of
detail reflect consistency and
completeness
– Quality assurance technique

– Requires that if you explode a process to
another DFD to reveal more detail
detail, you must
include the same dta flows and data stores
8-44
Primitive Diagrams
g
• Some (not necessarily all) event
processes may be exploded into primitive
diagrams to reveal more detail
detail.
– Complex business transaction processes
– Process decomposed into multiple
elementary processes
– Each elementary process is cohesive - it
does onlyy one thing
g
– Flow similar to computer program structure
8-45
Primitive DFD
(see book for more readable copy)
8-46
Process Logic
g
• Data Flow Diagrams good for identifying
and describing processes
• Not
N t goodd att showing
h i llogic
i iinside
id
processes
• Need to specify detailed instructions for
elementary processes
8-47
Structured English
g
Structured
St t d English
E li h – a language
l syntax
t
for specifying the logic of a process.
– Based on the relative strengths of structured
programming
p g g and natural English.
g
8-48
Structured English Constructs
(Part 1)
8-49
Structured English Constructs
(Part 2)
8-50
Policies and Decision Tables
Policy – a set of rules that govern show a
process is to be completed.
Decision table – a tabular form of

presentation that specifies a set of
p
conditions and their corresponding g actions.
– As required to implement a policy.
8-51
A Simple
p Decision Table
8-52
Self Review Questions
• Define process modeling and explain its benefits.
• Recognize and understand basic concepts and constructs of a
process model.
• Read and interpret a data flow diagram.
• Explain when to construct process models and where to store
them.
• Construct a context diagram to illustrate a system’s interfaces with
its environment
environment.
• Identify use cases, external and temporal business events.
• Perform event partitioning and organize events in a functional
decomposition diagram
diagram.
• Draw event diagrams and merge them into a system diagram.
• Draw primitive data flow diagrams and describe the elementary
data flows in terms of data structures and procedural logic
(Structured English and decision tables), respectively.
8-53

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Process Modeling

Data flow diagram

Event – a logical unit of work that must be completed

Elementary process – a discrete, detailed activity or

Junction indicates that

ADDRESS= An instance of ADDRESS consists of:

Data type - a class of data that be stored

Domain – the legitimate values for an

Converging data flow – the merger of multiple

1. Draw top-down physical DFDs that represent current

• Temporal events are triggered on the basis of time

• State events trigger processes based on a system’s

• Use case – an analysis tool for finding and identifying

– Quality assurance technique

Decision table – a tabular form of

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